STANBUL AYDIN UNIVERSITY

ARCHITECTURE PROGRAM
2023-2024 Fall Semester

CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY-I
(ARC127)
Lecturer: S. Burcu GÜLER (M. Architect)

STRUCTURES

İstanbul Aydın University / Architecture Program / ARC127- Construction Technology-I / 2023-2024 Fall Semester / S. Burcu GÜLER

TERMS
The word ‘building’ is defined in the dictionary as:

• a structure with walls and a roof, such as a house or factory,

• the process or business of making structures such as houses or factories.

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TERMS
The word 'structure' is derived from the Latin verb struere = meaning to build, and
has become konstruktion/construction by combining it with the prefix con.
In architecture, the word ‘structure’ is used in the same sense as the Turkish word
‘yapı’. The definition of the term structure in dictionaries is as follows:

• the way in which the parts of something are connected together, arranged or
organized; a particular arrangement of parts
• a thing that is made of several parts, especially a building
• the state of being well organized or planned with all the parts linked together; a
careful plan

İstanbul Aydın University / Architecture Program / ARC127- Construction Technology-I / 2023-2024 Fall Semester / S. Burcu GÜLER

STRUCTURE
 In short, the word structure refers to a product formed by stacking and bringing
together in architecture.

 Underground, surface and water facilities created by using various building

materials and appropriate construction techniques to meet the nutrition, shelter,
protection and other needs of all beings living in the world are called "structures".

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STRUCTURE
 The term structure system refers to the relationship between the elements that
make up the product defined as structure. The main purpose of the structural
system in architecture is to carry loads and provide a predetermined static
balance.

 The shelters that primitive people created at the beginning of history, mostly by
instinct and by imitating nature, are similar to those of today in terms of the
principles of the carrier system.

İstanbul Aydın University / Architecture Program / ARC127- Construction Technology-I / 2023-2024 Fall Semester / S. Burcu GÜLER

STRUCTURE
The features sought in the structure are as follows:

 Must be economical
 Must be suitable for the intended purpose
 It should be aesthetic
 Suitable materials and construction techniques should be used for construction
 Must be resistant to external factors

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Construction Methods
Buildings are constructed by determining a
method according to the characteristics of
the structure, the place where it is built, its
size and the knowledge, experience, tools,
equipment and technological equipment
facilities of the institutions and people who
will carry out the construction. This method
is called the "construction method".

İstanbul Aydın University / Architecture Program / ARC127- Construction Technology-I / 2023-2024 Fall Semester / S. Burcu GÜLER

Construction Methods

Construction method (Greeno R., Osbourn D., 2013)

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 İstanbul Aydın University / Architecture Program / ARC127- Construction Technology-I / 2023-2024 Fall Semester / S. Burcu GÜLER

Construction Methods
The main known and applied methods are:

1. Cast-in-place construction methods

a. Traditional (conventional) Construction b. Advanced Construction Methods
Methods  Panel formwork systems
 Masonry  Tunnel formwork systems
 Carcass

2. Prefabricated construction methods

3. Steel construction methods

İstanbul Aydın University / Architecture Program / ARC127- Construction Technology-I / 2023-2024 Fall Semester / S. Burcu GÜLER

STRUCTURE
The process of building begins with the need for housing of people who lived by
hunting in prehistoric times.

Sometimes existing places in nature such as caves and sometimes roofed huts made
of reeds, reeds, bushes, poles, plastered with muddy grass or turf on top or tents
made of leather or wool were used as houses.

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STRUCTURE
In these periods, when it was difficult to shape the material with primitive tools, the
materials offered by nature were used as they were.
In these pre-industrial societies, structures formed by the formation of natural
materials such as stone, earth, brick and wood are called "traditional structures".

İstanbul Aydın University / Architecture Program / ARC127- Construction Technology-I / 2023-2024 Fall Semester / S. Burcu GÜLER

STRUCTURE
All living things in nature form various carrier systems
that perform their duties such as covering, protection,
transportation, hunting, etc. in order to survive.

