DESIGN OF BUSINESS JET WITH MORPHING WINGS

ASB4433 - DESIGN PROJECT-2 REPORT

Submitted by

DIVYA R (19103037)
LAURA MERIN D (19103031)
SI DHANIYALAKSHMI (19103025)

In partial fulfilment for the award of the degree

Of

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY

In

AEROSPACE ENGINEERING

(DEEMED TO BE UNIVERISTY)
SCHOOL OF AERONAUTICAL SCIENCES
HINDUSTAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND SCIENCE
PADUR, CHENNAI - 603 103

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 (DEEMED TO BE UNIVERISTY)

BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE

Certified that this project report titled “DESIGN OF BUSINESS JET WITH MORPHING
WINGS” is the bonafide work of “DIVYA R (19103037), LAURA MERIN D (19103031),
SI DHANIYALAKSHMI (19103025)” who carried out the project work under my
supervision. Certified further that to the best of my knowledge the work reported here does
not form part of any other project / research work on the basis of which a degree or award was
conferred on an earlier occasion on this or any other candidate.

Dr. [Link] Dr. T Thillaikumar

Professor and HOD Assistant Professor
B. Tech Aerospace engineering School of Aeronautical Sciences
HITS, Chennai 603 103 HITS, Chennai 603 103

INTERNAL EXAMINER EXTERNAL EXAMINER

The Project Viva-Voce Examination is held on

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We would like to place on record our sincere thanks to all those who contributed to the
successful completion of our final year project work.
It’s a matter of pride and privilege for us to express our deep gratitude to the management of
Hindustan Institute of Technology and Science for providing us with the necessary facilities
and support.
We express our deep sense of gratitude to our respected Chairperson Dr. Elizabeth Verghese
and Pro-Chancellor Dr. Anand Jacob Verghese for giving us an opportunity to do the project.
We would like to thank our Director Dr. Ashok Verghese and Vice Chancellor
Dr. S. N. Sridhara for giving us moral support to complete this project.
We would like to express our grateful thanks to Dean (E&T) Dr. Angelina Geetha and
Registrar Dr. Pon. Ramalingam for support and encouragement.
We extend our sincere thanks to our Dean Dr. R Asokan and head of the department Dr.
[Link] for inspiring and motivating us to complete this project.
We would like to thank our internal guide Mr. J. Jensin Joshua (S.S) and
[Link](S.G), for continually guiding and actively participating in our project,
giving valuable suggestion to complete our project.
We would like to thank all the faculty members of the School of Aeronautical Sciences, who
have directly or indirectly extended their support.
Last, but not least, we are deeply indebted to our parents who have been our greatest support
while we worked day and night for the project to make it a success.

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 Abstract

The modern jet transport is considered as one of the finest integration of

technologies. Its economic success depends on performance, low maintenance costs and high
passenger appeal and design plays a vital role in summing up all these factors. Conceptual
design is the first step to design of an aircraft. In this paper a business jet aircraft is designed
to carry 4 passengers and to cover a range of 5800 km with maximum Mach No of 0.78 and
with maximum ceiling of 14000m. The conceptual design consisted of initial sizing,
aerodynamics and performance analysis. Through trade studies and comparison with other
business jet aircrafts a final model of the aircraft was built to achieve the requirements.
The aim of this project is to design and conceptualize a corporate/business jet that can cater to
a wide range of clientele ranging from business conglomerates to private organizations and
individual parties. Business jet, private jet or, colloquially bizjet is a term describing a jet
aircraft, usually of smaller size, designed for transporting groups of business people or
wealthy individuals. The project involves the design of a business jet that can accommodate
about 4 passengers at full seating layout, providing the amenities and level of comfort that a
business jet is expected to provide while incorporating the design specifications and
performance parameters of a long-range commercial airliner. The aircraft allows for long
range transport with better efficiency and reduced fuel consumption and noise levels owing to
a state-of-the-art engine and design features.
Aircraft flight performance can be increased by optimizing the wing design. However fixed
wing design has disadvantages since the aircraft's wing unable the to achieve maximum flight
performance in all flight condition. Thus, the wing shape demanded to evolve or change with
view to adapt with different flight condition. This method recently known as morphing wing.
Morphing wing surfaces change its geometry during flight with view to improve the
aerodynamics performances of aircraft. The concept is inspired from bird flight which able to
change its wing depends on different situation. Such wing will enable the aircraft to
accommodate multiple flight regimes and obtain better flight performance. The method offers
simpler mechanism to replace those active control devices implementation on actual aircraft
design.

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An efficient mission profile which comes as a result of a well-engineered aircraft is expected
in the market. The input to the concept Mission profile is a flight profile of the aircraft
defined by the customer. Wing profile and vertical tail configurations have direct impact on
lift, drag, stability, performance and manoeuvrability of the aircraft. A propulsion system
directly influences the performance of the aircraft. By combining the wing profile and the
propulsion system, two important parameters, known as wing loading and thrust to weight
ratio can be calculated. In this work, conceptual design procedure given by Jan Roskam is
applied to calculate wing loading and thrust to weight ratio.
Keywords: Luxurious, Business conglomerate, Long range, Private, Mission profile,
Manoeuvrability, Wing loading, Thrust – Weight ratio, Morphing wings, Lift
characteristics, Bizjet.

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 Table of Contents

CHAPTER
TITLE PAGE
NO NO
ABSTRACT iv

LIST OF TABLES viii

LIST OF FIGURES & GRAPHS ix
LIST OF SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATION xiv

01. DP-1 SUMMARY 1

02. SCHRENKS CURVE 11

03. LOAD ESTIMATION OF WING 16

04. DESIGN OF WING 18

05. STATIC STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS OF WING 21

06. FLOW ANALYSIS OVER A WING 25

07. LOAD ESTIMATION OF FUSELAGE 29

08. DESIGN OF FUSELAGE 31

09. FLOW ANALYSIS OVER A FUSELAGE 35

10. LANDING GEAR DESIGN 39

11. STATIC STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS OF LANDING GEAR 41

12. TYRE ANALYSIS 44

13. MATERIAL SELECTION 47

14. V-n DIAGRAM 51

15. 3 VIEW DIAGRAM 57

16. FABRICATION 59

CONCLUSION 61

REFERENCE 62

AUTHOR NOTES 64

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 List of Tables

TABLE TITLE PAGE

NO. NO.
1.1 The parameters taken from DP 1 3
1.2 Weight estimation 4
1.3 Selected aerofoil parameters 6
1.4 Selected wing parameters 7
1.5 Engine performance 10
4.1 Design specification of wing 18
5.1 Displacement values 24
8.1 Design specification of fuselage 31
10.1 Design specification of landing gear 39
12.1 Statistical tyre sizing 45
12.2 Recommended tyre pressure 45
13.1 Material used 48
Basic strength and flight performance limits of various
14.1 52
Aircrafts

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 List of Figures

FIGURE CONTENTS PAGE

NO.
1.1 Morphing wing 4
1.2 Side view 4
1.3 Top view 5
1.4 Segmented parts 5
1.5 Leading edge 5
1.6 Flexible spokes 5
1.7 Trailing edge 5
1.8 Servo holder 5
1.9 Segmented parts 5
1.10 Morphing with assembly 5

