Exploring The Impact Of Social Media On Social Comparison, Self-Esteem And

Relapse Tendencies Among Young Adults

DISSERTATION II
For the partial fulfilment of
B.A. (HONS.) APPLIED PS/YCHOLOGY
(2022-2025)

Supervised by: Submitted by:

Dr. Ajit Kumar Singh Bhoomitaa Chakravarthy
Assistant Professor Student
AIBAS B. A. (H) APP. PSY. SEM-5

Amity Institute of Behavioural and Allied Sciences

AMITY UNIVERSITY RAJASTHAN
JAIPUR
2024

DECLARATION
I, Bhoomitaa Chakravarthy, a student of B.A. (H) Applied Psychology, Semester V, from
Amity University Rajasthan, Jaipur would like to declare that the Dissertation-I ‘Exploring
the interplay between attitude towards euthanasia, death anxiety and personality traits: a
semi-experimental study’ is submitted by me in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the
award of the Degree of Bachelors in Psychology, 2022-2025.

Place: Jaipur Signature of the Candidate

Date: Signature of the Supervisor

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I would like to thank the following people, without whom I would not have been able to
complete this dissertation. Firstly, Dr. Mani Sachdeva, Head of Department, AIBAS for
giving me the opportunity to experience the process of making such a paper. I would like to
thank my supervisor Dr. Ajit Kumar Singh, Assistant Professor, AIBAS, for all the help and
guidance throughout the semester, for providing me with feedback and always listening and
answering my questions. A big thanks to the all the faculty members that helped me conduct
the study. I wish to express my thanks to all the schools that cooperated for my research and
my family for their constant support and encouragement.

INTRODUCTION
Social comparison is a psychological process in which individuals evaluate themselves by

comparing their abilities, opinions, and traits to those of others. This concept was first

introduced by Leon Festinger in 1954 as part of his Social Comparison Theory. According to

Festinger, people engage in social comparison to gain accurate self-evaluations and to reduce

uncertainty about themselves. The term "social" refers to interactions, relationships, and

connections among individuals or groups within a society. It encompasses behaviours, norms,

and structures that influence how people communicate, collaborate, and coexist. Being social

is an inherent part of human nature, as people naturally seek relationships for emotional

support, survival, and personal growth.

In a broader sense, the social aspect extends beyond individual interactions to include

institutions, cultural traditions, and social norms that shape communities. Social structures,

such as family, education, government, and peer networks, provide a framework for human

interaction. These structures influence attitudes, values, and behaviours, creating a sense of

identity and belonging. With the advent of technology, social connections have expanded to

virtual platforms. Social media, for instance, has redefined how people interact, enabling

communication across geographical boundaries but also raising concerns about digital well-

being and authenticity.

Ways in Which People Engage in Social Comparison

Social comparison is a psychological process in which individuals evaluate themselves by

comparing their traits, abilities, achievements, or circumstances to others. This helps people

form self-perceptions, understand their social standing, and shape their aspirations. Leon

Festinger (1954) proposed Social Comparison Theory, which explains how and why people

compare themselves to others. Social comparison can be conscious or unconscious, and it

occurs in various ways:

1. Upward Social Comparison

 Comparing oneself to someone perceived as superior in skills, success, or attributes.

 Effect: Can be motivating or discouraging, depending on mindset.

 Motivation: Seeing a successful person may inspire self-improvement.

 Discouragement: If the gap seems too large, it may lead to feelings of inadequacy
or low self-esteem.
 Envy or admiration: The emotional response depends on the person's mindset

and coping strategies.

2. Downward Social Comparison

 Comparing oneself to someone perceived as worse off to boost self-esteem.

 Effect:

Boosts self-esteem: People may feel a sense of gratitude or superiority.

Can lead to complacency: Instead of striving for self-improvement, one may settle
for their current state.

Defensive coping mechanism: Often used when people feel threatened about their
own status.

3. Lateral (Horizontal) Comparison

 Comparing oneself to peers with similar abilities or circumstances.

 Effect: Can provide a realistic self-assessment and validation

o Self-evaluation: Helps individuals determine if they are on the right path.

o Social belonging: Reinforces a sense of identity within a group.
o Pressure to conform: If peers are excelling, a person might feel pressured to
match their performance.
4. Social Media Comparison

 Comparing lifestyles, achievements, and appearances to curated online personas.