There are also examples of structures that exist

spontaneously in inanimate nature. The objects in non-
living nature-from the atom through to molecules,
crystals, rocks, mountains and waters, to stars and
galaxies constitute a constructional family with
characteristic forms and structural properties.

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İstanbul Aydın University / Architecture Program / ARC127- Construction Technology-I / 2023-2024 Fall Semester / S. Burcu GÜLER

İstanbul Aydın University / Architecture Program / ARC127- Construction Technology-I / 2023-2024 Fall Semester / S. Burcu GÜLER

Heydar Aliyev Cultural Center, Baku, Azerbaijan

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 İstanbul Aydın University / Architecture Program / ARC127- Construction Technology-I / 2023-2024 Fall Semester / S. Burcu GÜLER

The O2 / Millenium Dome – London, United Kingdom, by Richard Rogers

Tensile structure
The tensile structure is composed of elements in a tension state, instead of a compression state. A simple example of a tensile structure is
camping tents. The tent becomes upright and stable when all of its components, fabric, poles, and ropes, are in perfect tension.

İstanbul Aydın University / Architecture Program / ARC127- Construction Technology-I / 2023-2024 Fall Semester / S. Burcu GÜLER

Clemson University College of Architecture, South Carolina, USA

Tree / Branching structure systems
This system features the use of tree-like columns for support. The column rises from the
ground with its full diameter, like the trunk of a tree, and then starts branching near the top
to extend over a bigger span. The Tote, Mumbai, India

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Habitat 67, Quebec, Canada

Stacked-box structure
This system resembles the idea of stacked boxes.

İstanbul Aydın University / Architecture Program / ARC127- Construction Technology-I / 2023-2024 Fall Semester / S. Burcu GÜLER

Kresge Auditorium – Massachusetts, USA

Shell structure
A shell is a large curved surface with a very slight thickness in comparison to its length and width. The shell can be used as a roof for light
structures or it can envelop the entire structure. The shell touches the ground at one or more points, transferring the loads on its surface
to the ground through these points.

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 İstanbul Aydın University / Architecture Program / ARC127- Construction Technology-I / 2023-2024 Fall Semester / S. Burcu GÜLER

Yokohama International Passenger Terminal, Yokohama, Japan

The United States Air Force Academy Cadet Chapel, Colorado, USA
Folding structure
Folding structures can be considered a form of shell structures, but the “shell” is folded instead of curved, like origami.

İstanbul Aydın University / Architecture Program / ARC127- Construction Technology-I / 2023-2024 Fall Semester / S. Burcu GÜLER

CLASSIFICATION OF STRUCTURES
Structures can be classified in different ways according to their many characteristics.
1) Classification by Materials
a. Adobe structures
b. Timber (wooden) structures
c. Half-timbered (hımış) structures
d. Masonry structures
e. Half-masonry (yarım kagir) structures
f. Reinforced concrete structures
g. Steel structures

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 İstanbul Aydın University / Architecture Program / ARC127- Construction Technology-I / 2023-2024 Fall Semester / S. Burcu GÜLER

CLASSIFICATION OF STRUCTURES
1) Classification by Materials
a. Adobe structures: Adobe is a building
material obtained by mixing straw and
other vegetable fibers into clay and suitable
soil, kneading them with water, pouring
them into molds, shaping them and drying
them in the open air.

Structures consisting of walls built using this

Molded adobe material material are also called adobe structures.

İstanbul Aydın University / Architecture Program / ARC127- Construction Technology-I / 2023-2024 Fall Semester / S. Burcu GÜLER

CLASSIFICATION OF STRUCTURES
1) Classification by Materials
a. Adobe structures: Since there was no stone
in Çatalhöyük around Konya Salt Lake, a
Neolithic settlement center, sun-dried
adobe blocks were used.

Çatalhöyük (Konya), one of the first settlements in the world

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CLASSIFICATION OF STRUCTURES
1) Classification by Materials
a. Adobe structures: Since prehistoric times,
this earthen material has been used in the
construction of many monumental,
religious structures such as animal shelters,
palaces, castles, city walls, towers as well as
houses.