1.11 NACA 0015 6

1.12 Pressure distribution in airfoil 7

1.13 Pressure distribution in airfoil with vectors 8

1.14 Engine performance data 9
2.1 Linear variable graph 13
2.2 Elliptical variable graph 14
2.3 Schrenk’s curve 15
4.1 Wing 19
4.2 Wing 19
4.3 Wing 20
4.4 Final wing design 20
5.1 Wing 22
5.2 Wing 22
5.3 Forces in the wing 22
5.4 Morphing upwards 23
5.5 Morphing downwards 23
6.1 Mesh and wing enclosure 26
6.2 Pressure contour for the wing 27

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6.3 Velocity contour for the wing 27
6.4 Turbulence contour for the wing 28
8.1 Design of engine mount 32
8.2 Design of engine mount and bulkheads 32
8.3 Design of bulkheads and stringes 32
8.4 Design of final fuselage with structural members 33
8.5 Design of final fuselage 33
9.1 Meshing and meshing domain of fuselage with cuboid 37
9.2 Velocity contour 37
9.3 Pressure contour 37
9.4 Velocity contour with velocity streamline 38
9.5 Pressure contour with streamline 38
10.1 Single suspension landing gear 39
10.2 Front view 40
10.3 Side view 40
11.1 Single suspension landing gear sketching 42
11.2 Single suspension landing gear with structural mesh 42
11.3 Displacement on landing gear 43
12.1 Tire contact area 44
13.1 Weight percentage of overall material used 50
14.1 V-n diagram 56
14.2 Gust V-n diagram 56
15.1 Side view of aircraft 57
15.2 Front view of aircraft 57
15.3 Top view of aircraft 58
15.4 Isometric view of aircraft 58
16.1 Model design 59
16.2 Flexible part 59
16.3 Leading edge 60
16.4 Model in CURA 60
16.5 3-D printing model of leading edge 60

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 Symbols and Abbreviation

• A.R - Aspect Ratio

• B - Wing span(m)
• C - Chord of the Aerofoil (m)
• CRoot - Chord at Root (m)
• CTip - Chord at Tip (m)
• Cd - Drag Co-efficient
• CD,0 - Zero lift Drag co-efficient
• CP - Specific fuel consumption (lbs / hp / hr)
• CL - Lift Co-efficient
• D - Drag(N)
• E - Endurance (hr)
• e - Oswald efficiency factor
• L - Lift (N)
• (L/D)Loiter - Lift-to-drag ratio at loiter
• (L/D)Cruise - Lift-to-drag ratio at cruise
• M - Mach number of aircraft
• MFF - Mission fuel fraction
• R - Range (km)
• Re - Reynolds number
• S - Wing area (m2)
• SRef - Reference surface area
• SWet - Wetted surface area
• Sa - Approach distance (m)
• Sf - Flare distance (m)
• Sfr - Freeroll distance (m)
• S.C - Service ceiling
• A.C - Absolute ceiling
• T - Thrust (N)
• TCruise - Thrust at cruise (N)
• TTake-off - Thrust at take-off (N)

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• (T/W)Loiter - The thrust-to-weight ratio at Loiter
• (T/W)Cruise - The thrust-to-weight ratio at cruise
• (T/W)Take-off - The thrust-to-weight ratio at take-off
• VCruise - velocity at cruise (m/s)
• VStall - velocity at stall (m/s)
• Vt - Velocity at touch down (m/s)
• WCrew - Crew weight (kg)
• Wempty - Empty weight of the aircraft (kg)
• WFuel - Weight of fuel (kg)
• WPayload - Payload of the aircraft (kg)
• W0 - Overall weight (kg)
• W/S - Wing loading (kg/m2)
• ρ - Density of air (kg/m3)
• μ - Dynamic viscosity (Ns/m2)
• λ - Tapered ratio
• R/C - Rate of Climb
• η - Kinematic viscosity (m2/s)

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 CHAPTER 01

DP-1 SUMMARY

1.1 INTRODUCTION

A mid-size 4 seater aircraft with turbofan engine has been chosen. We have also studied
similar aircrafts such as the Cessna Citation X, Dassault Falcon, Legacy 650, Bombardier
Global Express, Hawker 400 to collect data.
This business jet aircraft is designed to carry 4 passengers and to cover a range of 5800 km
with maximum Mach No of 0.78 and with maximum ceiling of 14000m.
The conceptual design consisted of initial sizing, aerodynamics and performance analysis.
Aircraft flight performance can be increased by optimizing the wing design. However fixed
wing design has disadvantages since the aircraft's wing unable the to achieve maximum flight
performance in all flight condition.
the wing shape demanded to evolve or change with view to adapt with different flight
condition. This method recently known as morphing wing. Morphing wing surfaces change
its geometry during flight with view to improve the aerodynamics performances of aircraft.

Modern aircraft are a complex combination of aerodynamics performance, lightweight

durable structures, and advanced systems engineering. Air passengers demand more comfort
and more environmentally friendly aircraft. Hence many technical challenges need to be
balanced for an aircraft to economically achieve its design specification. Aircraft design is a
complex and laborious undertaking with a few factors and details that are required to be
checked to obtain optimum the final envisioned product.
The design process begins from scratch and involves a number of calculations, logistic
planning, design and real-worlds considerations, logistic head to meet any hurdle head on.
Every airplane goes through many changes in design before it is finally built in a factory. These
steps between first ideas for an airplane and the time when it is flown make up the design
process. Along the way, engineers think about four main areas of aeronautics there are
aerodynamics, propulsions, structures and materials and stability and control.

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 Types of aircraft:

1. Narrow body aircraft

The most common airliners are the narrow-body aircraft, or single-aisles. The
earliest jet airliner were narrowbodies: the initial de Havilland Comet, the
Boeing707 and its competitor the Douglas DC-8. Currently produced narrow-body
airliners include the Airbus A220 and A320 family, Boeing 737 and Embraer E-
Jet family, generally used for medium- haul flights.

2. Wide body aircraft

The larger wide-body aircraft, or twin-aisle as they have two separate aisles in the
cabin, are used for long-haul flights. The first was the Boeing 747 quad jet,
followed by the trijets: the Lockheed L-1011 and the Douglass DC-10, then its
MD-11 stretch. Other quad jets were introduced: the Ilyushin Il-86 and Il-96, the
Airbus A340 and the double-deck A380. Twinjets were also put into service: the
Airbus A300/A310, A330 and A350; the 767, 777 and 787 240 passengers.

3. Regional aircraft
Regional airliners seat fewer than 100 passengers. These smaller aircraft are often
used to feed traffic at large airline hubs to large aircraft operated by the major
mainline carriers, legacy carriers, or flag carriers; often sharing the same livery.
Regional jets include the Bombardier CRJ100/200 and Bombardier CEJ700 series,
or the Embraer ERJ family. Currently produced turboprop regional airliners
include the Dash-8 series.