 Effect: Can lead to anxiety, self-doubt, or inspiration.

o Unrealistic expectations: Social media often showcases highlights rather than

real-life struggles.
o FOMO (Fear of Missing Out): Feeling left out when others seem to be living
exciting lives.
o Validation-seeking behaviour: People may post content primarily to gain
approval from others.

5. Implicit Comparison

 Unconscious comparisons made in everyday interactions.

Social comparison is a natural process, but excessive or unrealistic comparisons can

negatively impact mental well-being.

 Effect:

Influences self-esteem and self-perception.

Shapes long-term beliefs about personal worth and abilities.

Self-Esteem

Self-esteem refers to the subjective perception individuals have of their own value or worth.

It is a fundamental psychological concept that shapes how people emotionally evaluate

themselves. Self-esteem is composed of both cognitive beliefs (e.g., "I am competent," "I am

worthy") and emotional experiences (e.g., feelings of pride, triumph, despair, or humiliation).

A strong sense of self-worth is crucial for mental health, as it influences motivation, behavior,

and the ability to navigate life’s challenges. Numerous studies suggest that self-esteem plays
a critical role in psychological well-being, social relationships, and overall life satisfaction

(Orth & Robins, 2014).

Types of Self-Esteem

Self-esteem can be categorized into different types based on its stability and influence on

behaviour

High

Individuals with high self-esteem have confidence in their abilities, feel worthy, and can

effectively cope with challenges. They maintain a positive self-image, accept their strengths

and weaknesses, and demonstrate resilience in the face of failure or criticism. Research by

Baumeister et al. (2003) suggests that high self-esteem is associated with greater initiative,

persistence, and overall well-being. For example, a student who fails a test but believes in

their ability to improve may study harder rather than becoming discouraged. However, it is

important to distinguish between authentic high self-esteem and narcissism, as excessively

inflated self-esteem can lead to defensive behaviourand poor interpersonal relationships

(Bushman & Baumeister, 1998).

Low Self-Esteem

People with low self-esteem struggle with feelings of inadequacy, self-doubt, and excessive

self-criticism. They often fear failure, have difficulty accepting compliments, and undervalue

their achievements. According to Rosenberg (1965), low self-esteem is linked to higher levels

of anxiety, depression, and social withdrawal. Individuals with low self-esteem may hesitate

to express their opinions or take on challenges, believing they are not valuable. For instance,

an employee who lacks confidence in their ideas may avoid speaking up in meetings due to

fear of rejection or ridicule. Research also indicates that low self-esteem in adolescence is a

predictor of later mental health issues and poor life outcomes (Trzesniewski et al., 2006).
Stable vs. Unstable Self-Esteem

Another important distinction in self-esteem is stability. Stable self-esteem remains consistent

over time and is not easily influenced by external factors such as success, failure, or criticism.

In contrast, unstable self-esteem fluctuates based on external validation, making individuals

highly sensitive to praise or rejection. Kernis (2005) argues that unstable self-esteem can lead

to increased emotional distress, defensive behavior, and vulnerability to stress. Individuals

with unstable self-esteem may experience frequent shifts in mood and self-perception,

making it difficult to maintain emotional balance.

Components of Self-Esteem

Self-esteem is composed of multiple interrelated components that contribute to an

individual’s overall self-perception:

1. Self-Worth – This refers to the fundamental belief that one is valuable and deserving

of love and respect. Studies suggest that a strong sense of self-worth is linked to

psychological resilience and lower levels of depression (Deci & Ryan, 1995).

2. Self-Confidence – This involves trust in one’s abilities and judgments. Bandura’s

(1986) self-efficacy theory highlights the role of confidence in personal achievements

and motivation. People with higher self-confidence tend to set ambitious goals and

persist in the face of challenges.

3. Self-Respect – Treating oneself with dignity and maintaining personal boundaries is a

crucial aspect of self-esteem. Research by Neff (2011) emphasizes that individuals

with high self-respect engage in healthier relationships and are less likely to tolerate

mistreatment.
 4. Self-Acceptance – This involves recognizing both strengths and weaknesses without

harsh self-judgment. Studies suggest that self-acceptance is associated with greater

life satisfaction and emotional well-being (MacInnes, 2006).

