Understanding

Basic Calculus

S.K. Chung
Dedicated to all the people who have helped me in my life.
 i

Preface

This book is a revised and expanded version of the lecture notes for Basic Calculus and other
similar courses o ered by the Department of Mathematics, University of Hong Kong, from the first
semester of the academic year 1998-1999 through the second semester of 2006-2007. It can be
used as a textbook or a reference book for an introductory course on one variable calculus.

In this book, much emphasis is put on explanations of concepts and solutions to examples. By
reading the book carefully, students should be able to understand the concepts introduced and know
how to answer questions with justification. At the end of each section (except the last few), there is an
exercise. Students are advised to do as many questions as possible. Most of the exercises are simple
drills. Such exercises may not help students understand the concepts; however, without practices,
students may find it di cult to continue reading the subsequent sections.

Chapter 0 is written for students who have forgotten the materials that they have learnt for
HKCEE Mathe-matics. Students who are familiar with the materials may skip this chapter.

Chapter 1 is on sets, real numbers and inequalities. Since the concept of sets is new to most
students, detail explanations and elaborations are given. For the real number system, notations
and terminologies that will be used in the rest of the book are introduced. For solving polynomial
inequalities, the method will be used later when we consider where a function is increasing or
decreasing as well as where a function is convex or concave. Students should note that there is a
shortcut for solving inequalities, using the Intermediate Value Theorem discussed in Chapter 3.
Chapter 2 is on functions and graphs. Some materials are covered by HKCEE Mathematics. New
concepts introduced include domain and range (which are fundamental concepts related to functions);
composition of functions (which will be needed when we consider the Chain Rule for di erentiation) and
inverse functions (which will be needed when we consider exponential functions and logarithmic functions).

In Chapter 3, intuitive idea of limit is introduced. Limit is a fundamental concept in calculus. It is used
when we consider di erentiation (to define derivatives) and integration (to define definite integrals).
There are many types of limits. Students should notice that their definitions are similar. To help students
understand such similarities, a summary is given at the end of the section on two-sided limits. The
section of continuous functions is rather conceptual. Students should understand the statements of the
Intermediate Value Theorem (several versions) and the Extreme Value Theorem.

In Chapters 4 and 5, basic concepts and applications of di erentiation are discussed. Students who know how
to work on limits of functions at a point should be able to apply definition to find derivatives of “simple” functions.
For more complicated ones (polynomial and rational functions), students are advised not to use definition; instead,
they can use rules for di erentiation. For application to curve sketching, related concepts like critical numbers, local
extremizers, convex or concave functions etc. are introduced. There are many easily confused terminologies.
Students should distinguish whether a concept or terminology is related to a function, to the x-coordinate of a point
or to a point in the coordinate plane. For applied extremum problems, students
ii

should note that the questions ask for global extremum. In most of the examples for such
problems, more than one solutions are given.

In Chapter 6, basic concepts and applications of integration are discussed. We use limit of sums in
a specific form to define the definite integral of a continuous function over a closed and bounded
interval. This is to make the definition easier to handle (compared with the more subtle concept of “limit”
of Riemann sums). Since definite integrals work on closed intervals and indefinite integrals work on
open intervals, we give di erent definitions for primitives and antiderivatives. Students should notice how
we can obtain antiderivatives from primitives and vice versa. The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus
(several versions) tells that di erentiation and integration are reverse process of each other. Using rules
for integration, students should be able to find indefinite integrals of polynomials as well as to evaluate
definite integrals of polynomials over closed and bounded intervals.

Chapters 7 and 8 give more formulas for di erentiation. More specifically, formulas for the derivatives of
the sine, cosine and tangent functions as well as that of the logarithmic and exponential functions are given.
For that, revision of properties of the functions together with relevant limit results are discussed.

Chapter 9 is on the Chain Rule which is the most important rule for di erentiation. To make the
rule easier to handle, formulas obtained from combining the rule with simple di erentiation formulas
are given. Students should notice that the Chain Rule is used in the process of logarithmic di
erentiation as well as that of implicit di erentiation. To close the discussion on di erentiation, more
examples on curve sketching and applied extremum problems are given.
Chapter 10 is on formulas and techniques of integration. First, a list of formulas for integration is given.
Students should notice that they are obtained from the corresponding formulas for di erentiation. Next,
several techniques of integration are discussed. The substitution method for integration corresponds to the
Chain Rule for di erentiation. Since the method is used very often, detail discussions are given. The method
of Integration by Parts corresponds to the Product Rule for di erentiation. For integration of rational functions,
only some special cases are discussed. Complete discussion for the general case is rather complicated.
Since Integration by Parts and integration of rational functions are not covered in the course Basic Calculus,
the discussion on these two techniques are brief and exercises are not given. Students who want to know
more about techniques of integration may consult other books on calculus. To close the discussion on
integration, application of definite integrals to probability (which is a vast field in mathematics) is given.

Students should bear in mind that the main purpose of learning calculus is not just knowing how to
perform di erentiation and integration but also knowing how to apply di erentiation and integration to
solve problems. For that, one must understand the concepts. To perform calculation, we can use
calculators or computer soft-wares, like Mathematica, Maple or Matlab. Accompanying the pdf file of
this book is a set of Mathematica notebook files (with extension .nb, one for each chapter) which give
the answers to most of the questions in the exercises. Information on how to read the notebook files as
well as trial version of Mathematica can be found at [Link] .
Contents

0 Revision 1
0.1 Exponents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
0.2 Algebraic Identities and Algebraic Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
0.3 Solving Linear Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
0.4 Solving Quadratic Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
0.5 Remainder Theorem and Factor Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
0.6 Solving Linear Inequalities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
0.7 Lines ..................................................... 12
0.8 Pythagoras Theorem, Distance Formula and Circles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
0.9 Parabola . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
0.10 Systems of Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1 Sets, Real Numbers and Inequalities 23

1.1 Sets . ..................................................... 23

1.1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
1.1.2 Set Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
1.2 Real Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
1.2.1 The Number Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
1.2.2 Radicals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
1.3 Solving Inequalities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
1.3.1 Quadratic Inequalities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
1.3.2 Polynomial Inequalities with degrees 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
2 Functions and Graphs 43
2.1 Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
2.2 Domains and Ranges of Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
2.3 Graphs of Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
2.4 Graphs of Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
2.5 Compositions of Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
2.6 Inverse Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
2.7 More on Solving Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
3 Limits 73

3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
3.2 Limits of Sequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
3.3 Limits of Functions at Infinity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
3.4 One-sided Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
3.5 Two-sided Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
3.6 Continuous Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
4 Di erentiation 103

4.1 Derivatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103

4.2 Rules for Di erentiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
4.3 Higher-Order Derivatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
iv CONTENTS
5 Applications of Di erentiation 127

5.1 Curve Sketching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....128

5.1.1 Increasing and Decreasing Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....128
5.1.2 Relative Extrema . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....131
5.1.3 Convexity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....136
5.1.4 Curve Sketching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....143
5.2 Applied Extremum Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....146
5.2.1 Absolute Extrema . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....146
5.2.2 Applied Maxima and Minima . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....148
5.2.3 Applications to Economics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....153
6 Integration 157

6.1 Definite Integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....157

6.2 Fundamental Theorem of Calculus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....162
6.3 Indefinite Integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....167
6.4 Application of Integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....173
7 Trigonometric Functions 179

7.1 Angles ................................................. ....179

7.2 Trigonometric Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....180
7.3 Di erentiation of Trigonometric Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....187
8 Exponential and Logarithmic Functions 191

8.1 Exponential Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....191

8.2 Logarithmic Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....196
8.3 Di erentiation of Exp and Log Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....201
9 More Di erentiation 207

9.1 Chain rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....207

9.2 Implicit Di erentiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....215
9.3 More Curve Sketching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....219
9.4 More Extremum Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....222
10 More Integration 229

10.1 More Formulas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....229

10.2 Substitution Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....232
10.3 Integration of Rational Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....240
10.4 Integration by Parts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....246
10.5 More Applications of Definite Integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....248
A Answers 255

B Supplementary Notes 269

B.1 Mathematical Induction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....269

B.2 Binomial Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....271
B.3 Mean Value Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....274
B.4 Fundamental Theorem of Calculus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....276
 Chapter 0

Revision

0.1 Exponents
Definition

(1) Let n be a positive integer and let a be a real number. We define an to be the real number given by
n

a = |a {za }a :
n factors

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Let n be a negative integer n, that is, n = k where k is a positive integer, and let a be a real
k
number di erent from 0. We define a to be the real number given by
k 1
=a k:
0
(i) Let a be a real number di erent from 0. We define a = 1.
0 0
We do not define 0 (thus the notation 0 is meaningless).
n
Terminology In the notation a , the numbers n and a are called the exponent and base respectively.