Çatalhöyük (Konya), one of the first settlements in the world

İstanbul Aydın University / Architecture Program / ARC127- Construction Technology-I / 2023-2024 Fall Semester / S. Burcu GÜLER

CLASSIFICATION OF STRUCTURES
1) Classification by Materials
a. Adobe structures: The adobe material has
generally been used abundantly throughout
history due to its positive features such as being
easy to prepare at the building site, casting labor
being cheap, the time elapsed between pouring
into molds and using it on the wall, the ease of
drying, the fact that it does not require heavy
labor, and it can last for a long time provided that
it is protected against moisture.
Molding of adobe mortar

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CLASSIFICATION OF STRUCTURES
1) Classification by Materials
a. Adobe structures: Today, adobe has started
to be seen as a current building material
again. The reason for this is that adobe is a
natural, healthy material, it is produced
cheaply and requires almost no energy in
its production compared to brick or
concrete.

Adobe house

İstanbul Aydın University / Architecture Program / ARC127- Construction Technology-I / 2023-2024 Fall Semester / S. Burcu GÜLER

CLASSIFICATION OF STRUCTURES
1) Classification by Materials
a. Adobe structures: Its characteristics such
as locality, cheapness and environmental
compatibility are emerging as a way out of
housing construction for low-income
people in developing countries.

Adobe house

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CLASSIFICATION OF STRUCTURES
1) Classification by Materials
b. Timber (wooden) structures: These are
structures made using wood and
materials of wood origin.

In the traditional construction system,

timber structures are made in two ways:
wooden masonry and wooden frame
(carcass) walls.
Wooden houses

İstanbul Aydın University / Architecture Program / ARC127- Construction Technology-I / 2023-2024 Fall Semester / S. Burcu GÜLER

CLASSIFICATION OF STRUCTURES
1) Classification by Materials
b. Timber (wooden) structures: It has been
used as a building material in regions
with abundant forests.

In places where forest lands are scarce,

stone, soil and brick fillings were used in the
surface formations of the structures whose
carrier was wood.

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İstanbul Aydın University / Architecture Program / ARC127- Construction Technology-I / 2023-2024 Fall Semester / S. Burcu GÜLER

CLASSIFICATION OF STRUCTURES
1) Classification by Materials
c. Half-timbered structures: In timber-
framed structures, the structure obtained
by using adobe or brick as a filling material
between the skeletons is called a half-
timbered (hımış) structure.

Example of brick-filled walls

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CLASSIFICATION OF STRUCTURES
1) Classification by Materials
d. Masonry structures: The structure
formed by the formation of stone, soil
or brick material is called masonry
structure.

e. Half-masonry structures: Structures

that are part masonry and one part is
wood are called half masonry
structures.
Example of a masonry building - Hospital of Divriği (Sivas-13th
century)

İstanbul Aydın University / Architecture Program / ARC127- Construction Technology-I / 2023-2024 Fall Semester / S. Burcu GÜLER

CLASSIFICATION OF STRUCTURES
1) Classification by Materials
f. Reinforced concrete structures: Structures in
which iron-concrete is used in carrier systems
(columns and beams) are called reinforced
concrete structures.

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CLASSIFICATION OF STRUCTURES
1) Classification by Materials
g. Steel structures: These are structures in
which steel is used as a load-bearing
material.

İstanbul Aydın University / Architecture Program / ARC127- Construction Technology-I / 2023-2024 Fall Semester / S. Burcu GÜLER

CLASSIFICATION OF STRUCTURES
2) Classification by Location
Structures are divided into three according to whether they are built completely or in
large part of the earth's surface, above it or in water.

a. Infrastructure: They are structures below ground level with roads, water, sewers,
tunnels, etc.
b. Superstructures: All structures built above ground level.
c. Water structures: Structures such as dams, sewers, ports, marinas, irrigation
channels.