What is an Airlift?
An airlift is the organized delivery of supplies or personnel primarily via aircraft.
Airlifting consists of two distinct types, strategic and tactical airlifting. Typically,
strategic airlifting involves moving material long distances (such as across or off
the continent or theatre), whereas a tactical airlift focuses on deploying resources
and material into a specific location with high precision.

Depending on the situation, airlifted supplies can be delivered by a variety

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1.2 TENTATIVE DESIGN PARAMETERS

Parameters Taken from ADP 1:

Table 1.1 Parameters taken from DP-1

PARAMETERS VALUES

Crew 2

Length 20m

Height 5.5m

Wing span 17.5 m

Wing Area 38 m2

Wing Chord 2.1 m

Aspect Ratio 8

Empty Weight 5500 kg

MAX. Take-Off Weight 10000 kg

Range 5800 km

Rate of Climb 14 m/s

Max speed 0.78 Mach

Maximum altitude 14000 m

Cruising speed 850 Km/hr

Wing Loading 420 kg/m^2

Type of Engine Rolls-Royce AE 3007C2

No. of Engine 2

Total Thrust 31.29kN

Engine weight 740 x 2 Kg

Fuel weight 4124.99

Root chord 2.55 m

Tip chord 1.79 m

Mean aerodynamic chord 2.19 m

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 lift coefficient 1.4

The following steps are involved in weight estimation of the designed Aircraft:

The weight estimation for the aircraft has been calculated

The weight estimation has been done with an error percentage of 1.5% which ensures the
accuracy of the calculations done.
Table 1.2 Weight Estimation

1.3 Morphing of Aircraft Wings

Morphing of Aircraft Wings

Fig 1.1 Morphing wing Fig1.2 Side view

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 Fig 1.3 Top view Fig 1.4 Segmented parts

Fig 1.5 Leading edge Fig 1.6 Flexible spokes

Fig 1.7 Trailing edge Fig 1.8 Servo holder

Fig 1.9 Segmented parts Fig 1.10 Morphing with assembly 0

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A symmetric wing has been designed with trailing edge shape morphing having the ability to
change to an under cambered airfoil. It can also act as a controlling surface as well as a hyper
lift mechanism.
The prototype is a model of 3D printed using flexible PLA and normal PLA. As by the name,
the wing ribs are replaced with spokes that allows the wing to change its shape, as well as
retain its structural strength.
All of the spokes in the middle of the wing are exactly angled parallel to the lift force at that
specific point.

1.4 Airfoil selection

Fig 1.11 NACA 0015

The NACA 0015 airfoil has been selected for the aircraft.
The NACA 0015 airfoil is symmetrical, the 00 indicating that it has no camber. The 15
indicates that the airfoil has a 15% thickness to chord length ratio: it is 15% as thick as it is
long.

The following is the selected airfoil parameters:

Table 1.3 Selected Aerofoil parameters

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Selected wing parameters:
Table 1.4 Selected wing parameters

1.5 LIFT AND PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION

Fig 1.12 Pressure distribution in airfoil

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 Fig 1.13 Pressure Distribution in Airfoil with Vectors

1.6 FUSELAGE
The Semi-Monocoque fuselage is constructed for the following advantages
The bulkheads, frames, stringers, and longerons facilitate the design and construction of a
streamlined fuselage that is both rigid and strong.
The Semi-Monocoque structure is less in weight compared to Truss structures.
Spreading loads among these structures and the skin means no single piece is failure critical.
The total length of the plane’s cockpit and fuselage will amount to 8.9 meters and a width of
1.83 meters at any point of the fuselage. The height within the cabin will be 1.8 meters.

1.7 Tail selection - T Tail

In T tail, the horizontal stabilizer is mounted on top of the fin, creating a "T" shape when
viewed from the front.
T-tails keep the stabilizers out of the engine wake, and give better pitch control
T-tails have a good glide ratio, and are more efficient on low speed aircraft.
The T – Tail empennage is selected for the aircraft due to the following advantages:
It gives better pitch control; smoother and faster airflow over elevators.
It has high aerodynamic performance and effective glider ratio.

1.8 LANDING GEAR

The Retractable landing gear is implemented in the aircraft due to the following reasons,

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There will be less drag during cruise as the landing gear will be retracted.
It helps in higher cruise speeds and increased climb performance.
The most commonly used landing gear arrangement is the tricycle-type landing gear.
Tail-gear landing gear has two main wheels forward of the aircraft cg and a small wheel
under the tail.
Tricycle-type landing gear is used on large and small aircraft.
The Tricycle landing gear configuration is implemented for the following reasons:
It allows more forceful application of the brakes without nosing over when braking, which
enables higher landing speeds.
It provides the advantage of giving more vision to the pilot.

1.9 Engine selection – Turbofan

A Turbofan engine is the most modern variation of the basic gas turbine engine.
In the turbofan engine, the core engine is surrounded by a fan in the front and an additional
turbine at the rear.
The fan and fan turbine are composed of many blades, like the core compressor and core
turbine, and are connected to an additional shaft.
Our airplane will be equipped with a turbofan engine. When compared to other engines, it has
the following advantages:
At lesser airspeeds, it can attain higher speeds.
It necessitates a shorter take-off runway.
It is mostly used to minimise noise in commercial aircraft.
We have chosen the engine Rolls-Royce AE 3007C2 turbofan

Fig 1.14 Engine Performance Data

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 Table 1.5 Engine performance

1.10 PERFORMANCE
The performance is determined by calculating the following,
1. Rate of climb
2. Gliding angle
3. Take-off distance
4. Landing performance

The current goals of the project include the following:

Preliminary design of the aircraft wing – Shrenck’s Curve, Structural Load Distribution,
Shear force, Bending Moment and Torque Diagrams

1)Detailed design of an aircraft wing – Design of Spars and Stringers, Bending Stress and
2)Shear flow Calculations, Buckling analysis of fuselage panels.
3)Preliminary Design of an aircraft fuselage – Load Distribution on an aircraft fuselage
4)Design of Wing-root attachment
5) Landing gear design
6) Preparation of a detailed design report with CAD drawings.
7) Fabrication- 3D printing with flexible PLA material of the morphing wing.

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 CHAPTER 02
SCHRENKS CURVE

2.1 WING DESCRIPTION

Lift distribution over a wing can be determined using Schrenk's method. The
equation for the lift distribution is formed by taking semi span on the X axis and the lift
distribution along Y axis. The Schrenks curve is used to approximate the lift distribution
along the span of the wing.
Schrenk’s curve is given by

Where,
Y1 is Linear Variation of lift along semi wing span also named as L1,
Y2 is Elliptic Lift Distribution along the wing span also named as L2.

According to schrenk’s, the actual lift distribution on an aircraft wing is the average of two
types of lift distribution.