5. Self-Compassion – Being kind to oneself, particularly during setbacks, is another key

component of self-esteem. Neff (2003) found that self-compassion reduces stress,

anxiety, and self-criticism while promoting emotional resilience.

Relapse

Relapse refers to the recurrence of a past condition, behaviour, or mental state after a period

of improvement or remission. It is commonly associated with addiction, mental health

disorders, and behavioural issues.

Relapse can manifest in various ways depending on the condition or behaviour being

addressed. It typically involves a return to a previous unhealthy state after a period of

improvement. The main types of relapse include substance use relapse, mental health relapse,

and behavioural relapse, each with distinct characteristics, triggers, and consequences.

Research studies have examined these types of relapse, offering insights into their causes,

processes, and prevention strategies.

Substance Use Relapse

Substance use relapse refers to the return to alcohol, drugs, or other addictive substances after

a period of abstinence. According to Marlatt & Gordon (1985), relapse occurs in stages,

beginning with emotional and mental relapse, where stress, negative emotions, or cravings

start to build. This can progress to high-risk situations where the individual is exposed to

triggers, such as social events where substances are used. If not managed, it can lead to

physical relapse, where the person resumes substance use, sometimes resulting in full

dependence. A study by McKay et al. (2005) found that high levels of stress, exposure to
triggers, and lack of coping skills significantly increase the likelihood of relapse among

individuals recovering from substance use disorders. Additionally, Hendershot et al. (2011)

highlight that cognitive-behavioural therapy (CBT) and relapse prevention strategies play a

crucial role in reducing relapse rates.

Mental Health Relapse

Mental health relapse involves the recurrence of symptoms in conditions such as depression,

anxiety, bipolar disorder, or schizophrenia after a period of improvement. This relapse can be

gradual or sudden and is often triggered by stopping medication or therapy prematurely.

Severe cases may require hospitalization. Research by Gitlin et al. (1995) found that among

individuals with bipolar disorder, those who discontinued medication were at a significantly

higher risk of relapse compared to those who remained on treatment. Similarly, a study by

Andrade et al. (2014) suggests that lack of adherence to antidepressant medication in patients

with major depressive disorder contributes to a high relapse rate. Other common triggers

include high stress levels, lack of sleep, unhealthy lifestyle habits, and substance abuse that

interferes with mental health treatment. Isolation and lack of social support also contribute to

relapse, highlighting the importance of a strong support system (Johnson et al., 2012).

Behavioural Relapse

Behavioural relapse occurs when someone returns to a harmful or compulsive behaviourthey

had previously stopped. This is common in conditions such as gambling addiction, eating

disorders, and self-harm. It often starts with a minor slip, which can escalate into a full

relapse. Research suggests that compulsive behaviors provide temporary relief or pleasure but

can lead to guilt, shame, and a sense of loss of control. A study by Hodgins & el-Guebaly

(2004) found that relapse rates in gambling disorder are high, with many individuals

experiencing multiple relapse episodes due to emotional distress, social influences, and
exposure to past behaviors. Similarly, Fairburn et al. (2003) found that individuals recovering

from eating disorders are vulnerable to relapse when faced with stress, poor body image, and

a lack of effective coping mechanisms. Feelings of anxiety, loneliness, or trauma can also

play a significant role in triggering a relapse (Treasure et al., 2015).

Understanding the different types of relapse and their triggers can help individuals and

healthcare professionals develop strategies to prevent and manage relapses effectively.

Studies suggest that relapse prevention strategies such as cognitive-behavioural therapy,

medication adherence, strong social support, and stress management techniques can help

reduce the risk of relapse. By recognizing warning signs and implementing evidence-based

interventions, individuals can maintain long-term recovery and overall well-being.

Review of Literature

Fardouly et al. (2015) study indicated that Instagram users, especially adolescents and young

adults, experience lower self-esteem after viewing images of peers who appear more

attractive, successful, or happy. The ‘highlight reel’ effect on social media promotes

unrealistic standards, contributing to feelings of inadequacy and self-doubt. This study also

emphasizes that individuals with pre-existing low self-esteem are more vulnerable to these

negative effects.