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CLASSIFICATION OF STRUCTURES
3) Classification by Continuity
a. Temporary structures: These are
lightweight structures such as construction
site buildings, huts, barracks that are built
to be used for a short and temporary
period and to respond to needs.
Temporary buildings are not registered in
the land registry.

İstanbul Aydın University / Architecture Program / ARC127- Construction Technology-I / 2023-2024 Fall Semester / S. Burcu GÜLER

CLASSIFICATION OF STRUCTURES
3) Classification by Continuity
b. Permanent structures: These are structures that are
made to be used indefinitely or to be used for a long
time and to respond to certain needs. Permanent
buildings are registered in the land registry.

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CLASSIFICATION OF STRUCTURES
4) Classification according to the purpose
for which they will be used
a. Residences (house, apartment, etc.) g. Commercial buildings (business inn, shop,
b. Accommodation structures (hotels, motels, etc.)
etc.) h. Industrial structures (workshops, factories,
c. Cultural buildings (schools, museums, etc.) etc.)
d. Health structures (hospitals, etc.) i. Monuments and historical buildings
e. Religious buildings (mosques, churches, (Anıtkabir etc.)
etc.) j. Transport structures (roads, bridges,
f. Social structures (cinema, theater, etc.) stations, etc.)
k. Sports structures (stadium, hippodrome,
etc.)
l. Water structures (dam, water channel, etc.)

İstanbul Aydın University / Architecture Program / ARC127- Construction Technology-I / 2023-2024 Fall Semester / S. Burcu GÜLER

CLASSIFICATION OF STRUCTURES
5) Classification by Ownership
a. Official buildings
b. Foundation structure
c. Special structures

6) Classification by Loadbearing Systems

a. Masonry constructions (yığma yapılar)
b. Carcass structures (wooden, reinforced concrete, steel)
c. Prefabricated structures

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CLASSIFICATION OF STRUCTURES
6) Classification by Loadbearing Systems
a. Masonry structures: These are the
structures made to carry the horizontal
carrier system loads such as flooring and
roofs in the building by the inner and
outer walls and transmit it to the
foundation.

Since the walls carry the entire load in such

structures, it is dangerous for the static of the
structure to change or cancel the walls in
some parts of the structure.

İstanbul Aydın University / Architecture Program / ARC127- Construction Technology-I / 2023-2024 Fall Semester / S. Burcu GÜLER

CLASSIFICATION OF STRUCTURES
6) Classification by Loadbearing Systems
a. Masonry structures: Masonry structures
are divided into two as masonry and wood
masonry.

Masonry structures are formed by stacking

materials such as adobe, stone and brick on
top of each other and supporting them with
wood, stone, brick or reinforced concrete
Example of a bonding timber (wooden line) used on a masonry
stone wall
lines. The line provides the connection on the
wall and carries the load on it and spreads it to
the wall underneath.

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CLASSIFICATION OF STRUCTURES
6) Classification by Loadbearing Systems
a. Masonry structures: The so-called log or
çantı wall is obtained by stacking
round/log or processed trees on top of
each other to form a block.

The walls, which are used as bearing elements

in wooden masonry structures, are made of
wood and materials of wood origin.

Log structure

İstanbul Aydın University / Architecture Program / ARC127- Construction Technology-I / 2023-2024 Fall Semester / S. Burcu GÜLER

CLASSIFICATION OF STRUCTURES
6) Classification by Loadbearing Systems
b. Carcass structures:
It is a system in which building loads are transferred from the foundation to the
ground with a framed structure consisting of columns, beams and slabs.

Floors and roofs transmit their own weight and the loads on them to the beams,
which are horizontal bearing elements. The beams transfer these loads to the
columns or struts, which are the vertical bearing elements. Columns also transmit
this load to the foundation.

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CLASSIFICATION OF STRUCTURES
6) Classification by Loadbearing Systems
b. Carcass structures:
Thanks to this system in the structure, gaps are formed between the columns. To
seal these gaps and divide the structure into partitions, walls are built from
perforated brick or aerated concrete blocks. In carcass structures, the walls do not
carry loads.