2.2 LINEAR LIFT DISTRIBUTION

S=bxc
Where, b – Span length, c – mean aerodynamic chord

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2.3 KNOWN PARAMETERS:
Weight of the aircraft = 5505.25 kg
Load factor = 1
Lift coefficient CL = 1.4
Wing Area, Sw = 38 m2
Aspect Ratio, (AR)= 8
Span (b) = 17.5 m
Taper ratio: 0.7
Root chord: 2.55
Tip chord=1.79
Mean chord= 2.19

2.4 Free stream conditions:

Free stream density =1.225 kg/m3
Free stream velocity = 57.21 m/s
To find the lift at root section of the wing:
L’cr = ½ x P x V2 x Cr x CL
= 7156.788 N
L’ct= ½ x P x V2 x Cr x CL
=5023.785 N

Slope of the lift curve:

Slope (m) = L’cr - L’ct / 0- 8.75
= 243.772

Substituting the slope value into linear equation:

Y=mx+c
= - (243.772) + L’cr

= 6913.016

x 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 8.75

L 7156.688 6913.016 6669.244 6425.472 6181.7 5937.928 5694.156 5450.384 5206.612 5023.783

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 Figure2.1 Linear variable graph

2.5 ELLIPTICAL LIFT DISTRIBUTION

Twice the area under the curve or line will give the lift which will be required to overcome
weight
L= n.W

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B = 2nw/3.141 a

2.6 EQUATION OF ELLIPTICAL LIFT DISTRIBUTION:

x 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 8.75

L 7137.417 7090.65 6948.4692 6704.8 6347.97 5857.334 5195.117 4282.45 2891.1528 2511.8915

Figure2.2 Elliptical variable graph

2.7 CONSTRUCTION OF SHRENK’S CURVE

Schrenk’s curve is given by

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Y = (-243.772x + 7156.788 + 815.7048 [Equation]) / 2
x 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 8.75

L 7147.1025 7001.834 6808.857 6565.136 6264.835 5897.631 5444.637 4866.417 4048.882 2511.8915

Figure 2.3 Schrenk’s curve

Linear variable graph, Elliptical variable, Schrenk’s curve graph

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 CHAPTER 03
LOAD ESTIMATION ON WING

3.1 The weight of the wing in an aircraft is due to the following factors
1. Lift force:
2. Self weight of the wing
3. Weight of the fuel
4. Weight of the power plant
5. Weight of Accessories

3.2 LIFT FORCE:

Where, ρ is the density at sea level

V = 0.7 * 1.2 * V Stall
CL is the Maximum Coefficient of lift
V = 0.7 * 1.2 * 54.8
V = 46.07 m/s

L= 69159.87 N

3.3 SELF – WEIGHT OF THE WING

Wwing = 0.75 x Wtake-off

Wwing = 0.75 x 10000
Wwing = 7500 Kg
3.4 FUEL
The weight of the fuel, Wf is calculated using the following formula, Wf = (Wused + Wres)
Where, Wused = (1 - Mff) * WTo Guess
Wres = 10-25% of Wused
• Wused = (1 – 0.6283) * 22046.23

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 • Wused = 8267.33 lbs.
• Wres = 10% of Wused
• Wres = 8267.733 lbs.
• Wf = (Wused + Wres)
• Wf = 8267.733 + 8267.733

3.5 WEIGHT OF THE FUEL Wf = 9094.063 lbs.

• Wf = 4124.99 kg

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 CHAPTER 04

DESIGN OF WING

4.1 DESIGN SPECIFICATION

Table 4.1 Design specification of wing

Designing software used Solid works

Developer Dassault Systems

Version Solid works 2018
Number of ribs 15

Number of spars 3
Material Assumed Aluminium 7075
Aerofoil coordinates Imported from aerofoil tools
Tools used • Curves through xyz points

• Reference geometry

• Convert entities

• Line

• Circle

• Spline

• Rectangle

• Extrude boss/base

• Boundary boss/base

4.2 3D DIAGRAM OF WING

The isometric view of wing without skin, top view, side view of wing with skin
is shown in the Fig 5.1, 5.2,5.3, 5.4 5.5 respectively.

In Fig 5.1 the rib design is taken from the airfoil coordinates and later they
extruded to form a rib. The structural members namely spar and stringers are
draw and later connect in all planes by using loft command in Fig 5.2. Later
using same loft command, the skin over the wing is done.

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 Figure 4.1Wing

The aerofoil coordinates are inserted using XYZ command & then the points are
converted into entities using the command convert entity, Then the entity is
extruded using extrude command.

Figure 4.2 Wing

15 separate ribs are created, over each rib a C section and I section shape is
drawn using sketch command, later using loft command these C section & I
section beams are made into physical shapes.

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 Figure 4.3 Wing

Figure 4.4
Final Wing Design.

4.3 SUMMARY:

The rib design is taken from the airfoil coordinates and later they extruded to
form a rib. The structural members namely spar and stringers are draw and later
connect in all planes by using loft command. Later using same loft command the
skin over the wing is done.

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 CHAPTER 05

STATIC STRUCTURE ANALYSIS OF WING

5.1 DESIGN OF THE WING

The Structural analysis of wing is done in Solid works structural analysis

software. However, the design was done in Solid works and converted as .iges
file and the parameters were set across the reference frame. The design of the
wing to be analyzed is already shown in the Chapter 5 “Design of wing”

5.2 MESH SETTING

Solid works structural analysis is a software tool for the analysis of any
mechanical component, it uses Finite Element Method. The FEM consists of 4
steps namely., Discretization, Applying constraints, Processing and Post
processing. The Discretization is the process of dividing up the model into
elements consisting of nodes. The processing phase solves equations for these
nodes and obtains results. Meshing is the Discretization. It is most important
part of an analysis and can determine the efficiency and effectiveness of an
analysis. Therefore, a lot of time is given to meshing of complex models. So,
meshing is the core of Finite element analysis. The mesh setting used for this
analysis is listed below.

✓ Structured meshing Technique was used. ü

Adaptive sizing was switched ON.
✓ The nodes were less than 32000.

5.3 BOUNDARY CONDITIONS

✓ The entire wing was assumed to be made using Aluminium

alloy. ü Fixed support was given at the root.
✓ The force of 100 KN was applied on the upper surface of the
wing. The force is applied as UDL and it is acting on negative
y axis.

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 With these boundary conditions, Displacement in x axis and y axis,
Equivalent elastic strain, Equivalent stress and strain energy is computed.
The results are discussed below.

Fig 5.1 WING

Wing structure consist of C section & I section.

Fig 5.2 WING

Wing structure consist of C section & I section is chosen to test, AL 6065 is

chosen as the material for the wing and the data are obtained from engineering
date.

Fig 5.3 FORCES IN THE WING

Wing structure location where fixture is added is marked by green arrow wing
structure where purple arrow mention force acting & green arrow mentioning
fixture.

The Structural test is done on the morphing part of the wing.

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 MORPHING UPWARDS:

Fig 5.4 MORPHING UPWARDS

It has been observed that in the test subject with the material AL 6065 that when load is acted
there is a max deformation of 5mm in the wing tip.

MORPHING DOWNWARDS:

Fig 5.5 MORPHING DOWNWARDS

It has been observed that in the test subject with the material AL 6065 that when load is acted there
is a max deformation of -5mm in the wing tip

5.4 SUMMARY:
A wing consists of 2 main structural members namely C & I section beams
are taken into the testing of displacement in wing. It shows where the
fixture of the wing is placed & in where are the loads acting in the wing

23
It shows where the displacement happens in the wing. It has been clearly
observed that the deforming is max in the wing tip and the displacement values
are noted

The displacement in Y axis is computed and tabulated below.

