CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

This chapter will discuss the background of the study, statement of the problem,
objectives of the study, significance of the study, theoretical framework, and
scope and limitations.

1.1 Background of the Study

The Philippines is prone to many natural calamities that become the trigger
of many other disasters. One of those is landslides or the movement of rock,
debris, or earth down a slope, is one of these effects. These usually occur when the
stability conditions of a slope are disrupted. The Philippines is prone to many
natural calamities that become the trigger of many other disasters. One of those is
landslides or the movement of rock, debris, or earth down a slope, is one of these
effects. A landslide is the movement of rock, earth, or debris down a slope, often
caused by gravity, water, or earthquakes. Landslides can range from small,
localized events to massive, catastrophic disasters. Some common causes of
landslide includes heavy rainfall, earthquakes, volcanic activity, human activities
(deforestation, mining), weak geology (fractured rocks, clay soils), slope
instability. Landslides are an important factor in the evolution of landforms (Glade
and Crozier, 2010), soil properties, and biotic agents, including vegetation and
fauna (Sidle andOchiai, 2006). Landslides can redistribute sediment material to
areas with relatively less steep slopes. Landslides impact soil deficit, sediment
transportation and accumulation, soil material mixing, and material enrichment in
deposition zone. Changes in soil characteristics in the sliding area can decrease
soil organic matter and plant nutrition (Sparling et al., 2003). The debris and
pedoturbation of parent material in the landslide deposition areas can re-supply
nutrients to acidic soils that have undergone intense weathering (Schrumpf et al.,
2001; Sartohadi et al., 2018).
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Primary investigation in determining the presence of possible landslide is

done by carefully inspecting the study area by utilizing common specific
indicators, specifically, the color of the soil, tilted trees and exposed roots. Soil
color can be used to estimate the contents of soil pigments such as organic matter
and iron (Fe) oxides. It can be measured easily and rapidly with a Munsell color
chart or by colorimeter. The Munsell Color System consists of three components:
hue (the specific color), value (the lightness or darkness), and chroma (the
intensity of the color). These are organized in books containing color chips. To
determine the soil color, it is compared to these chips to find a visual match and is
then given the corresponding Munsell notation. Another feature that must be
inspected are the presence of tilted trees. Trees growing on landslide slopes have
tilted and bent stem. As trees grow radially, their stems form annual rings, which
can serve as a year-by-year record of past environmental events, including
disturbances like landslides. Stem deformations affects the structure of wood and
tree-rings (Stefanini, 2004; Wistuba et al., 2013). Previous studies have mainly
focused on root plate sizes and soil tension properties under external loads (wind
force – Peltola, 2006; snow accretion – Kato and Nakatani, 2000; and rockfall –
Stokes et al., 2005). Nevertheless, as noted above, tree tilt during landslides is
directly controlled by ground deformations resulting from landslide movements
(Harker, 1996, Lopez Saez et al., 2013). Exposed roots have also been used as an
important method in this field to determine the erosion rate (LaMarche, 1961).
The research has calculated long-term soil erosion rates based on the vertical
distance between the root axis and the current soil surface and the tree age.
Especially for exposed living roots, the history of erosion can be determined by
recording the exact year of root exposure (Malik, 2010, Stoffel et al., 2013).
Exposed roots have played an important role in determining the erosion rate
(Owczarek et al., 2022). The distribution patterns of exposed roots include vertical
distribution, oblique distribution and horizontal distribution. Affected by soil
erosion, the exposed length of plant roots in the oblique and horizontal directions
may reach 0.4–1.4 m (Malik and Matyja, 2008). Under the combined influence of
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the diversification of root distribution patterns (Mawodza et al., 2020) and soil
erosion, the exposed roots on the ground surface may form different combination
patterns with the soils during the growth period. In addition, the exposed roots
may further affect the rainfall redistribution and soil erosion process on sloped
land (Chirico et al., 2013).