They are divided into three as

- timber (wooden),
- reinforced concrete and
- steel structures according to the material used.

İstanbul Aydın University / Architecture Program / ARC127- Construction Technology-I / 2023-2024 Fall Semester / S. Burcu GÜLER

CLASSIFICATION OF STRUCTURES
6) Classification by Loadbearing Systems
Timber-framed structures; horizontal and
vertical bearing elements are structures made
of wood.

Timber frame structures are formed by strut,

head (base beam), buttress (sidewalling), door
and window lower and upper heads, floor
beams and their convenient combination.

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Light frame construction

light-frame construction
([Link]
construction)

İstanbul Aydın University / Architecture Program / ARC127- Construction Technology-I / 2023-2024 Fall Semester / S. Burcu GÜLER

CLASSIFICATION OF STRUCTURES
6) Classification by Loadbearing Systems
Reinforced concrete structures are the type of
structure formed in horizontal and vertical
carrier system reinforced concrete structural
elements.

It consists of columns, beams and slabs. Loads

are transferred to the ground through these
elements.
Reinforced concrete frame building

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CLASSIFICATION OF STRUCTURES
6) Classification by Loadbearing Systems
Materials such as perforated brick, aerated
concrete, etc. are used to seal the gaps
between the columns and in the internal wall
partitions. In such structures, the walls are
not bearers.

Reinforced concrete frame building

İstanbul Aydın University / Architecture Program / ARC127- Construction Technology-I / 2023-2024 Fall Semester / S. Burcu GÜLER

CLASSIFICATION OF STRUCTURES
6) Classification by Loadbearing Systems
Steel structures are structures whose
horizontal and vertical bearing elements are
made of steel.

These elements are formed from profiles and

plates of various types and sizes by using
different joining methods such as welding,
Steel structure
bolts and rivets.

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CLASSIFICATION OF STRUCTURES
6) Classification by Loadbearing Systems
They are preferred in multi-storey structures
as they can transfer more loads than concrete
and wooden elements in the same cross -
section.

Steel structure

İstanbul Aydın University / Architecture Program / ARC127- Construction Technology-I / 2023-2024 Fall Semester / S. Burcu GÜLER

CLASSIFICATION OF STRUCTURES
6) Classification by Loadbearing Systems
Steel structures can be applied in all kinds of
purposeful structures. The dimensions of the
vertical and horizontal bearing elements used
in steel structures are determined as a result of
static calculations made in accordance with the
earthquake regulation and TS-498, taking into
account issues such as the number of floors,
heights, openings, the purpose of use of the
Steel structure
structure.

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CLASSIFICATION OF STRUCTURES
6) Classification by Loadbearing Systems
c. Prefabricated structures: Structures
formed as a result of building elements in
accordance with the individual project in
the factory environment and then
assembled at the construction site are
called prefabricated structures.
Reinforced concrete prefabricated structure
They are divided into two as light and heavy
prefabricated structures according to the
weight of the material used.

İstanbul Aydın University / Architecture Program / ARC127- Construction Technology-I / 2023-2024 Fall Semester / S. Burcu GÜLER

CLASSIFICATION OF STRUCTURES
6) Classification by Loadbearing Systems
c. Prefabricated structures:
Light prefabricated structures; unit volume
weight are prefabricated structures made of
lighter materials than concrete.

Lightweight prefabricated structure

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CLASSIFICATION OF STRUCTURES
6) Classification by Loadbearing Systems
c. Prefabricated structures:
Materials such as aerated concrete, concrete with
perlite and concrete with light aggregates are used.
Although the load carrying capacity is small, it shows
competence in heat and sound insulation. It is usually
easy to use in small houses, duplex villas.