Table 5.1 Displacement values

Minimum Displacement -5 mm
Maximum Displacement 5 mm

24
 CHAPTER 06

FLOW ANALYSIS OVER A WING

6.1 DESIGN OF THE WING

The CFD analysis of wing is done in 3D mesh in the ANSYS Inc Student version
software. However, the design was done in Solid works and converted as .iges file
and the parameters were set across the reference frame. The design of the wing to be
analyzed is already shown in the chapter 4 “Design of wing” The wing is enclosed in
a cuboids of arbitrary length.

6.2 MESH SETTING

Ansys is a software tool for the analysis of any mechanical component, it uses Finite
Element Method. The Discretization is the process of dividing up the model into
elements consisting of nodes. The processing phase solves equations for these nodes
and obtains results. Meshing is the Discretization. It is most important part of an
analysis and can determine the efficiency and effectiveness of an analysis. Therefore,
a lot of time is given to meshing of complex models. So, meshing is the core of Finite
element analysis. The mesh setting used for this analysis is listed below.

✓ Structured meshing Technique was used. ü Adaptive

sizing was switched ON. ü The element size was
3000 mm. ü The nodes were less than 500000.
✓ The named selection option was used to give names
for the inlet, outlet, wing and the other walls.

6.3 BOUNDARY CONDITIONS

The boundary condition is very important to do the analysis. The list of boundary
condition used for this analysis is given below.

✓ Double Precision was switched ON.

25
 ✓ The analysis was pressure based with absolute velocity formulation and
transient time condition. ü The energy and Viscous model were switched
ON and standard k-e (turbulent flow) was assumed.
✓ The inlet was assumed to be velocity inlet and the velocity was given as
92.5m/s. ü The outlet was assumed to be pressure outlet.
✓ The wing was assumed to be a wall.

✓ The scheme was coupled. The Pressure, Density, Momentum and

Energy used second order upwind method whereas; the Turbulent K.E
and turbulent displacement used first order upwind method.
✓ The reference was taken from the inlet.

✓ Standard initialization was done.

6.4 PRESSURE AND VELOCITY CONTOURS

Around 1000 iterations were carried out to achieve the calculated result from the
software. The pressure is less at the upstream of the wing and comparatively high at
the downstream of wing. A uniform stream line is observed without any flow
disturbance. The velocity increases at the upstream of the wing and comparatively
decreases at the downstream of the wing. The contours of pressure, velocity and
velocity streamline are shown in the Fig 6.1, 6.2 and 6.3 respectively.

Fig 6.1 Wing

Mesh and wing enclosure in cuboids shape with length of enclosure is 2x the length of
wing.

26
 Fig 6.2 Wing

Pressure contour for the wing has been found out & It has been observed there is a
pressure difference in leading edge & trailing edge of the wing so there is a generation of
lift.

Fig 6.3 Wing

Velocity contour for the wing has been found out & it has been observed that the
flow of air around the wind doesn’t create any disturbances in the performance of
wing

27
 Fig 6.4: Turbulence contour of wing.

6.5 SUMMARY:

It explains about the mesh and enclosure over the test subject, in this testing a cuboidal
domain as selected with length of enclosure as 2x the length of wing, the wing is assumed a
wall in the test, It shows a clear change in pressure over the wing surface which explain the
property of wing during flow of air. It explains about the turbulence property over the wing &
it is observed that there is little turbulence generated over the trailing edge.

28
 CHAPTER 07
LOAD ESTIMATION OF FUSELGE

The weight of the fuselage due to

• Self-weight of the fuselage

• Weight of the power plant
• Weight of the crew and payload
• Weight of fuselage accessories

7 .1 SELF WEIGHT OF FUSELAGE

ρ = 0.228 Kg/m3
V =46.07m/s
S = 10 m2
CL = 0.8
Therefore
W = 7355.55 Kg
WEIGHT OF THE POWERPLANT
Wengine = Weight of single engine x no. of engines
= 744.4 x 2
= 1488.8 Kg

7.2 PAYLOAD WEIGHT

The following is the calculation for the maximum payload weight of the
aircraft. Considering the maximum weight of 1 passenger as 175 lbs and maximum
allowable baggage weight for each passenger as 30 lbs,
For 4 passengers along with baggage, Wpl = (Wpassenger + WBaggage) * (No. of passengers)

1. Wpl = (175 * 4) + (4 * 30)

29
 2. Wpl = 700 + 120
3. Wpl=820lbs.(371.946 kg)

7.3 CREW WEIGHT

The following is the calculation for the maximum weight of the crew in the
aircraft. Considering the maximum weight of 1 crew member as 175 lbs and maximum
allowable baggage weight for each crew member as 30 lbs. For 2 crew members along with
their baggage,
Wcr = (Wcrew + WBaggage) * (No. of crew members)
Wcr = (175 + 30) * 2
Wcr = 205*2
Wcr=410lbs.(185.973kg)

30
 CHAPTER 08

DESIGN OF FUSELAGE

8.1 DESIGN SPECIFICATION

Table 8.1 Design specification of fuselage

Designing software used Solid works

Developer Dassault Systems

Version Solid works 2018

Number of Former 10

Number of stringers 5

Number of bulkheads 5

Material Assumed Aluminium 7075

Tools used • Curves through xyz points

• Reference geometry

• Convert entities

• Line

• Circle

• Spline

• Rectangle

• Extrude boss/base

• Boundary boss/base

31
8.2 3D DIAGRAM OF FUSELAGE
The isometric view of fuselage without skin, front view, top view, left side
view, right side view and isometric view of fuselage with skin is shown in the
Figure 8.1, 8.2, 8.3, 8.4, 8.5, 8.6 respectively.

Fig 8.1 Design of engine mount.

Fig 8.2 Fuselage

Design of engine mount & Bulk heads are draw in 5 individual planes &
later made into a structural component using loft command.

Fig 8.3Fuselage

Design of Bulk heads & stringers are draw in 5 individual planes & later made
into a structural component using loft command.

32
 Fig 8.4 Design of final fuselage with structural members.

Fig 8.5 Design of final fuselage.

8.3 SUMMARY:

It explains how the initial design process for fuselage is beginning. The bulkhead
design has been added in the design of fuselage and later in which the bulkheads are
connected via stringers. The skin is added over the structural members via loft
command.

The main load in the case of fuselage is the shear load because the load acting on
the wing is transferred to the fuselage skin in the form of shear only. The structural
design of both wing and fuselage begin with shear force and bending moment diagrams
for the respective members. The maximum bending stress produced in each of them is

33
checked to be less than the yield stress of the material chosen for the respective
member.

The fuselage is sized such that the various control and stabilization surfaces are located such
that the aircraft is stable in flight. The intended payload is adequately and efficiently housed.
Design of Bulkheads & stringers are drawn in 5 individual planes & later made into a
structural component using loft command. The design of final fuselage with structural
members. Thus the design of the fuselage has been drawn using solidworks.