Rules for Exponents Let a and b be real numbers and let m and n be integers (when a = 0 or b = 0,
we have to add the condition: m; n di erent from 0). Then we have
aman = am+n
m
a
(2) mn provided that a , 0
an = a
m n mn
(a ) = a
(ab)n = anbn
(5) a n an provided that b , 0
= n
b b
Exercise 0.1
1. Simplify the following; give your answers without negative exponents.
6 3 (b) x 1y2
(a) x x
z 3
 4 3 2
(c) x 2y3 (d) 2x2 y4 x 1y
2 Chapter 0. Revision

0.2 Algebraic Identities and Algebraic Expressions

Identities Let a and b be real numbers. Then we have
2 2 2
(a + b) = a + 2ab + b
(2) (a b)2 = a2 2ab + b2
(3) (a + b)(a b) = a2 b2

Remark The above equalities are called identities because they are valid for all real numbers a and b.

2 2 2
Caution In general, (a + b) , a + b . Note: (a + b)2 = a2 + b2 if and only if a = 0 or b = 0.
Example Expand the following:
p 2
x+2
5 2
(2) x x!
(3) p + 7p 7
2 2
x +1 x +1
Solution
(1) p + 2 = p p 2
2 (2) + 2
x x2+2 x
p +4
! = x+4 x !
(2) x x 2 = x2 2(x) x
!
+ x 2
5 5 5
2
= x 10 + 25

2
x
(3) p + 7p 7 p 2
= 2 2 7
x +1
2
x +1
2 2x +1

= x +
2 1 49

= x 48

Example Simplify the following:

(1) 2 x 6
x
x2 6x + 9
(2) x2 1
2
x 1
(3) 2 1
2 2
x + 2x + 1 x x 2
1
x y1
6
3+
x

x
x+x+ 1
0.2. Algebraic Identities and Algebraic Expressions 3
Solution

(1) 2 x 6 = (x 3)(x + 2)
x
2 6x + 9 2
x (x 3)
x+2x3
(2) 1 = 2 1)
x2 x2 (x
2 2 1
x 1 x
1

x2 1
(3) 2 1 = 2 1
2 2 x 2 2 (x + 1)(x 2)
x + 2x + 1 x (x + 1)
= 2(x 2) (x + 1)
2
(x + 1) (x 2)
= x 5
x y ! 2
(x + 1) (x 2)
(4) 1 = x y
1
1 1
= xy 1 ! 1

y
y
xy 1
3+6 3x + 6
(5) x = x
x+ x x (x + 1) + x
x+1 x+1
3x + 6

= x
x2 + 2x
x+1
= 3(x + 2) x+1
x x (x + 2)
= 3(x + 1)
2
x
FAQ What is expected if we are asked to simplify an expression? For example, in (5), can we give 3x + 3 as
x2
the answer?
Answer There is no definite rule to tell which expression is simpler. For (5), both 3(x + 1) and 3x + 3 are
x2 x2
acceptable. Use your own judgment.
4 Chapter 0. Revision
Exercise 0.2

1. Expand the following:

(a) (2x + 3)2 (b) (3x y)2
2. (c) (x + 3y)(x 3y) (d) (x + 3y)(x + 4y)
(e) p 3 2 (f) p + 5 p 5
2 x x x
Factorize the following:
(a) x2 7x + 12 (b) x2 + x 6
(c) x2 + 8x + 16 (d) 9x2 + 9x + 2
(e) 9x2 6x + 1 (f) 5x2 5
(g) 3x2 18x + 27 (h) 2x2 12x + 16
3. Simplify the following:
(a) x2
x 6 (b) x2 + 3x 4
2 7x + 12 2 x 2
x x
2x 2
4x + 4x 1 1
(c) (d) x+h x
2 1 x 1 h
x

0.3 Solving Linear Equations

A linear equation in one (real) unknown x is an equation that can be written in the form

ax + b = 0;

where a and b are constants with a , 0 (in this course, we consider real numbers only; thus a
“constant” means a real number that is fixed or given). More generally, an equation in one
unknown x is an equation that can be written in the form
F(x) = 0 (0.3.1)
Remark To be more precise, F should be a function from a subset of R into R. See later chapters
for the meanings of “function” and “R”.

Definition A solution to Equation (0.3.1) is a real number x0 such that F(x0) = 0.

Example The equation 2x + 3 = 0 has exactly one solution, namely 3 .

2

To solve an equation (in one unknown) means to find all solutions to the equation.

Definition We say that two equations are equivalent if the have the same solution(s).

Example The following two equations are equivalent:

2x + 3 = 0
2x = 3

To solve an equation, we use properties of real numbers to transform the given equation to equivalent ones until
we obtain an equation whose solutions can be found easily.
0.3. Solving Linear Equations 5

Properties of real numbers Let a, b and c be real numbers. Then we have

a = b () a + c = b + c
(2) a = b =) ac = bc and ac = bc =) a = b if c , 0

Remark

=) is the symbol for “implies”. The first part of Property (2) means that if a = b, then ac = bc.
() is the symbol for “=) and (=”. Property (1) means that if a = b, then a + c = b + c and vice versa,
that is, a = b i a + c = b + c. In mathematics, we use the shorthand “i ” to stand for “if and only if ”.

Example Solve the following equations for x.

(1) 3x 5=2(7 x)
(2) a(b + x) = c dx, where a; b; c and d are real numbers with a + d , 0.
Solution

(1) Using properties of real numbers, we get

3x 5 = 2(7 x)

3x 5 = 14 2x
3x + 2x = 14+5
5x = 19
x = 19 :
5
The solution is 19 .
5
FAQ Can we omit the last sentence?

Answer The steps above means that a real number x satisfies 3x 5 = 2(7 x) if and only if x = 19 .
5
It’s alright if you stop at the last line in the equation array because it tells that given equation has one and
only one solution, namely 19 .
5
FAQ What is the di erence between the word “solution” after the question and the word “solution” in

the last sentence?

Answer They refer to di erent things. The first “solution” is solution (answer) to the problem (how to

solve the problem) whereas the second “solution” means solution to the given equation. Sometimes, an
2
equation may have no solution, for example, x + 1 = 0 but the procedures (explanations) to get this
information is a solution to the problem.
FAQ Can we use other symbols for the unknown?

Answer In the given equation, if x is replaced by another symbol, for example, t, we get the equation

3t 5=2(7 t) in one unknown t. Solution to this equation is also 19 . In writing an equation, the symbol
5
6 Chapter 0. Revision
for the unknown is not important. However, if the unknown is expressed in t, all the intermediate steps

should use t as unknown: 3t 5 2(7 t)

=
:
:
:
t = 19
5
(2) Using properties of real numbers, we get

a(b + x) = c dx

ab + ax = c dx
ax + dx = c ab
(a + d)x = c ab
x = c ab :
a+d

Exercise 0.3

1. Solve the following equations for x.

(a) 2(x + 4) = 7x + 2 (b) 5x + 3 5 = 5x 4
2 4
2 2 (d) x x
(c) (a + b)x + x = (x + b)
a b=c
where a, b and c are constants with a , b.

0.4 Solving Quadratic Equations

A quadratic equation (in one unknown) is an equation that can be written in the form

ax2 + bx + c = 0 (0.4.1) To solve (0.4.1), we can use the

Factorization Method or the

where a; b; and c are constants and a , 0.

Quadratic Formula.

Factorization Method The method makes use of the following result on product of real numbers:

Fact Let a and b be real numbers. Then we have

ab = 0 () a = 0 or b = 0.

Example Solve x2 + 2x 15 = 0.

Solution Factorizing the left side, we obtain

(x + 5)(x 3)=0:

Thus x + 5 = 0 or x 3 = 0. Hence x = 5 or x = 3.
0.4. Solving Quadratic Equations 7

FAQ Can we write “x = 5 and x = 3”?