Lightweight prefabricated structure

İstanbul Aydın University / Architecture Program / ARC127- Construction Technology-I / 2023-2024 Fall Semester / S. Burcu GÜLER

CLASSIFICATION OF STRUCTURES
6) Classification by Loadbearing Systems
c. Prefabricated structures:
Heavy prefabricated structures are
prefabricated structures whose bearing
elements are made of reinforced concrete or
steel. After it is done as desired in the
workshops, it is fulfilled and assembled.
Heavy prefabricated structure

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CLASSIFICATION OF STRUCTURES
7) Classification by Construction Stages
a. Rough construction: The group of works that covers foundation, wall, column,
beam, flooring, etc. in a structure is called rough construction.

b. Fine construction: The applications that come after the rough structure in a
structure and cover the rough structure such as plaster, paint, whitewash,
insulation, clean and dirty water installation, etc. are called fine construction.

İstanbul Aydın University / Architecture Program / ARC127- Construction Technology-I / 2023-2024 Fall Semester / S. Burcu GÜLER

CLASSIFICATION OF STRUCTURES
8) Classification According to the Elements That Make Up the Structure

a. Load-bearing elements b. Complementary elements

(rough structure): (fine structure):
 Foundations,  Door and window joinery,
 Slabs,  Flooring, wall, roof, stair coverings,
 Columns (pillars),  Staircase, balcony, terrace railings,
 Beams,  Water, moisture, sound and heat
 Lintels, insulations,
 Stairs,  Paints and whitewashes, etc.
 Roofs etc.

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CLASSIFICATION OF STRUCTURES
8) Classification According to the Elements That Make Up the Structure
c. Installations:
 Hot, cold and dirty water installations,
 Electrical installation,
 Heating installation (central heating system),
 Ventilation installation,
 Air conditioning installation (air conditioning),
 Elevator installation,
 Sewer installation,
 Telephone installation, etc.

İstanbul Aydın University / Architecture Program / ARC127- Construction Technology-I / 2023-2024 Fall Semester / S. Burcu GÜLER

References
1. Greeno R., Osbourn D., Mitchell’s Introduction to Building, 5th edition, Routledge, 2013. 25. [Link]
2. Türkçü Ç, Çağdaş Taşıyıcı Sistemler, Birsen Yayınevi, İstanbul, 2009. 26. [Link]
3. Açıkel D. A., Altın M., Dorum A., Yapı Teknolojisi, Nobel Akademik Yayıncılık, 2016. 27. [Link]
4. Güner M. S., Yüksel A., Yapı Teknolojisi I-II, Aktif Yayınevi, 2001. 28. [Link]
5. Özcan K., Yapı, Bilim Yayınları, 2002, Ankara. 29. [Link]
6. Oymael S., Yapı Bilgisi-II, Birsen Yayınevi, İstanbul, 2015. 30. [Link]
7. Tayla H., Geleneksel Türk Mimarisinde Yapı Sistem ve Elemanları II, Taç Vakfı Yayınları, 2007. (erişim tarihi: 01.09.2019)
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ISBS , 28-30 May 2015, Ankara. (erişim tarihi: 01.09.2019)
9. KUDEB Ahşap Eğitim Atölyesi, Geleneksel Ahşap Yapı Uygulamaları, 2009. 32. [Link]
10. Ergün A., Çavdar E., Geleneksel Balıkesir Dursunbey Evleri’nde Yapım Teknolojileri ve 33. [Link]
Malzeme Kullanımı, BAÜ FBE Dergisi, Cilt: 12(2), 1-11, 2010. 34. [Link]
11. Arslan S., Sorguc A. G., Similarities between “structures in nature” and “man-made 35. [Link]
structures”: biomimesis in architecture, Design and Nature II, M. W. Collins & C. A. Brebbia 36. [Link]
(Editors), 2004, ISBN 1-85312-721-3.
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17. Yüksek İ., Geleneksel Anadolu Mimarlığında Ekolojik Uygulamalar Üzerine Bir Araştırma
(Kırklareli Kırsal Alan Örneği), TÜ FBE Dr. Tezi, Edirne, 2008. 43. [Link]
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