34
 CHAPTER 09

FLOW ANALYSIS OVER A FUSELAGE

9.1 DESIGN OF THE FUSELAGE

The CFD analysis of Fuselage is done in 3D mesh in the ANSYS Inc Student
version software. However, the design was done in CATIA V5 and converted as .iges
file and the parameters were set across the reference frame. The design of the fuselage
to be analyzed is already shown in the chapter 9 “Design of Fuselage”. The fuselage
is enclosed in a cuboids of arbitrary size.

9.2 MESH SETTING

Ansys is a software tool for the analysis of any mechanical component, it uses Finite

Element Method. The FEM consists of 4 steps namely. Discretization, Applying

constraints, Processing and Post processing. The Discretization is the process of
dividing up the model into elements consisting of nodes. The processing phase solves
equations for these nodes and obtains results. Meshing is the Discretization. It is most
important part of an analysis and can determine the efficiency and effectiveness of an
analysis. Therefore, a lot of time is given to meshing of complex models. So, meshing
is the core of Finite element analysis. The mesh setting used for this analysis is listed
below.

✓ Structured meshing Technique was used. ü

Adaptive sizing was switched ON. ü The
element size was 500 mm. ü The nodes were
less than 500000.
✓ The named selection option was used to give
names for the inlet, outlet, fuselage and the
other walls.

35
9.3 BOUNDARY CONDITIONS

The boundary condition is very important to do the analysis. The list of

boundary condition used for this analysis is given below.

✓ Double Precision was switched ON.

✓ The analysis was density based with absolute velocity formulation and
transient time condition.
✓ The energy and viscous model were switched ON and standard k-
epsilon (turbulent flow) realizable was assumed.
✓ The inlet was assumed to be velocity inlet and the velocity was given as
100 m/s with a temperature of 225K. ü The outlet was assumed to be
pressure outlet with a backflow pressure of 26500pa and temperature of
225K. ü Operating pressure and temperature were set as 26500pa and
225K. Operating density was taken as 0.
✓ The fuselage was assumed to be a wall.

✓ Flux type used was Roe-FDS. Spatial Discretization of flow used is

second order upwind, the Turbulent K.E and turbulent displacement
used second order upwind method.
✓ The reference was taken from the inlet.

✓ Standard initialization was done.

9.4 PRESSURE AND VELOCITY CONTOURS

Around 1000 iterations were carried out to achieve the calculated result from
the software. The Pressure contour, Velocity contour and Velocity streamline
were computed and the results are shown in the Figure 9.2, 9.3 and 9.4
respectively.

36
 Fig 9.1 Meshing and meshing domain of fuselage with cuboids domain

Fig 9.2 Velocity contour over fuselage at 100m/s, it has been observed that there is a streamline flow over the fuselage
which conclude that the fuselage body has less drag.

Fig 9.3 Pressure contour over fuselage at 100m/s.

37
 Fig 9.4 Velocity contour over fuselage at 100m/s with velocity streamline.

Fig 9.5 Pressure contour over fuselage at 100m/s with streamline.

9.5 SUMMARY:

It explains about the mesh and enclosure over the test subject, in this testing a
cuboidical domain as selected with length of enclosure as 8 x the length of fuselage,
the fuselage is assumed a wall in the test, shows a clear change in pressure over the
fuselage surface which explain the property of wing during flow of air. Velocity
contour over fuselage is shown for 100m/s, it has been observed that there is a
streamline flow over the fuselage which conclude that the fuselage body has less drag.

38
 CHAPTER 10

LANDING GEAR DESIGN

10.1 DESIGN SPECIFICATION

Table 10.1 design specification of landing gear

10.2 3D DIAGRAM OF LANDING GEAR

The front view, side view and isometric view of landing gear is shown in the figure

Fig 10.1 Landing gear

39
Single suspension landing gear is designed using various sketching commands like
revolveboss base, extrude and fillet command.

Fig 10.2 Single suspension landing gear front view.

Fig 10.3 Single suspension landing gear side view.

10.3 SUMMARY:

Using solid works designing software, landing gear has been designed. The assumed material
was Steel Alloy 300M and variety of tools have been used. The process of designing involved
many stages and is shown in front view, side view and isometric view.

40
 CHAPTER 11

STATIC STRUCTURUAL ANALYSIS OF LANDING GEAR

11.1 DESIGN OF THE LANDING GEAR

The structural analysis of landing gear is done in solid works analysis software. However, the
design was done in solid works and converted as .iges file and the parameters were set across
the reference frame. The design of the wing to be analysed is already shown in the design of
landing gear.

11.2 MESH SETTING

Solid works structural analysis is a software tool for the analysis of any mechanical
component, it uses finite element method. The FEM consists of 4 steps namely,
discretization, applying constraints, processing and post processing. The discretization is the
process of dividing up the model into elements consisting of nodes. The processing phase
solves equation for these nodes and obtain results. Meshing is the discretization. It is most
important part of an analysis and can determine the efficiency and effectiveness of an
analysis. Therefore, a lot of time is given to meshing of complex models. So, meshing is the
core of finite element analysis. The mesh setting used for this analysis is listed below.

• Structured meshing technique was used

• Adaptive sizing was switched ON
• The nodes were less than 28000
• The number of elements is 17600

11.3 BOUNDARY CONDITIONS

• The entire landing gear was assumed to be made using steel alloy
• Fixed support was given at the root
• The force of 120KN was applied on the upper surface of the landing gear

With these boundary conditions, displacement in x axis and y axis, equivalent elastic strain,
equivalent stress and strain energy is computed. The results are discussed below.

41
 Fig 11.1

Single suspension landing gear is designed using various sketching commands like
revolveboss base, extrude and fillet command.

Fig 11.2

Single suspension landing gear with structured mesh is generated with nodes of 28000 &
17666 elements

42
 Fig 11.3

Displacement of landing gear has been done & it has been observed when load is applied
there is deformation of 1.3mm which is 3% less than the existing deformation in aerobatic
aircraft.

11.4 SUMMARY:

Stress analysis plays important role to find structural safety and integrity of assemblies. The
previous estimation stress helps to find appropriate material and geometrical dimensions.
Even improvement of dimension is possible with stress analysis in conjunction with factor of
safety calculation.

43
 CHAPTER 12

TYRE ANALYSIS

12.1 INTRODUCTION

The wheel is a circular metal object upon which the rubber tire is mounted. The brake inside
the wheel slows the aircraft by increasing the rolling friction. However, the term wheel is
frequently mean entire brake/wheel/tire assembly. The tires are sized to carry the weight of
the aircraft typically; the main tires carry about 90% of MTOW. Nose tires carry only about
0% of the static load but experience higher dynamic loads during landing.

For early conceptual designs, the engineer can copy the tire size of similar design or follow a
statistical approach. The table provides the equations for estimating main tire size. These
calculated values are for diameter and width and should be increased by 30% is to operate
from rough unpaved runways. Nose tires can be assumed to be about 60-100% the size of the
main tires.

Fig 12.1

Tire contact area

44
 Table 12.1 Statistical tire sizing

Table 12.2 Recommended tire pressure

12.2 SELECTION PROCEDURE

The number of tires required for a given aircraft design gross weight is largely determined by
the floatation characteristics. The primary considerations are the load-carrying capacity of the
tire during the speed regime normally applicable for landing or take-off cycles. In addition,
the number of ply and type of construction, which determine the weight of the wire and its
operational life, is important from an economic standpoint.