Answer The logic in solving the above equation is as follows

x2 + 2x 15=0 () (x + 5)(x 3) = 0
() x + 5 = 0 or x 3 = 0
() x = 5 or x = 3
It means that a (real) number x satisfies the given equation if and only if x = 5 or x = 3. The statement
“x = 5 or x = 3” cannot be replaced by “x = 5 and x = 3”.
To say that there are two solutions, you may write “the solutions are 5 and 3”. Sometimes, we
also write “the solutions are x1 = 5 and x2 = 3” which means “there are two solutions 5 and 3 and
they are denoted by x1 and x2 respectively”.
In Chapter 1, you will learn the concept of sets. To specify a set, we may use “listing” or
“description”. The solution set to an equation is the set consisting of all the solutions to the
equation. For the above example, we may write
the solution set is f 5; 3g (listing);
the solution set is fx : x = 5 or x = 3g (description).
When we use and, we mean the listing method.
Quadratic Formula Solutions to Equation (0.4.1) are given by

p 2
bb 4ac :
x=
2a
2 4ac is called the discriminant of (0.4.1).
Remark b
(1) If b2 4ac > 0, then (0.4.1) has two distinct solutions.
(2) If b2 4ac = 0, then (0.4.1) has one solution.
(3) If b2 4ac < 0, then (0.4.1) has no (real) solution.

FAQ Why is “(real)” added?

Answer When the real number system is enlarged to the complex number system, (0.4.1) has two complex
2
solutions if b 4ac < 0. However, these solutions are not real numbers. In this course, we consider real
numbers only. So you may simply say that there is no solution.

Example Solve the following quadratic equations.

(1) 2x2 9x + 10 = 0
(2) x2 + 2x + 3 = 0

Solution
(1) Using the quadratic formula, we see that the equation has two solutions given by
p 4
9 ( 9)2 4(2)(10) = 9 1:
2(2)

x=
8 Chapter 0. Revision

5
Thus the solutions are 2 and 2.
2
(2) Since 2 4(1)(3) = 8 < 0, the equation has no solutions.

Example Solve the equation x (x + 2) = x (2x + 3).

Solution Expanding both sides, we get

2 2
x + 2x = 2x + 3x
2
x +x = 0
x (x + 1) = 0
x = 0 or x = 1
The solutions are 1 and 0.

Remark If we cancel the factor x on both sides, we get x + 2 = 2x + 3 which has only one solution.
In canceling the factor x, it is assumed that x , 0. However, 0 is a solution and so this solution is
lost. To use cancellation, we should write
x (x + 2) = x (2x + 3) () x + 2 = 2x + 3 or x = 0
:
::
2
Example Find the value(s) of k such that the equation 3x + kx + 7 = 0 has only one
solution. Solution The given equation has only one solution i
4(3)(7) = 0:
k2
p
Solving, we get k = 84.

Exercise 0.4
1. Solve the following equations.
(a) 4x 4x2 = 0 (b) 2 + x 3x2 = 0
(c) 4x (x 4) = x 15 (d) x2 + 2p 2 x + 2 = 0
2 p x+3=0 (f) 2
7x + 3x = 0
(e) x + 2 2 3x
2
Find the value(s) of k such that the equation x + kx + (k + 3) = 0 has only one solution.
Find the positive number such that sum of the number and its square is 210.

0.5 Remainder Theorem and Factor Theorem

Remainder Theorem If a polynomial p(x) is divided by x c, where c is a constant, the remainder is p(c).

Example Let p(x) = x3 + 3x2 2x + 2. Find the remainder when p(x) is divided by x 2.

Solution The remainder is p(2) = 23 + 3(22) 2(2) + 2 = 18.

Factor Theorem (x c) is a factor of a polynomial p(x) if and only if p(c) = 0.

0.5. Remainder Theorem and Factor Theorem 9
Proof This follows immediately from the remainder theorem because (x c) is a factor means that the remainder

is 0.

3 2
Example Let p(x) = x + kx + x 6. Suppose that (x + 2) is a factor of p(x).
Find the value of k.
With the value of k found in (1), factorize p(x).

Solution
x ( 2) is a factor of p x follows from the Factor Theorem that p( 2) = 0, that is
(1) Since ( ), it 3 2 +( 2) 6=0:

( 2) + k( 2)
Solving, we get k = 4.

(2) Using long division, we get

3 2 2
x + 4x + x 6 = (x + 2)(x + 2x 3):

By inspection, we have p(x) = (x + 2)(x + 3)(x 1).

2 3) by inspection (without using long division)?
FAQ Can we find the quotient (x + 2x

Answer The “inspection method” that some students use is called the compare coe cient method.
2
Since the quotient is quadratic, it is in the form (ax + bx + c). Thus we have
3 2 2 (0.5.1)
x + 4x + x 6 = (x + 2)(ax + bx + c)
3
Comparing the coe cient of x , we see that a = 1. Similarly, comparing the constant term, we get c
= 3. Hence we have
3 2 2
x + 4x + x 6 = (x + 2)(x + bx 3):
2
To find b, we may compare the x term (or the x term)

to get 4 = 2 + b;
which yields b = 2.
Remark The compare coe cient method in fact consists of the following steps:

(1) Expand the right side of (0.5.1) to get

3 2
ax + (2a + b)x + (2b + c)x + 2c

(2) Compare the coe cients of the given polynomial with that obtained in Step (1) to get

1 = a

= 2a + b
= 2b + c
6 = 2c
10 Chapter 0. Revision

(3) Solve the above system to find a, b and c.

2 3x 1.
Example Factorize p(x) = 2x

Solution Solving p(x) = 0 by the quadratic formula, we get

p
2
( p 3) 4(2)( 1)
3 17
x= 3) ( 2(2) = :
4
p p
By the Factor Theorem, both x and x are factors of p(x). Therefore, we have
3 + 17 3 17
4 4
p ! 3 p !
3 + 17 17
p(x) = 2 x x
4 4
2
where the factor 2 is obtained by comparing the leading term (that is, the x term).
FAQ Can we say that p(x) can’t be factorized?

Answer Although p(x) does not have factors in the form (x c) where c is an integer, it has linear factors as

given above. If the question asks for factors with integer coe cients, then p(x) cannot be factorized
as product
of linear factors.

2
FAQ Can we use the above method to factorize, for example, p(x) = 6x + x 2 ?
Answer If you don’t know how to factorize p(x) by inspection, you can solve p(x) = 0 using the quadratic
formula (or calculators) to get x = 1 or x = 2 . Therefore (by the Factor Theorem and comparing the leading
2 3
term), we have 1 2

p(x) = 6 x 2 3
x+
= (2x 1)(3x + 2):

Exercise 0.5
1. For each of the following expressions, use the factor theorem to find a linear factor (x c) and hence
factorize it completely (using integer coe cients).
(a) x3 13x + 12 (b) 2x3 7x2 + 2x + 3
(c) 2x3 x2 4x + 3 (d) x3 2
5x + 11x 7
2. Solve the following equation for x.
(a) 2x3 9x2 8x + 15 = 0 (b) x
3
2x + 1 = 0
(c) 3 2
2x 5x + 2x 15 = 0

0.6 Solving Linear Inequalities

Notation and Terminology Let a and b be real numbers.
(1) We say that b is greater than a, or equivalently, that a is less than b to mean that b a is a
positive number.
0.6. Solving Linear Inequalities 11

We write b > a to denote that b is greater than a and we write a < b to denote that a is less than b.
We write b a to denote that b is greater than or equal to a and we write a b to denote that a is
less than or equal to b.

A linear inequality in one unknown x is an inequality that can be written in one of the following forms:

ax + b < 0
ax + b 0
ax + b > 0
ax + b 0
where a and b are constants with a , 0. More generally, an inequality in one unknown x is an
inequality that can be written in one of the following forms:
F(x) < 0
F(x) 0
F(x) > 0
F(x) 0
where F is a function from a subset of R into R.

Definition A solution to an inequality F(x) < 0 is a real number x0 such that F(x0) < 0. The definition
also applies to other types of inequalities.

Example Consider the inequality 2x + 3 0. By direct substitution, we see that 1 is a solution and 2 is
not a solution.

To solve an inequality means to find all solutions to the inequality.