The classification of soil plays an important role in determining the key

factors that cause landslide. Each soil types has their unique properties that
triggers them to fail. Clay soils are prone to landslide due to their high plasticity,
low permeability and high water absorption. Clay's high plasticity leads to
reduced soil stability when saturated (Holtz & Kovacs, 1981). Also, low
permeability slows water drainage, increasing pore water pressure (Freeze &
Cherry, 1979). Some tropical regions with frequent rainfall are prone to landslide.
High-intensity rainfall triggers landslides by overwhelming soil’s infiltration
capacity. Prolonged rainfall accumulates water in soil, increasing landslide risk.
Sands can weaken soil and contribute to landslide susceptibility through several
mechanisms like low cohesion, high permeability and loss of strength. Sands can
lose strength when saturated, leading to liquefaction and landslide (Ishihara,
1993). Sands allow rapid water infiltration, increasing pore water pressure and
reducing soil strength (Freeze & Cherry, 1979). Prolonged rainfall saturates soil,
leading to increased weight and reduced friction (Hungr & McDougall, 2009).
Sand particles can be easily eroded, undermining slope stability (Hutchinson,
1988).

Landslides are controlled to some extent by mainly two factor: (1) the
groundwater and rugged topography with high slope angles (Regmi et al., 2013)
and (2) the presence of clay layers contributes to slope failure or instability
(Sartohadi et al., 2018). The level of soil movement is particularly determined by
the value of the safety factor and the shear zone of the clay layer on a slope. The
physical and mechanical properties of soil are influenced by the level of soil
development through the pedogenetic processes. Only few researches have
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attempted to provide information regarding changes in soil characteristics after a

landslide. Research on the detail and local re-distribution of landslide sediment at
the former landslide areas has not been widely reported.

In Zamboanga City, Purok 5 of Sitio Corote of Barangay Upper Malagutay

was found unsafe for people to live in, after an August 15, 2023 landslide that
buried at least two houses in the area following days of heavy rains that triggered
massive soil erosion with several cracks and scarps as deep as 20 meters below
ground (Alipala & Magbanua, 2023). Landslide therefore becomes a priority area
for natural disaster management. Various studies that have been carried out earlier
have provided information on landslide-prone areas maps, the application of
landslide management methods, and the identification of landslide mechanisms.

Figure
1.1 Photo of landslide
at Malagutay, Zamboanga City

In June 29, 2016, landslide occured at the upland village of Barangay

Malagutay, Zamboanga City on tuesday night after continued rainshowers
softened the soil. The chief of city disaster risk reduction and management office
(CDRRMO), said that 13 families decided to vacate their homes for fear of their
safety although no one among the houses in the area was destroyed by the
landslide and 12 of the 13 families have sought refuge with their families while
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the remaining one opted to stay at the village hall of Malagutay. The CDRRMO
has alerted the pubic as the city continues to experience rainshowers and isolated
thunderstorms due to an ITCZ affecting Mindanao.

As landslides become frequent in Sitio Corote, Barangay Malagutay,

Zamboanga City, a comprehensive assessment is essential in determining factors
that cause these landslides, as well as the soil conditions and the factor of safety of
the embankment’s slope, to determine whether it is stable or unstable.
Specifically, this study aims to conduct geotechnical comprehensive assessment
for landslide prevention to develop adaptive mitigation measures for geologically
fragile zones in Sitio Corote, Brgy. Malagutay, Zamboanga City.

1.2 Statement of the Problem

Zamboanga City is characterized by its coastal landscapes, hilly terrains,
and tropical climate, making it both a vibrant city and a region prone to natural
challenges which also means the city is exposed to environmental issues such as
flooding, landslides, and other natural disasters. One of the said ongoing issues
affecting various places in Zamboanga, including Sitio Corote in Barangay
Malagutay, is the occurrence of landslides. Due to frequent landslides, often
triggered by heavy rains and unstable terrain, which are negatively impacting both
the local population and infrastructure have damaged roads, making transportation
difficult and unsafe for residents. The blocked or eroded roads limit access to
essential services creating a public safety concern. Additionally, the risk to homes
and properties increases with each landslide, further threatening the well-being
and livelihoods of the community. Urgent interventions are needed to assess the
causes of these landslides and implement measures to mitigate their effects on
both the people and infrastructure of Sitio Corote.

1.3 Objectives of the Study

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The primary objective of this study is to conduct comprehensive

assessment for landslide prevention and adaptive mitigation measures for
geologically fragile zones at Sitio Corote Malagutay, Zamboanga City.
Specifically, this study aims to:
a. Investigate soil parameters such as soil morphological characteristics,
soil profile, strength parameters, as well as site observation, soil investigation
and groundwater conditions in the study area located at Sitio Corote,
Malagutay, Zamboanga City.
b. Determine the factor of safety based on the soil condition and soil
classification on the study area.
c. Determine what type of earth retaining structures is required on
the study area.