Other considerations include the inflation pressure of the tire and the size of the wheel. The
former must be chosen in accordance with the bearing capacity of the airfield from which the
aircraft is designed to operate from, whereas the latter must have sufficient space to house the
brake assembly. The choice of the main wheel tires is made on the basis of the static loading
case. The total main gear load is calculated assuming that the aircraft is taxing at low speed
without braking. The choice of the nose wheel tire is based on the nose wheel load during
braking at maximum effort, i.e., the steady braked load.

45
12.3 CALCULATION

Maximum take-off weight of the aircraft (W mtow) = 10000kg = 22046.23 lbs

Ww = 4960.4

12.4 MAIN WHEEL CONFIGURATION:

Main wheel diameter/width = A(Ww)b

Diameter: A = 1.59

B = 0.302

Main wheel diameter = 1.59*(7936.641)0.302

MTD = 23.94 inch

Width: A = 0.098

B = 0.467

Main wheel width = 0.098(4960.4)0.467

MTD = 5.212

NOSE WHEEL CONFIGURATION: ( for fighter aircraft)

Nose wheel diameter = 0.6 to 0.9 * Main Tire Diameter (MTD)

= 0.9*23.94

NTD = 21.546 inch

Nose wheel width = 0.6 to 0.9 * Main Tire Width (MTD)

= 0.9 * 6,49

NTW= 5.841 inch

46
 Chapter 13

MATERIAL SELECTION

The materials for our Aerobatic Aircraft are selected based on the analysis of
Zivok Aeronautics the selected materials are discussed below.

13.1 COMPOSITES:
A composite material is a material made from two or more constituent
materials with significantly different physical or chemical properties that,
when combined, produce a material with characteristics different from the
individual components. Example, Carbon fiber Reinforced Polymer
Composites.

It is employed in tail, skin panels, doors, center wing box, frames,

stringers and bulkhead of our aircraft is made using composite materials.

13.2 ALUMINIUM:
Aluminium is ideal for aircraft manufacture because it's lightweight
and strong. Aluminium is roughly a third the weight of steel, allowing an
aircraft to carry more weight and or become more fuel efficient. Furthermore,
aluminum’s high resistance to corrosion ensures the safety of the aircraft and
its passengers.

Place it employed: Fuselage, Wing, cockpit area of fuselage, Flaps of

our aircraft is made using aluminum alloy.

13.3 TITANIUM:
Due to their high tensile strength to density ratio, high corrosion
resistance, and ability to withstand moderately high temperatures without
creeping, titanium alloys are used in aircraft, spacecraft, and missiles.
Titanium has been replacing aluminum parts in aircraft manufacturing because
of its ability to resist heat and corrosion when it comes in contact with carbon-
fiber reinforced polymers (CFRPs).

Place it employed: Engine cowling, fastening elements, airframe of our

aircraft is made using titanium alloy.

47
13.4 STEEL:
Steel can be up to three times stronger than aluminum, although it is
also heavier. Its strength, hardness and resistance to heat make it ideal for use
on the skin surface of the aircraft and in the landing gear and it typically
comprises around 11-13 percent of the materials used in an aircraft.

Place it employed: Pylon, landing gear of our aircraft is made using

steel alloy.

13.5 OTHER MATERIALS:

Materials like ceramics are used inside the engine. Materials like glass,
polymers are used in windows, wing shields

Table 13.1 Material used

[Link] Major Sub Component Material Reason

component

1. Fuselage/ Main Bulkhead Aluminium High specific strength

body 7075
Good weight to
strength to cost ratio

Stringers Aluminium High resistance to

7075 corrosion

Formers Technical Smooth and free of

Ceramics technical
imperfections

Allows for greater

payloads on aircraft

Enables faster speeds

longerons Carbon fiber
Lightweight material

Offers stiffness and

strength at low density

5 times stronger than

steel and twice as stiff

48
 Skin
Carbon Increases Fuel
laminate Efficiency
composite
Improves Aerodynamic
Performance

Reduces the Number of

Parts

2. Wings Ribs Aluminium High yield strength

2024
Excellent fatigue
Spar Aluminium resistance
2024
Lightweight and
Stringers aluminum strong
2024 T3
Skin Roughly third the
Aluminium weight of steel,
alloy allowing the aircraft to
Servo carry more weight
Carbon
laminate
composite

3. Empennage T Tail Aluminium Used in the empennage

alloy and control surfaces
Rudder
Fibre-polymer Fibre-polymer
Elevator composites composites are
increasingly being used
Aluminium for weight saving
alloy

49
4. Landing gears Shock Absorber Drag Stainless Steel Good factor of safety

Struct Retraction fiber- Minimum deflection is

reinforced caused during heavy
actuator Torque links plastic load impact

Stainless steel

Stainless steel

Fig 13.1 WEIGHT PERCENTAGE OF OVERALL METERIALS USED

50
 CHAPTER 14
V n Diagram
14.1 Introduction:

Airplanes may be subjected to a variety of loading conditions in flight. The structural

design of the aircraft involves the estimation of the various loads on the aircraft structure and
designing the airframe to carry all these loads, providing enough safety factors, considering the
fact that the aircraft under design is a commercial transport airplane. As it is obviously
impossible to investigate every loading condition that the aircraft may encounter, it becomes
necessary to select a few conditions such that each one of these conditions will be critical for
some structural member of the airplane.

14.2 Velocity –Load Factor (V-n) diagram:

The control of weight in aircraft design is of extreme importance. Increases in weight
require stronger structures to support them, which in turn lead to further increases in weight
and so on. Excess of structural weight mean lesser amounts of payload, thereby affecting the
economic viability of the aircraft. The aircraft designer is therefore constantly seeking to pare
his aircraft’s weight to the minimum compatible with safety. However, to ensure general
minimum standards of strength and safety, airworthiness regulations (Av.P.970 and BCAR)
lay down several factors which the primary structure of the aircraft must satisfy. These are the

14.2.1 Limit load: Which is the maximum load that the aircraft is expected to experience in
normal operation.

14.2.2 Proof load: Which is the product of the limit load and the proof factor (1.0-1.25), and

14.2.3 Ultimate load: Which is the product of the limit load and the ultimate factor (usually
1.5). The aircraft’s structure must withstand the proof load without detrimental distortion and
should not fail until the ultimate load has been achieved.
The basic strength and fight performance limits for a particular aircraft are selected by
the airworthiness authorities and are contained in the flight envelope or V-n diagram.
There are two types of V – n diagram for military airplanes:

➢ V–n manoeuvre diagram.

51
➢ V–n gust diagram.
The positive design limit load factor must be selected by the designer, but must meet
the following condition:
The maximum positive limit load factor for military transport aircraft should be in the
range 2 to 3. So for our aircraft we take The maximum negative limit load factor is given by
There are four important speeds used in the V – n diagram
1. 1 – g stall speed VS
2. Design manoeuvring speed VA
3. Design cruise speed VC
4. Design diving speed VD
The BCAR (British civil airworthiness requirements) has given the basic strength and flight
performance limits of various categories of the aircraft. They are listed below
Table 14.1 the basic strength and flight performance limits of various categories of the aircraft.