Rules for Inequalities Let a, b and c be real numbers. Then the following holds.
If a < b, then a + c < b + c.
If a < b and c > 0, then ac < bc.
If a < b and c < 0, then ac > bc. Note: The inequality is reversed.
If a < b and b c, then a < c.
1 1
If a < b and a and b have the same sign, then a > b .
n n pn pn
If 0 < a < b and n is a positive integer, then a < b and a< b.
Terminology Two numbers have the same sign means that both of them are positive or both of them are negative.

Remark One common mistake in solving inequalities is to apply a rule with the wrong sign (positive
or negative). For example, if c is negative, it would be wrong to apply Rule (2).

Example Solve the following inequalities.

(1) 2x + 1 > 7(x + 3)
12 Chapter 0. Revision
(2) 3(x 2) + 5 > 3x + 7

Solution

(1) Using rules for inequalities, we get

2x + 1 > 7(x + 3)
2x + 1 > 7x + 21
21 > 7x 2x
20 > 5x
4 > x:
The solutions are all the real numbers x such that x < 4, that is,
all real numbers less than 4.

(2) Expanding the left side, we get

3(x 2) + 5 = 3x 1

which is always less than the right side. Thus the inequality has no solution.

Exercise 0.6
1. Solve the following inequalities for x.
(a) 1 x 3x 7 (b) 2(3 p
x) 3(1 x)
2 3
(c) 3x +3<0 (d) 2x >1
1 x 2x + 3

0.7 Lines
A linear equation in two unknowns x and y is an equation that can be written in the form

ax + by + c = 0 (0.7.1)

where a; b and c are constants with a; b not both 0. More generally, an equation in two unknowns
x and y is an equation that can be written in the form
F(x; y) = 0; (0.7.2)

where F is a function (from a collection of ordered pairs into R).

Definition An ordered pair (of real numbers) is a pair of real numbers x0, y0 enclosed inside parenthesis:
x0; y0).

Remark Two ordered pairs (x0; y0) and (x1; y1) are equal if and only if x0 = x1 and y0 = y1. For
example, the ordered pairs (1; 2) and (2; 1) are not equal.

Definition A solution to Equation (0.7.2) is an ordered pair (x0; y0) such that F(x0; y0) = 0.

Example Consider the equation

2x + 3y4 = 0:

By direct substitution, we see that (2; 0) is a solution whereas (1; 2) is not a solution.
0.7. Lines 13

Rectangular Coordinate System Given a plane, there is a one-to-one correspondence between

points in the plane and ordered pairs of real numbers (see the construction below). The plane
described in this way is called the Cartesian plane or the rectangular coordinate plane.

First we construct a horizontal line and a vertical line on the plane.

Their point of intersection is called the origin. The horizontal line
is called the x-axis and the vertical line y-axis. For each point P
in the plane we can label it by two real numbers. To this ends, we
3
draw perpendiculars from P to the x-axis and y-axis. The first per-
pendicular meets the x-axis at a point which can be represented
2
by a real number a. Similarly, the second perpendicular meets
the y-axis at a point which can be represented by a real number
1
b. Moreover, the ordered pair of numbers a and b determines P
uniquely, that is, if P1 and P2 are distinct points in the plane, then
the ordered pairs corresponding to P1 and P2 are di erent. There-
fore, we may identify the point P with the ordered pair (a; b) and -1 1 2 3 4
-1
we write P = (a; b) or P(a; b). The numbers a and b are called the
x-coordinate and y-coordinate of P respectively. Figure 0.1

The x- and y-axes divide the (rectangular) coordinate plane into 4 regions (called quadrants):

Quadrant I = f(a; b) : a > 0 and b > 0g; Quadrant II = f(a; b) : a < 0 and b > 0g;
Quadrant III = f(a; b) : a < 0 and b < 0g; Quadrant IV = f(a; b) : a > 0 and b < 0g:

Lines in the Coordinate Plane Consider the following equation

Ax + By + C = 0 (0.7.3)

where A, B and C are constants with A; B not both zero. It is not di cult to see that the equation has
infinitely many solutions. Each solution (x0; y0) represents a point in the (rectangular) coordinate
plane. The collection of all solutions (points) form a line, called the graph of Equation (0.7.3).
Moreover, every line in the plane can be represented in this way. For example, if ‘ is the line
passing through the origin and making an angle of 45 degrees with the positive x-axis, then it is the
graph of the equation y = x. Although this equation is not in the form (0.7.3), it can be written as
(1)x + ( 1)y + 0 = 0;

that is, x y = 0.

Terminology If a line ‘ is represented by an equation in the form (0:7:3), we say that the equation is
a general linear form for ‘.

Remark In Equation (0.7.3),

(1) if A = 0, then the equation reduces to y = C and its graph is a horizontal line;
B
C
(2) if B = 0, then the equation reduces to x = A and its graph is a vertical line.
14 Chapter 0. Revision
Example Consider the line ‘ given by

2x + 3y 4 = 0 (0.7.4)
For each of the following points, determine whether it lies on ‘ or not.

(1) A=(4; 1)
(2) B=(5; 2)

Solution
(1) Putting (x; y) = (4; 1) into (0.7.4), we get

L:S: = 2(4)+3( 1) 4 = 1
0:

Therefore A does not lie on ‘.

(2) Putting (x; y) = (5; 2) into (0.7.4), we get

L:S: = 2(5)+3( 2) 4 = 0
R:S:

Therefore B lies on ‘.

Example Consider the line ‘ given by

x + 2y 4 = 0 (0.7.5)

Find the points of intersection of ‘ with the x-axis and the y-axis.

Solution
Putting y = 0 into (0.7.5), we get
4=0

from which we obtain x = 4.

The point of intersection of ‘ with the x-axis is (4; 0).
Putting x = 0 into (0.7.5), we get
2y 4 = 0

from which we obtain y = 2.

The point of intersection of ‘ with the y-axis is (0; 2).

Remark The point (4; 0) and (0; 2) are called the x-intercept and y-intercept of ‘ respectively.

FAQ Can we say that the x-intercept is 4 etc?

Answer Some authors define x-intercept to be the x-coordinate of point of intersection etc. Using this conven-
tion, the x-intercept is 4 and the y-intercept is 2.
0.7. Lines 15
Definition For a non-vertical line ‘, its slope (denoted by m‘ or simply m) is defined to be

m‘ = y2 y1
x2 x1
where P1(x1; y1) and P2(x2; y2) are any two distinct points lying on ‘.

Remark The number m‘ is well-defined, that is, its value is independent of the choice of P1 and P2.

FAQ What is the slope of a vertical line?

Answer The slope of a vertical line is undefined because if P1 = (x1; y1) and P2 = (x2; y2) lie on a vertical line,
then x1 = x2 and so
y2 y1 =y2 y1
x2 x1 0
which is undefined.
Some students say that the slope is infinity, denoted by 1. However, 1 is not a number; it is just a notation.
Moreover, infinity is ambiguous—does it mean positive infinity (going up, very steep) or negative infinity
(going down, very steep)?
Example Find the slope of the line (given by) 2x 5y + 9 = 0.

Solution Take any two points on the line, for example, take P = ( 2; 1) and P = (3; 3). The slope m of the
1 2
line is 3 1 2

m= = :
3 ( 2) 5
FAQ Can we take other points on the line?
Answer example, taking A = 0; 9 and B = 9 ; 0 , we get
You can take any two points. For 9 9
0 5 2

5 5 2
m= 9
= 9
= :
5
0 ( ) 2
2

Equations for Lines Let ‘ be a non-vertical line in the coordinate plane.

Suppose P = (x1; y1) is a point lying on ‘ and m is the slope of ‘. Then an equation for ‘ can be
written in the form
y y1 = m(x x1) (0.7.6)

called a point-slope form for ‘.

Remark Since there are infinitely many points on a line, ‘ has infinitely many point-slope
forms. However, we also say that (0.7.6) is the point-slope form of ‘.

FAQ Can we write the equation in the following form?

y y1 = m (0.7.7)
x x1
Answer Equation (0.7.7) represents a line minus one point. If you put (x; y) = (x1; y1) into (0.7.7), the
left-side is 0 which is undefined. This means that the point (x ; y ) does not lie on L. However, once you
1 1
0
get (0.7.7), you can obtain the point-slope form (0.7.6) easily.
16 Chapter 0. Revision

Suppose the y-intercept of ‘ is (0; b) and the slope of ‘ is m. Then a point-slope form for ‘ is

y b = m(x 0)
which can be written as

y = mx + b
called the slope-intercept form for ‘.