Litt and Stock (2011) their study investigated how social media exposure to substance use-

related content influences relapse tendencies in recovering addicts. The study found that

individuals recovering from substance abuse who are frequently exposed to images or

discussions about alcohol and drugs on social media report higher cravings and a greater

likelihood of relapse. The findings suggest that social media can act as a high-risk trigger for

relapse by normalizing or glamorizing substance use.

Steers et al. (2014) their study found a correlation between Facebook use and depressive

symptoms, particularly among individuals who engage in social comparison. The findings

suggest that comparing one's everyday struggles to others’ curated social media content can

lead to a decline in self-esteem and increase the risk of depression. Furthermore, excessive

social media use was linked to a higher likelihood of social isolation and negative self-

perception.

Perloff (2014) study explored the relationship between social media, body image

dissatisfaction, and self-esteem. The study found that exposure to idealized beauty standards

on platforms such as Instagram and TikTok significantly lowers self-esteem, particularly

among young women. The research supports the idea that social media amplifies the pressure

to conform to unrealistic beauty ideals, leading to negative self-perceptions.

A study by Rodgers et al., (2016) analysed the link between social media, disordered eating

behaviours, and relapse in individuals recovering from eating disorders. The research found

that online communities that promote thinness, dieting, and extreme exercise reinforce

negative self-perceptions and contribute to relapse. Additionally, individuals engaged in pro-

eating disorder groups were more likely to experience setbacks in their recovery process.

Vogel et al.,. (2014) This study investigates the relationship between frequent Facebook use,

exposure to upward social comparisons, and trait self-esteem. The findings suggest that

increased Facebook usage is associated with poorer self-esteem, mediated by greater

exposure to upward social comparisons.

Nesi and Prinstein (2015) they researched how adolescents' use of social media for social

comparison and feedback-seeking correlates with depressive symptoms. The study highlights

that such behaviors are linked to increased depressive symptoms, with popularity and gender

serving as moderating factors.

Yoon et al., (2019) The article examines how problematic social media use leads to

depressive symptoms through the mediating role of upward social comparison. The study

concludes that individuals engaging in frequent upward comparisons on social media

platforms are more susceptible to depression and low self-esteem.

Jensen et al., (2019) This daily diary study assesses the link between adolescents' social

media usage and their well-being. Findings indicate that increased social media use is

associated with lower positive and higher negative self-worth on a daily basis, with upward

social comparisons contributing to diminished well-being.

Sidani et al., (2016) They explored the correlation between social media use and eating

concerns in a nationally representative sample of young adults. Results suggest that higher

social media usage is linked to increased eating concerns, potentially due to exposure to

idealized body images and social comparison processes.

Humeniuk et al., (2024) This study examined the relationship between social media use,

social comparison, and mental health outcomes among McMaster University undergraduates.

Using a mixed-methods approach, researchers collected survey data from 14 participants.

Contrary to existing literature, findings revealed that social media use, even when involving

social comparison, did not necessarily harm mental health and could lead to positive

outcomes. Quantitative analysis was conducted using statistical software, while qualitative

responses underwent thematic analysis.

Taylor et al., (2022) This study examined the relationship between social networking

addiction (SNA), self-esteem, flourishing, and student learning strategies among 189

emerging adult undergraduates (ages 18-24). Using a cross-sectional quantitative mediation

design, findings indicated that excessive social media use negatively impacts biopsychosocial

well-being but does not directly affect learning strategies. Regression analysis showed no
significant relationship between SNA, self-esteem, flourishing, and motivated learning

strategies. The study highlights the need to understand technological addiction's cognitive

effects while emphasizing the potential for positive social networking mastery to foster

awareness, communication, and social change.

Zargaran et al., (2023).They examined the relationship between social media addiction, self-

esteem, and self-compassion among 148 U.S. social media users aged 18 and older. Using a

quasi-experimental design and statistical analyses, results confirmed that social media

addiction negatively correlates with self-esteem and self-compassion. No gender differences

were found, but older adults (60+) had lower social media addiction and higher self-esteem

and self-compassion. Findings highlight the need for interventions addressing mental health

concerns related to social media use and its impact on self-perception.

Macrynikola et al., (2022). They examined how social media use, particularly problematic

social media use (PSMU), may contribute to suicide risk through social comparison and

feelings of defeat. A 15-day longitudinal study with 99 young adults (ages 18-29) found that

increased social media use led to heightened feelings of defeat, mediated by social

comparison. This effect was slightly stronger in individuals with higher levels of PSMU.