1.4 Significance of the Study

This study is made to help determine landslide-prone areas and solve
landslide problem in Barangay Malagutay, Zamboanga City. Different places with
the same soil parameters as Barangay Malagutay will also benefit from this study
as the researchers specifically studies the type of soil located on the study area.
This study also explores possible mitigation measures after the assessment of the
landslide area for earth retaining structures.
1.5 Conceptual Framework of the Study
First, a qualitative analysis is conducted to determine the soil
morphological characteristics, soil profile, soil classification and site observation.
The soil morphological characteristics is determined through soil color, soil type,
soil density, particle size distribution and bulk density. The soil profile is
determined through horizon thickness, horizon topography and horizon
distinctness. Soil classification follows the Unified Soil Classification System
(USCS) standard to classify the soil. Site observation is utilized to determine the
geographical position, altitude, slope and vegetation.
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Second, a quantitative analysis is conducted to analyze the disturbed and

undisturbed soils. Disturbed soils are used to determine the particle density using
pycnometer method, soil particle size criteria using USCS classification, soil
porosity and soil organic carbon. Undisturbed soils are used to determine the
hydraulic conductivity using permeameter method and bulk density using ring
method.
Third, slope stability analysis is done by determining the factor of safety
against sliding and utilizing finite element analysis (FEA) for simulation. Factor
of safety against sliding involves soil strength parameters such as friction angle,
cohesion and bulk density. Finite element analysis is a numerical simulation
method to predict the behavior of the soil embankment on the study area. This
involves mathematical representation of the structure through modeling; loads,
restraints and environmental impact through boundary condition; interpreting
results, visualizing data, and optimizing designs.
Lastly, after the comprehensive assessment for slope stability analysis, the
necessary solutions can now be identified and tailored in accordance with the
specific requirements and needs.

Figure 1.5. Conceptual Framework of the Study

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1.6 Scope and Limitations

This study focuses on the comprehensive assessment of existing landslide
area at Sitio Corote, Malagutay, Zamboanga City where parts of the landslide are
already present which enables the proponents to determine what factors contribute
to soil failure. This study limits from assessing the whole landscape of Sitio
Corote, Malagutay, Zamboanga City.

1.7 Definition of Terms

Landslide - also known as landslips, or rockslides,are several forms of mass
wasting that may include a wide range of ground movements, such as rockfalls,
mudflows, shallow or deep-seated slope failures and debris flows.
Granular soil - means gravel, sand, or silt, (coarse grained soil) with little or no
clay content. Granular soil has no cohesive strength. Some moist granular soils
exhibit apparent cohesion. Granular soil cannot be molded when moist and
crumbles easily when dry.
Morphological Characteristics- Properties such as structure, texture, consistence
etc influence the fertility status of soils. These properties determine the cation
exchange capacity, water holding capacity, aeration, porosity and temperature of
the soil.
Crown - The undisturbed material uphill of the scarp. (i.e. the brown house at the
top of the hill).
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Main Scarp - Steep slope at the upper edge of the landslide (at the head), caused
by the movement of displaced material away from the undisturbed ground. The
visible part of the slide surface.
Main Body - Part of the landslide that overlies the rupture surface.
Foot - The part of the landslide that overlies the original ground surface (i.e. right
below the separation surface).
Toe - The downhill end of the slide. The most distant part of the slide from the
main scarp.
Escarpment - a long, steep slope, especially one at the edge of a plateau or
separating areas of land at different heights.
Pedogenic - relating to or denoting processes occurring in soil or leading to the
formation of soil.
Rainfall - is a measurement of how much water falls as rain in a certain period of
time.
Pedoturbation - involves mixing between soil horizons and is an important factor
in soil formation. Pedoturbation includes churning clays, cryoturbation, and
bioturbation.
Eluviation - Removal of dissolved or suspended material from a layer or layers of
the soil by the movement of water when rainfall exceeds evaporation.
Illuviation - the introduction of salts or colloids into one soil horizon from another
by percolating water.
Slope stability analysis - a static or dynamic, analytical or empirical method to
evaluate the stability of slopes of soil- and rock-fill dams, embankments,
excavated slopes, and natural slopes in soil and rock.