Example Find the slope of the line having general linear form 2x + 3y 4 = 0.

Solution Rewrite the given equation in slope-intercept form:

2x + 3y 4 = 0

3y = 2x + 4
y = 2x + 4

3 3
The slope of the line is 2 .
3

Example Let ‘ be the line that passes through the points A(1; 3) and B(2; 4). Find an equation in general
linear form for ‘.
Solution Using the points A and B, we get the slope m of ‘

m = 3 ( 4) = 7:

1 2
Using the slope m and the point A (or B), we get the point slope form
y 3= 7(x 1): (0.7.8)

Expanding and rearranging terms, (0.7.8) can be written in the following general linear form

7x + y 10=0:

Parallel and Perpendicular Lines Let ‘1 and ‘2 be (non-vertical) lines with slopes m1 and m2
respec-tively. Then
(1) ‘ and ‘ are parallel if and only if m = m ;
1 2 1 2
(2) ‘1 and ‘ are perpendicular to each other if and only if m m = 1.
2 1 2

Note
If ‘1 and ‘2 are vertical, then they are parallel.
If ‘1 is vertical and ‘2 is horizontal (or the other way round), then they are perpendicular to each other.
0.8. Pythagoras Theorem, Distance Formula and Circles 17

Example Find equations in general linear form for the two lines passing through the point (3; 2)
such that one is parallel to the line y = 3x + 1 and the other is perpendicular to it.
Solution Let ‘1 (respectively ‘2) be the line that passes through the point (3; 2) and parallel (respectively
perpendicular) to the given line. It is clear that the slope of the given line is 3. Thus the slope of ‘1 is 3 and the
1
slope of ‘2 is . From these, we get the point-slope forms for ‘1 and ‘2:
3
y ( 2) = 3(x 3) and y ( 2) = 1 (x 3)

3
respectively. Expanding and rearranging terms, we get the following linear forms
3x y 11 = 0 and x + 3y + 3 = 0

for ‘1 and ‘2 respectively.

Exercise 0.7
For each of the following, find an equation of the line satisfying the given conditions. Give your
answer in general linear form.
Passing through the origin and ( 2; 3).
(b) With slope 2 and passing through (5; 1).
(c) With slope 3 and y-intercept (0; 7).
(d) Passing through ( 3; 2) and parallel to 2x y 3 = 0.
Passing through (1; 4) and perpendicular to x + 3y = 0.
Passing through (1; 1) and perpendicular to the y-axis.

0.8 Pythagoras Theorem, Distance Formula and Circles

Pythagoras Theorem Let a, b and c be the (lengths of the) sides of a right-angled triangle where c
is the hypotenuse. Then we have
2 2 2
a +b =c :
c
b
a
Figure 0.2

Distance Formula Let P = (x1; y1) and Q = (x2; y2). Then the distance PQ between P and Q is
:
q
PQ = 2 2 Q(x2; y2)
(x2 x1) + (y2 y1)

P(x1; y1)

Figure 0.3
18 Chapter 0. Revision
Equation of Circles Let C be the circle with center at C(h; k) and radius r. Then an equation for C is

(x 2 2 2 (0.8.1)
h) + (y k) = r :

Proof Let P(x; y) be any point on the circle. Since the distance from P P(x; y)

to the center C is r, using the distance formula, we get

q = r:
2 2 C(h; k)
(x h) + (y k)

Squaring both sides yields (0.8.1).

Figure 0.4

Example Find the center and radius of the circle given by

2 2
x 4x + y + 6y 12 = 0:

Solution Using the completing square method, the given equation can be written in the form (0.8.1).
2 2
x 4x + y + 6y = 12
2 2
(x 4x + 4) + (y + 6y + 9) = 12 + 4 + 9
2 2
(x 2) + (y + 3) = 25
2 2 2
(x 2) + (y ( 3)) = 5
The center is (2; 3) and the radius is 5.

FAQ How do we get the number “9” etc (the numbers added to both sides)?
2
Answer We want to find a number (denoted by a) such that (y + 6y + a) is a complete square. That is,
2 2 (0.8.2)
y + 6y + a = (y + b)
for some number b. Expanding the right-side of (0.8.2) (do this in your head) and comparing the
coe cients of y on both sides, we get 2b = 6, that is, b = 3. Hence comparing the constant terms on
2
both sides, we get a = b = 9.
Summary a = square of half of the coe cient of y.

Exercise 0.8
1. For each of the following pairs of points, find the distance between them.
(a) ( 3; 4) and the origin (b) (4; 0) and (0; 7)
(c) (7; 5) and (12; 17) (d) ( 2; 9) and (3; 1)
2. For each of the following circles, find its radius and center.
(a) x2 + y2 4y + 1 = 0 (b) x2 + y2 + 4x 2y 4 = 0
(c) 2x2 + 2y2 + 4x 2y + 1 = 0
For each of the following, find the distance from the given point to the given line.
( 2; 3) and the y-axis
the origin and x + y = 1
(c) (1; 2) and 2x + y 6 = 0
0.9. Parabola 19

0.9 Parabola
The graph of
2
y = ax + bx + c
2
where a , 0, is a parabola. The parabola intersects the x-axis at two distinct points if b 4ac > 0. It touches
2 2
the x-axis (one intersection point only) if b 4ac = 0 and does not intersect the x-axis if b 4ac < 0.
If a > 0, the parabola opens upward and there is a lowest point (called the vertex of the
parabola). If a < 0, the parabola opens downward and there is a highest point (vertex).

a>0
a<0

Figure 0.5(a) Figure 0.5(b)

The vertical line that passes through the vertex is called the axis of symmetry because the
parabola is symmetric about this line.
To find the vertex, we can use the completing square method to write the equation in the form

2 (0.9.1)
y = a(x h) + k
2
The vertex is (h; k) because (x h) is always non-negative and so
if a > 0, then y k and thus (h; k) is the lowest point; if

a < 0, then y k and thus (h; k) is the highest point.

Example Consider the parabola given by

2
y = x + 6x + 5:
Find its vertex and axis of symmetry.
Solution Using the completing square method, the given equation can be written in the form (0.9.1).

y = x2 + 6x + 5
2
y = (x + 6x + 9) 9 + 5
y = (x + 3)2 4
y = x ( 3) 2 4:

The vertex is ( 3; 4) and the axis of symmetry is the line given by x = 3 (the vertical line that
passes through
the vertex).

2
FAQ In the above example, the coe cient of x is 1, what should we do if it is not 1?
 20 Chapter 0. Revision
2 4. To rewrite the equation in the form (0.9.1),
Answer To illustrate the procedure, let’s consider y = 2x + 3x
2 b
consider the first two terms and rewrite it in the form a x + x .
a
y = 2 x2 + 2 x 4 2 2

3
2 !
y = 2x +2x+ 4 4 4
3 3 3
2 x+ ! 4
y = 2x +

2 4 16
4

3
2 9
3 9

y = 2x+ 3 2

2
3 41

y = 2x+ 4 8

4 8

Exercise 0.9
1. For each of the following parabolas, find its x-intercept(s), y-intercept and vertex.
2 2
(a) y = x + 4x 12 (b) y = x + 6x 7
2
y = 2x + 2x + 7

0.10 Systems of Equations

A system of two equations in two unknowns x and y can be written as
F1(x; y) = 0
F2(x; y) = 0:

Usually, each equation represents a curve in the coordinate plane. Solving the system means to
find all ordered pairs (x0; y0) such that F1(x0; y0) = 0 and F2(x0; y0) = 0, that is, to find all points
P(x0; y0) that lies on the intersection of the two curves.

To solve a system of two linear equations (with two unknowns x and y)

ax + by + c = 0
dx + ey + f = 0;
we can use elimination or substitution.

Example Solve the following system of equations

2x + 3y = 7 (0.10.1)

3x + 5y = 11 (0.10.2)
Solution

(Elimination) Multiply (0.10.1) and (0.10.2) by 3 and 2 respectively, we get

6x + 9y = 21 (0.10.3)
6x + 10y = 22 (0.10.4)
 0.10. Systems of Equations 21

Subtracting (0.10.3) from (0.10.4), we get y = 1.