Findings highlight the need for further research on social media's role in self-injurious

thoughts and behaviors (SITBs) to develop interventions for healthier social media use.

Ahmed et al., (2021). The researchers studied the role of problematic social media use

(PSMU) in the relationship between social avoidance/distress and self-esteem among 370

university students in Bangladesh. Using the Bergen Social Media Addiction Scale,

Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale, and Social Avoidance and Distress Scale, results showed that

PSMU partially mediated this relationship. While social avoidance/distress predicted self-

esteem, PSMU had no significant impact when self-esteem predicted social

avoidance/distress. Findings highlight the growing need to study PSMU's effects in

Bangladesh's young population.

Papadopoulou et al., (2024). This study examined the relationship between social media use,

self-objectification, and self-esteem among 100 young adults in Greece. Using various

psychological scales, including the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale and Bergen Social Media

Addiction Scale, the research aimed to address the gap in studies focusing on men. Findings

contribute to understanding how self-objectification and social media use influence self-

worth. The study highlights implications for mental health professionals in addressing self-

esteem issues related to social media consumption.

Frost, J. E. (2024). This study examined the influence of social media use, social comparison

orientation, and materialistic values on self-worth using social comparison theory. Contrary

to expectations, social media use and materialistic values did not affect self-worth, while

social comparison orientation was positively related, suggesting users engage in downward

comparisons for an ego boost. These findings can inform media literacy programs for parents,

schools, and social networking platforms.

Mousoulidou, et al., (2024). This study examined internet and social media addictions among

502 adults in Cyprus post-pandemic, analyzing their links to mental well-being and self-

esteem. Results showed that while severe addiction was rare, about one-third of participants

had mild to moderate addiction levels, especially younger adults (18-28 years). Internet and

social media addictions correlated with higher depression, anxiety, and stress, and lower self-

esteem. Stress significantly predicted addiction, whereas self-esteem acted as a protective

factor. These findings highlight the need for interventions to foster healthy digital habits,

stress management, and self-esteem improvement.

Andreassen, et al., (2017). They examined the relationship between social media addiction,

narcissism, and self-esteem using data from 23,532 Norwegians aged 16-88. Findings showed

that younger age, being female, being single, lower education, lower income, lower self-

esteem, and narcissism were linked to higher social media addiction scores. The results

suggest that excessive social media use may stem from narcissistic traits and low self-esteem

as individuals seek validation and avoid negative self-evaluations. Women appeared more

prone to addictive social media use, possibly due to its social nature. However, the cross-

sectional design limits conclusions about causality.

Onat Kocabiyik, O. (2021). They examined the relationship between social media addiction,

social comparison orientation, and ruminative responses among 261 university students. The

Social Media Addiction Scale, Iowa-Netherlands Social Comparison Orientation Measure,

and Ruminative Response Scale (Short Form) were used. Findings showed that students had

low social media addiction levels. Obsessive thinking and social comparison positively

predicted addiction, while deep thinking was not a significant predictor. Results were

discussed in relation to existing literature, with recommendations for future research.

Pinon, R. M. (2024). This study examined the impact of social media on body image, self-

esteem, and quality of life among U.S. adults using a quantitative survey design. Findings

showed that older Hispanic individuals (40-65+) with higher education and no mental health

diagnosis had higher self-esteem. Body image concerns were greater among individuals aged

40+ and those with prior mental health diagnoses. Quality of life was highest among those

with a mental health diagnosis, higher education, and older age. A strong positive relationship

was found between body image concerns, self-esteem, and overall quality of life.

Steinberger, et al., (2023) This study examined the relationship between subjective well-being

(SWB) and SNS addiction, focusing on social comparison and fear of missing out (FOMO)
as mediators in a sample of 296 participants. It distinguished between social comparison of

ability (SCA) and social comparison of opinion (SCO). Findings showed that SCA (e.g.,

wealth, achievements) and FOMO jointly mediated the SWB-SNS addiction link, while SCO

(e.g., beliefs, opinions) did not play a significant role. The study highlights the need for

further research on specific aspects of social comparison contributing to SNS addiction.