This 2 seater business jet aircraft comes under the normal category. Therefore the load factor limits for the aircraft is 3.8 & -1.5.

14.3 V-n MANEUVER DIAGRAM

14.3.1 INTENTIONAL MANEUVER:

Intentional maneuvers are induced by the pilot during climb, pull up or pull down, banking
the plane etc
The load factor is function of velocity. The expression relating the load factor and the

velocity is given by
Where nmax is the maximum load factor. V is the speed of the aircraft, V, is the stalling speed of the
aircraft.
The stalling speed of the aircraft

52
Vs = 54.84 m/s

For various values of nmax, V is calculated and tabulated below,

N max V (m/s)

4.4 115.03
4 109.68
3.8 106.90
3.5 102.596
3 94.985
2.5 86.709
2 77.555
1.5 67.165
1 54.84

N max V
-0.25 27.42
-0.5 38.77
-0.75 47.49
-1 54.84
-1.8 73.58

Vmax = 54.84 m/s

- Vmax= 72.584
Corner velocities
V* max = 115.093 m/s
- V* max = 73.614 m/s

The cruising speed of the aircraft is 236.11 m/s.

53
 The dive speed of the aircraft is the maximum speed of the aircraft. The dive speed is equal
to the sum of the cruising speed and 60 knots.

VD = 236.11 + 60 knots
=236.11 +30.56 m/s
=266.67 m/s

14.4 GUSTS:

The movement of air in turbulence is known as gusts. It produces changes in wing incidence,
thereby subjecting the aircraft to sudden or gradual increases or decreases in lift from which
normal accelerations result.
These may be critical for large, high speed aircraft and may possibly cause higher loads than
control initiated maneuvers.
Thus in the gust analysis, the change in load factor due to the gust is calculated. The BCAR
has given standard gust velocities for stall, cruise, dive speeds as 66, 50, 25 ft/s
respectively. The small change in load factor Δn due to the gust is calculated by assuming a
sharp gust.

The change in load factor Δn = ρ aUV/(2(W/S))

Where ρ - density at cruising altitude,

a - lift slope, in radians
U - gust velocity in m/s
V - velocity of the aircraft in m/s
W/S -wing loading in N/m²

In the above formula, gusts are assumed to be sharp but it is usually graded, hence a relief
factor called gust alleviation factor K is introduced in the term.

The value of the K is obtained from the book "AIRPLANE AERODYNAMICS AND
PERFORMANCE" by JAN ROSKAM

54
Where p is the density, C is the mean aerodynamic chord, g is the acceleration due to gravity;
CL is the slope lift coefficient.
The CLa (corrected for aspect ratio) is 0.0962/deg.

µ = 2 x 420 x 9.81 / 1.225 x 2.1 x 9.81 x 0.1 x 57.3

µ = 56.986

K = 0.805

For STALL SPEED V= 54.84 m/s, U=20m/s

Δn = 0.805 x 1.225 x 0.1 x 57.3 x 20 x 54.84 / 2 x 420 x 9.81

Δn =0.752
For CRUISE SPEED V = 236.11 m/s, U= 15m/s

Δn = 0.805 x 1.225 x 0.1 x 57.3 x 15 x 236.11 / 2 x 420 x 9.81

Δn = 2.429

For DIVE SPEED V= 266.67 m/s, U= 7.5 m/s

Δn = 0.805 x 1.225 x 0.1 x 57.3 x 7.5 x 266.67 / 2 x 420 x 9.81

Δn = 1.37

V (m/s) 1 + Δn 1 - Δn
54.84 1.752 0.248

55
236.11 3.429 -1.429
266.67 2.37 -0.37

Fig 14.1 V-n Diagram

Fig 14.2 Gust V-n Diagram

56
 CHAPTER 15
3 VIEW DIAGRAM

Fig 15.1 side view

Fig 15.2 front view

57
Fig 15.3 Top view

Fig 15.4 Isometric view

58
 CHAPTER 16

FABRICATION
We have fabricated the morphing wing mechanism

Fig 16.1 model design

Fig 16.2 flexible part

59
 Fig 16.3 leading edge

Fig 16.4 model in cura

Fig 16.5 3D printed model of leading edge

60
 CONCLUSION

Based on a comprehensive analysis, a preliminary concept for a highly maneuverable

aerobatic aircraft has been developed. Calculations and references that are relevant are
added. It is possible that the concept will not meet the needs of a real plane, but it's a
start. This is purely a design idea. Changes and implementations are constant in the
design process. This is an example of creativity. Jan Roskam's work has played a major
role in the architecture of the aircraft. The entirety of the design parameters needed for
the aircraft have been obtained purely from calculations. The major advantages of this
design are, winglets which provide substantial decrease in induced drag while increasing
take off and fuel performance, and a structure which possesses high load tolerance
capable of sustaining critical conditions on the flight envelope. The superior
maneuverability and drag reduction will definitely provide an upper hand to the aircraft
during competitive flying.

The major advantages of this design are, winglets which provide

substantial decrease in induced drag and drag reduction will definitely provide
an upper hand to the aircraft during competitive flying while increasing take
off and fuel performance, and a structure which possesses high load tolerance
capable of sustaining critical conditions on the flight envelop

61
 REFERENCE

[1] Jan Roskam,” Airplane design”, Design, Analysis and Research

Corporation, 2003, ISBN-1-884885-50-0.
[2] Chuan- Tan Edward lan, Jan Roskam, “Airplane Aerodynamics and
performance”, Design, Analysis and research corporation, 2003, ISBN-
1-884885-44-6.
[3] John D Anderson,” Introduction to Flight”, 5th Edition, Tata Mc Graw
Hill Education Private Limited, 2007, ISBN-13: 978-0-07-066082-3,
ISBN-10: 0-07- 066082-4.
[4] Daniel P Raymer, “Aircraft Design: A Conceptual Approach”,
American institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Incorporated,
2018, ISBN-1624104908, 97801624104909.
[5] Mr. Potter,” What’s next for private jets?” Journal, Tomorrows-World,
Nov 16, 2017.

[6] Joaquim R R A Martins, “Aircraft design vai numerical optimization”,

Journal of aeronautics and aerospace engineering, conference
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 AUTHOR NOTES

SI Dhaniyalakshmi
A dedicated engineer with specialization in B. tech Aerospace engineering with academic
CGPA of 8.4 pursuing at Hindustan institute of technology and science. She uses her technical
skills for achieving the target and developing best performance. She always implements her
innovative ideas, skills and creativity for accomplishing the goal.

Laura Merin D
A hardworking engineer with specialization in B. tech Aerospace engineering with academic
CGPA of 9.1 pursuing at Hindustan institute of technology and science. She has an aim to
leverage a provoken knowledge of field performance, experimental designs and project
planning skills

Divya R
A highly – oriented engineer with specialization in B. tech Aerospace engineering with
academic CGPA of 9.2 pursuing at Hindustan institute of technology and science. She is a
dedicated, focused and goal driven student aiming at gaining significant experience
collaborating on the trouble shooting process

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