Substituting y = 1 back into (0.10.1) or (0.10.2) and solving, we get x = 2.
The solution to the system is (2; 1).

Remark The point (2; 1) is the intersection point of the lines given by 2x + 3y = 7 and 3x +
7 3y
5y = 11. (Substitution) From (0.10.1), we get x = 2 . Substituting into (0.10.2), we get
7 3y
3 + 5y = 11
2
3(7 3y) + 10y = 22
y = 1

and we can proceed as in the elimination method.

To solve a system in two unknowns, with one linear equation and one quadratic equation

ax + by + c = 0
2 2
dx + exy + f y + gx + hy + k = 0
we can use substitution. From the linear equation, we can express x in terms of y (or vice versa). Substituting
into the quadratic equation, we get a quadratic equation in y which can be solved by factorization or by
formula. Substituting the value(s) of y back into the linear equation, we get the corresponding value(s) of x.

x 2y = 4 (0.10.5)
2 2 = 5 (0.10.6)
x +y
Solution From (0.10.5), we get x = 4 + 2y. Substituting into (0.10.6), we get
2 2
(4 + 2y) + y = 5

2
5y + 16y + 11 = 0:
Solving we get y = 1 or y = 11 .
5 11 2
Substituting y = 1 into (0.10.5), we get x = 2; substituting y = into (0.10.5), we get x = .
2 11 . 5 5
The solutions to the system are (2; 1) and ;
5 5

Remark
If we substitute y = 1 into (0.10.6), we get two values of x, one of which should be rejected.
2 2
The solutions are the intersection points of the line x 2y = 4 and the circle x + y = 5.

Example Find the point(s) of intersection, if any, of the line and the parabola given by x + y 1 = 0
and y = x2 + 2 respectively.
22 Chapter 0. Revision
Solution From the equation of the line, we get y = 1 x. Putting into the equation of the parabola, we get

1 x = +2
x2
0 = + x + 1:
x2
2
= 1 4(1)(1) < 0, the above quadratic equation has no solution. Hence the
system x + y 1 = 0
2
= x +2
has no solution, that is, the line and the parabola do not intersect.

Exercise 0.10
1. Consider a rectangle with perimeter 28 cm and diagonal 10 cm. Find the length and width of the rectangle.
 Chapter 1

Sets, Real Numbers and Inequalities

1.1 Sets
1.1.1 Introduction
Idea of definition A set is a collection of objects.

This is not a definition because we have not defined what a collection is. If we give a definition for
collec-tion, it must involve something that have not been defined. It is impossible to define everything. In
mathematics, set is a fundamental concept that cannot be defined. The idea of definition given above
describes what a set is using daily language. This helps us “understand” the meaning of a set.

Terminology An object in a set is called an element or a member of the set.

To describe sets, we can use listing or description.

[Listing] To denote a set with finitely many elements, we can list all the elements of the set and
enclose them by braces. For example,
f1; 2; 3g

is the set which has exactly three elements, namely 1, 2 and 3.

If we want to denote the set whose elements are the first one hundred positive integers, it is
impractical to write down all the elements. Instead, we write

f1; 2; 3; : : : ; 99; 100g; or simply f1; 2; : : : ; 100g:

The three dots “: : :”(read “and so on”) means that the pattern is repeated, up to the
number(s) listed at the end.

Suppose in a problem, we consider a set, say f1; 2; : : : ; 100g. We may have to refer to the
set later many times. Instead of writing f1; 2; : : : ; 100g repeatedly, we can give it a name by
using a symbol to represent the set. Usually, we use small letters (eg. a; b; : : :) to denote objects
and capital letters (eg. A; B; : : :) to denote sets. For example, we may write
“Let A = f1; 2; : : : ; 100g.”
 24 Chapter 1. Sets, Real Numbers and Inequalities

which means that the set f1; 2; : : : ; 100g is given the “name” A. If we want to refer to the set
later, we can just write A. For example,
“Let A = f1; 2; : : : ; 100g. Then 100 is an element of A, but 101 is not an element of A.”
If we consider another set, say f1; 2; 3; 4; 5g and want to give it a name, we must not use the
symbol A again, because in the problem, A always means the set f1; 2; : : : ; 100g. For example,
“Let A = f1; 2; : : : ; 100g. Let B = f1; 2; 3; 4; 5g. Then every element of B is also an element
of A. But there are elements of A that are not elements of B.”

Remark The equality sign “=” can be used in several ways as the following examples illustrate.
1+2=3.
2
x + 1 = 5.
Let A = f1; 2; 3g.
The equality sign in (1) means equality of two quantities: the quantity on the left and the
quantity on the right are equal.
The equality sign in (2) is an equality in an equation. It is true when x = 2 (for example) and it is
not true when x = 1 (for example). Instead of using the equality sign, some authors use “==”. The
equation in (2) may be written as
0 2
(2 ) x + 1 == 5.
The equality sign in (3) has a di erent meaning. The sentence in (3) means that the set f1; 2;
3g is denoted by A. The symbol “=” assigns a name to an object (a set is also an object). The
name is written on the left side and the object on the right side. Instead of using the equality sign,
some authors use the symbol “:=”. The sentence in (3) may be written as
0
(3 ) Let A := f1; 2; 3g.
In this course, we will not use the notations “:=” and “==”. Readers can determine the meaning of
“=” from the context.

Notation Given an object x and a set A, either x is an element of A or x is not an element of A.

If x is an element of A, we write x 2 A (read “x belongs to A”).
If x is not an element of A, we write x < A (read “x does not belong to A”).

There is a set that has no element. It is called the empty set, denoted by ;. This is a
Scandinavian letter, a zero 0 together with a slash /.
Definition The set that has no element is called the empty set and is denoted by ;.
Remark Because the empty set has no element, if we list all the elements of it and enclose “them”

by braces, we get f g. This is an alternative notation for the empty set.

[Description] Another way to denote a set is to describe a common property of the elements of the
set, using the following notation:
fx : P(x)g or fx j P(x)g
1.1. Sets 25

read “the set of all x such that P(x) (is true)”. For example, the set whose elements are the
first one hundred positive integers can be expressed as
(y) fx : x is a positive integer less than 101g

In considering “property”, it is understood that the property applies to a certain collection of

objects only. For example, when we say “an old person” (a person is said to be old if his or her
age is 65 or above), the property of being “old” is applied to people. It is meaningless to say “this
is an old atom” (unless we have a definition which tells whether an atom is old or not).
The property of being a positive integer less than 101 is applied to numbers. In this course,
we consider real numbers only. The set of all real numbers is denoted by R. In considering
the set given in (y), it is understood that x is a real number. To make this explicit, we write
(z) fx 2 R : x is a positive integer less than 101g

read “the set of all x belonging to R such that x is a positive integer less than 101”.

Notation
The set of all real numbers is denoted by R.
The set of all rational numbers is denoted by Q.
The set of all integers is denoted by Z.
The set of all positive integers is denoted by Z+.
The set of all natural numbers is denoted by N.

Definition
p
A rational number is a number that can be written in the form q where p and q are integers and q , 0.
Positive integers together with 0 are called natural numbers.

Remark Some authors do not include 0 as natural number. In that case, N means the set of all positive integers.

Example
To say that 2 is a natural number, we may write 2 2 N.
To say that 2 is a rational number, we may write 2 2 Q.
2 6
Note: The number 2 is a rational number because it can be written as 1 or 3 etc.
To say that is not a rational number, we may write < Q.
22 22
Note: , 7 ; the rational number 7 is only an approximation to .

Definition Let A and B be sets. If every element of A is also an element of B and vice versa, then
we say that A and B are equal, denoted by A = B.

Remark
In mathematics, definitions are important. Students who want to take more courses in mathematics
must pay attention to definitions. Understand the meaning, give examples, give nonexamples.
26 Chapter 1. Sets, Real Numbers and Inequalities

In the definition, the first sentence “Let A and B be sets” describes the setting. The definition
for equality applies to sets only and does not apply to other objects. Of course, we can
consider equality of other objects, but it is another definition.

In the first sentence “Let A and B be sets”, the use of plural “sets” does not mean that A and
B are two di erent sets. It also includes the case where A and B are the same set. The
following are alternative ways to say this:
Let A and B be set(s).
Let A be a set and let B be a set.
However, these alternative ways are rather cumbersome and will not be used in most situations.