Zebroski, M. (2019). This study examined the effects of a mindful Instagram use intervention

on social comparison, envy, well-being, and mindfulness over seven days. Participants

received daily reminders to use Instagram mindfully and completed pre- and post-

intervention questionnaires. Results showed increased nonjudgmental mindfulness

immediately after the intervention, but no significant long-term changes. Higher baseline life

satisfaction and lower malicious envy predicted more mindful social media use. Findings

suggest that mindfulness interventions may help reduce the negative effects of social media,

particularly problematic Instagram use.

Lewin, et al., (2022). This study examined how different types of social comparison relate to

problematic social media use (PSMU) across five platforms (Facebook, Instagram, Snapchat,

TikTok, and Twitter) using an online survey of 601 participants. Findings showed that

comparison of abilities was positively related to PSMU across all platforms, while

comparison of opinions was negatively related to PSMU on Facebook, Instagram, and

Snapchat. Social comparison directionality was not significantly linked to PSMU. The study

controlled for demographics and the number of platforms used. Results highlight the varying

effects of social comparison on problematic social media behaviour.

Tian, et al., (2019). This study explores how different social media platforms (Instagram vs.

YouTube) impact self-esteem and life satisfaction. It is hypothesized that YouTube use may

increase or maintain self-esteem and life satisfaction, while Instagram use may decrease these
measures post-exposure. The study highlights the distinct psychological effects of different

social media mediums. Findings contribute to understanding social media's impact on well-

being and have implications for modern business practices.

Mosanya, et al., (2024). They examined social media addiction’s impact on self-esteem and

body image among 527 Polish individuals, with narcissism and self-compassion as mediators.

Findings showed that only visual platforms (Facebook, Instagram, TikTok) negatively

affected self-evaluations. Women reported higher social media addiction and lower self-

esteem, self-compassion, and body image compared to men. Social media addiction

negatively predicted body image for both genders and self-esteem for women but not men.

Narcissism and self-compassion mediated these relationships, highlighting their role in

buffering social media’s negative effects.

Methodology

Objective:

 To understand young adults understanding of social media and its effects on self-

esteem, and relapse tendencies.

 To explore the relationship between social comparison, self-esteem and relapse

tendencies.

About the participants:

The research will include young adults age between 16-25.

About the tools:

 1. Self -Esteem scale: It is an inventory by dr. Santosh  Positivity: Reflects an

individual's general positive outlook and attitude towards themselves. It

employs 5-point Likert scale ranging from "Strongly Disagree" to "Strongly

Agree". It has 23 items with 5 dimensions-

 Positivity: 17,13, 5, 9,8,18

 Openness: 14, 21, 15, 16, 20

 Competence: 2, 3, 1

 Humility: 6, 10, 7, 4

 Self-Worth: 23, 19, 22

 Learning Orientation: 11, 12

2. The Iowa-Netherlands Comparison Orientation Measure (INCOM):

Gibbons and Buunk (1999) created an instrument that measures the

tendency to engage in social comparison and captures central aspects

of the self, the other, and the psychological interaction between the

two. The test comprises of 11 items it is self-report questionnaire

which employs 5-point Likert scale (1 = Strongly Disagree to 5 =

Strongly Agree).

3. The AWARE Questionnaire (Revised Form)- this scale was developed

by Miller & Harris in 2000, comprises of 28 items. It is a self-report

questionnaire which employs 7-point Likert scale (1 = Never to 7 =

always). Reverse scoring for the following five items: 8, 14, 20, 24, 26.

Research method:
A quantitative cross-sectional survey design will be used which is ideal for collecting data at

one point in time from a large group of participants. This will help identify correlations and

patterns between social media use, self-esteem, social comparison, and relapse tendencies.

The research will employ Snowball sampling, a non-probability technique, to gather data

from participants through a trusted social connection. This is particularly useful when

studying behaviours across various social groups.

Procedure:

The study will employ a quantitative cross-sectional survey design. Upon consent,

participants complete a demographic questionnaire and standardized measures of self-esteem,

social comparison and relapse tendencies. Statistical analysis software (e.g., SPSS) was used

for correlation analysis.

Inclusion Criteria:

1. Young Adults aged 16-25 years old.

Exclusion Criteria:

1. Individuals outside the age range of 16-25 years.