Some students may not be familiar with the use of the word “let”. It is used very often in
mathematics. Consider the following sentences:
Let A = f1; 2; 3; 4;
5g. Let A be a set.
The word “let” appears in both sentences. However, the meanings of “let” in the two sentences
are quite di erent. In the first sentence, “let” means denote whereas in the second sentence, it
means suppose. The definition for equality of sets can also be stated in the following ways:
Suppose A and B are sets. If every element of A is also an element of B and vice versa,
then we say that A and B are equal.
If A and B are sets and if every element of A is also an element of B and vice versa, then
we say that A and B are equal.

The definition can also be stated in a way that the assumption that A and B are sets is
combined with the condition for equality of A and B.
If every element of a set A is also an element of a set B and vice versa, then we say that
A and B are equal.

The definition tells that if A and B are sets having the same elements, then A = B. Conversely, it also
tells that if A and B are sets and A = B, then A and B have the same elements because this is the
condition to check whether A and B are equal. Some mathematicians give the definition using i :
Let A and B be sets. We say that A and B are equal if and only if every element of A is
also an element of B and vice versa.

Sometimes, we also give definition of a concept together with its “opposite”. The following is a
definition of equality of sets together with its opposite. In this course, we will use the following format
(a) describe the setting;
(b) give condition(s) for the concept;
(c) give condition(s) for the opposite
concept, whenever it is appropriate.

Definition Let A and B be sets. If every element of A is also an element of B and vice versa, then we say that
1.1. Sets 27

A and B are equal, denoted by A = B. Otherwise, we say that A and B are unequal, denoted by A , B.

Example Let A = f1; 3; 5; 7; 9g and let B = fx 2 Z : x is a positive odd number less than 10g. Then we have A
= B, that is, A and B are equal. This is because every element of A is also an element of B and vice versa.
Recall: Z is the set of all integers. Thus B is the set of all integers that are positive, odd and less than 10.

Remark To prove that the sets A and B in the above example are equal, we check whether the
condition given in the definition is satisfied. This is called proof by definition.

Example Let A = f1; 3; 5; 7; 9g and let B = fx 2 Z+ : x is a prime number less than 10g. Then we have A , B.
Recall: Z+ is the set of all positive integers.

Proof The number 9 is an element of A, but it is not an element of B. Therefore, it is not true that every element
of A is also an element of B. Hence we have A , B.

FAQ In the above two examples, the assertions are quite obvious. Do we need to prove them?

Answer Sometimes, mathematicians also write “obvious” in proofs of theorems. To some people, a
result may be obvious; but, it may not be obvious to other people. If you say obvious, make sure
that it is really obvious— if your classmates ask you why, you should be able to explain to them.
It is impractical to explain everything. In proving theorems or giving solutions to examples, reasons
that are “obvious” will not be given. When you answer questions, you should use your own judgment.

Remark Because it is impractical (in fact, impossible) to explain everything, discussion below will
not be so detail as that above. If you don’t understand a concept, read the definition again. Try di
erent ways to understand it. Relate it with what you have learnt. Guess what the meaning is. See
whether your guess is correct if you apply it to examples : : :

Example Let A = f1; 2; 3g and let B = f1; 3; 2g. Then we have A = B.

Proof Obvious (use definition).

The above example shows that in listing elements of a set, order is not important. It should also
be noted that in listing elements, there is no need to repeat the elements. For example, f1; 2; 3; 2;
1g and f1; 2; 3g are the same set.

Definition Let A and B be sets. If every element of A is also an element of B, then we say that A is
a subset of B, denoted by A B. Otherwise, we say that A is not a subset of B, denoted by A * B.

Note
A A.
A = B if and only if A B and B A.
A * B means that there is at least one element of A that is not an element of B.
28 Chapter 1. Sets, Real Numbers and Inequalities

Remark Instead of A B, some authors use A B to denote A is a subset of B.

Example Let A = f1; 2; 3; 4; 5g, B = f1; 3; 5g and C = f2; 4; 6g.

Then we have B A and C * A. 1
2
The relation between A, B and C can be described by 3 6
the dia-gram shown in Figure 1.1. 4
5

Figure 1.1
FAQ For the given sets A, B and C, we also have the following:

A*B
A*C
C*B
B*C
Why are they omitted?
Answer Good and correct observation. Given three sets, there are six ways to pair them up. The example just
illustrates the meaning of and *.

1.1.2 Set Operations

Definition Let A and B be sets.
The intersection of A and B, denoted by A \ B, is the set whose elements are those belonging to
both A and B, that is,
A \ B = fx : x 2 A and x 2 Bg:

The union of A and B, denoted by A [ B, is the set whose elements are those belonging to either
A or B or both A and B, that is
A [ B = fx : x 2 A or x 2 Bg:
Remark In mathematics, “P or Q” means “either P or Q or both P and Q”.

Example Let A = f2; 3; 5g, B = f2; 5; 6; 8g and C = f1; 2; 3g. Find the following sets.
A\B
A[B
(A\B)\C
A\(B\C)
Solution
A \ B = f2; 5g
A [ B = f2; 3; 5; 6; 8g
(3) (A \ B) \ C = f2; 5g \ f1; 2; 3g

f2g
1.1. Sets 29
(4) A\(B\C) = f2; 3; 5g \ f2g

= f2g
Note Given any sets A; B and C, we always have
(A\B)\C =A\(B\C) and (A[B)[C = A[(B[C):

Thus we may write A \ B \ C and A [ B [ C without ambiguity. We say that set intersection and set
union are associative.

Definition Let A and B be sets. The relative complement of B in A, denoted by A n B or A B (read “A setminus
(or minus) B”), is the set whose elements are those belonging to A but not belonging to B, that is,

A n B = fx 2 A : x < Bg:

Example Let A = fa; b; cg and B = fc; d; eg. Then we have A n B = fa; bg.

For each problem, we will consider a set that is “large” enough, containing all objects under
consideration. Such a set is called a universal set and is usually denoted by U. In this case, all sets
under consideration are subsets of U and they can be written in the form fx 2 U : P(x)g.
Example In considering addition and subtraction of whole numbers (0; 1; 2; 3; 4; : : :), we may use
Z (the set of all integers) as a universal set.
The set of all positive even numbers can be written as fx 2 Z : x > 0 and x is divisible by 2g.
The set of all prime numbers can be written as fx 2 Z : x > 0 and x has exactly two divisorsg.

Definition Let U be a universal set and let B be a subset of U. Then the set U n B is called the
0 c
complement of B (in U) and is denoted by B (or B ).

Example Let U = Z+, the set of all positive integers. Let B be the set of all positive even numbers.
0
Then B is the set of all positive odd numbers.

Example Let U = f1; 2; 3; : : : ; 12g and let

= fx 2 U : x is a prime numberg
= fx 2 U : x is an even numberg
= fx 2 U : x is divisible by 3g:

Find the following sets.

A[B
A\C
B\C
(A[B)\C
(A\C)[(B\C)
30 Chapter 1. Sets, Real Numbers and Inequalities

0
(A [ B)
0 0
A \B
Solution Note that
= f2; 3; 5; 7; 11g
= f2; 4; 6; 8; 10; 12g
C = f3; 6; 9; 12g:
A [ B = f2; 3; 4; 5; 6; 7; 8; 10; 11; 12g
A \ C = f3g
(3) B \ C = f6; 12g
(4) (A[B)\C = f2; 3; 4; 5; 6; 7; 8; 10; 11; 12g \ f3; 6; 9; 12g
= f3; 6; 12g
(5) (A\C)[(B\C) = f3g [ f6; 12g
= f3; 6; 12g
(6) (A [ B)0 = f2; 3; 4; 5; 6; 7; 8; 10; 11; 12g
0

= f1; 9g
(7) A0\B0 = f1; 4; 6; 8; 9; 10; 12g \ f1; 3; 5; 7; 9; 11g
= f1; 9g
Remark In the above example, we have
0 0 0 and (A[B)\C = (A\C)[(B\C):
(A [ B) =A \B

In fact, these equalities are true in general.

Venn Diagrams
U
A
A Venn diagram is a very useful and simple device
to rep-resent sets graphically.
In a Venn diagram, the universal set U is usually
repre-sented by a rectangle. Inside this rectangle, C
subsets of the universal set are represented by circles,
rectangles, or some other geometrical figures.
B
Figure 1.2
We can use Venn diagrams to obtain useful formulas for set operations.
In Figure 1.3(a), the portion shaded by horizontal lines represents A [ B and that by vertical lines
repre-sents C; thus the portion shaded by both horizontal and vertical lines represents (A [ B) \ C.
In Figure 1.3(b), the portion shaded by horizontal lines represents A \ C and that by vertical lines repre-

sents B \ C; thus the portion shaded by vertical or horizontal lines represents (A \ C) [ (B \ C).
1.1. Sets 31

A U A U

C C
B B

Figure 1.3(a) Figure 1.3(b)

From the two figures, we see that

(A[B)\C = (A\C)[(B\C):

Venn diagrams help us in a visual way to identify the above formulas. However, in order to prove
these formulas in a rigorous manner, one should use formal mathematical logic.
Proof Using definition of set operations, we have

x 2 (A [ B) \ C () x 2 A [ B and x 2 C
() (x 2 A or x 2 B) and x 2 C
() (x 2 A and x 2 C) or (x 2 B and x 2 C)
() (x 2 A \ C) or (x 2 B \ C)
() x 2 (A \ C) [ (B \ C)

This means that every element of (A [ B) \ C is also an element of (A \ C) [ (B \ C) and vice versa. Thus the
two sets are equal.

Remark For more than three subsets of U, observations obtained from Venn diagrams may not be
correct. For four subsets, we need to draw 3-dimensional Venn diagrams.

Exercise 1.1
Let A = fx 2 U : x 10g, B = fx 2 U : x is a prime numberg and C = fx 2 U : x is an even numberg,
where U = f1; 2; 3; : : : ; 19g is the universal set. Find the following sets.
(a) A\B (b) A\C
(c) B\C (d) A[B
(e) A[C (f) B[C
(g) A[B[C (h) A\B\C
(i) (A[B)\C (j) (A\B)[C
(k) 0 (l) 0 0
A\B A \B
2. Let A, B and C be subsets of a universal set U. For each of the following statements,
determine whether it is true or not.
32 Chapter 1. Sets, Real Numbers and Inequalities

0
A B=A \B
(A[B)\C =A[(B\C)
0 0
(c) (A [B )\B=B A
A statement above is true means that it is true for all possible choices of A, B, C and U. To show that
the statement is false, it is enough to give a counterexample. To show that it is true, you can draw a
Venn diagram to convince yourself; but to be more rigorous, you should use formal mathematical logic.

1.2 Real Numbers

1.2.1 The Number Systems

(1) The numbers 0; 1; 2; 3; : : : are called natural numbers. The set of all natural numbers is
denoted by N, that is,
= f0; 1; 2; 3; : : :g:

Remark The three dots “: : :” means that the pattern is repeated indefinitely.

FAQ In some books, N is defined to be f1; 2; 3; : : :g. Which one should we follow?

Answer Some authors do not include 0 in N. This is just a convention; once we know the definition, it

will not cause any problem. (2) The numbers 0; 1; 1; 2; 2; : : : are called integers. The set of

all integers is denoted by Z, that is, Z = f ; 3; 2; 1; 0; 1; 2; 3; g:

p
Numbers in the form q where p; q 2 Z and q , 0 are called rational numbers. The set of all
rational numbers is denoted by Q, that is,
n p o
Q= q : p; q are integers, and q , 0 :

Note Z Q, that is, every integer is a rational number. For example, the integer 2 can be
2
written as 1 and is therefore a rational number.
3

All rational numbers can be represented by decimal numbers that terminate, such as 4 = 0:75, or by
4

non-terminating but repeating decimals, such as 11 = 0:363636 .

Numbers that can be represented by non-terminating and non-repeating decimals are called irrational
p
numbers. For example, and 2 are irrational numbers. The following shows the first 50 decimals of :

= 3:14159265358979323846264338327950288419716939937511 : : :

Rational numbers together with irrational numbers are called real numbers. The set of all real
numbers is denoted by R.
1.2. Real Numbers 33

In R, we have the algebraic operations +; (and ; also) as well as binary relations <; ; >; .
Numbers greater than (respectively smaller than) 0 are called positive (respectively negative).

Real Number Line Real numbers can be represented by points on a line, called the real number line.

j j j j
>
1 0 1 2
Figure 1.4

Notation The following nine types of subsets of R are called intervals:

[a; b] = fx 2 R : a x bg (1.2.1)
(a; b) = fx 2 R : a < x < bg (1.2.2)
[a; b) = fx 2 R : a x < bg (1.2.3)
(a; b] = fx 2 R : a < x bg (1.2.4)
[a; 1) = fx 2 R : a xg (1.2.5)
(a; 1) = fx 2 R : a < xg (1.2.6)
( ; b] = fx 2 R : x bg (1.2.7)
( ; b) = fx 2 R : x < bg (1.2.8)
( ; 1) = R (1.2.9)
where a and b are real numbers with a < b and 1 and (read “infinity” and “minus infinity”) are just symbols

but not real numbers.

FAQ What are the meaning of 1 and ?

Answer Intuitively, you may imagine that there is a point, denoted by 1, very far away on the right (and
on the left). So (a; 1) is the set whose elements are the points between a and 1, that is, real numbers greater
than a.

Remark The notation (a; b), where a < b, has two di erent meanings. It denotes an ordered pair as well
as an interval. To avoid ambiguity, some authors use ]a; b[ to denote the open interval fx 2 R : a < x <
bg. In this course, we will not use this notation. Readers can determine the meaning from the context.

Terminology
Intervals in the form (a; b), [a; b], (a; b] and [a; b) are called bounded intervals and those in the form

( ; b), ( ; b], (a; 1), [a; 1) and ( ; 1) are called unbounded intervals.
Intervals in the form (a; b), ( ; b), (a; 1) and ( ; 1) are called open intervals. For each of such
intervals, the endpoint(s), if there is any, does not belong to the interval.
Intervals in the form [a; b], ( ; b], [a; 1) and ( ; 1) are called closed intervals. For each of such
intervals, the endpoint(s), if there is any, belongs to the interval.
Intervals in the form [a; b] are called closed and bounded intervals.
34 Chapter 1. Sets, Real Numbers and Inequalities

A set fag with exactly one element of R is called a degenerated interval (its length
is 0). Some authors also include ; as an interval (called the empty interval).
In this course, an interval means a nonempty, non-degenerated interval, that is, an infinite subset of R
that can be written in the form (1.2.1), (1.2.2), (1.2.3), (1.2.4), (1.2.5), (1.2.6), (1.2.7), (1.2.8) or (1.2.9).

Example For each of the following pairs of intervals A and B,

A = [1; 5] and B = (3; 10]
A = [ 2; 3] and B = (7; 11]

determine whether it is (i) an open interval, (ii) a closed interval , (iii) a bounded
interval; find A \ B and determine whether it is an interval.
find A [ B and determine whether it is an interval.

Both A and B are not open intervals.

A is a closed interval but B is not a closed
interval. Both A and B are bounded intervals.
A \ B = (3; 5]; it is an interval. A

[ B = [1; 10]; it is an interval.

Both A and B are not open intervals.

A is a closed interval but B is not a closed
interval. Both A and B are bounded intervals.
A \ B = ;; it is not an interval.
A [ B = [ 2; 3] [ (7; 11]; it is not an interval.
Both A and B are not open intervals.
B is a closed interval but A is not a closed interval.
A is a bounded interval but B is not a bounded interval.
A \ B = ;; it is not an interval.
A [ B = [ 7; 1); it is an interval.

1.2.2 Radicals
Definition

(1) Let a and b be real numbers and let q be a positive integer. If aq = b, we say that a is a qth root of b.

Example
(a) 2 is the cube root of 8.
(b) 3 and 3 are the square roots of 9.
1.2. Real Numbers 35

Note
If q is odd, then every real number has a unique qth root.
If q is even, then
every positive real number has two qth roots;
negative real numbers do not have qth root;
the qth root of 0 is 0.
pq
Let b be a real number and let q be a positive integer. The principal qth root of b, denoted by b,
is defined as follows:
p
if q is odd, qb is the unique qth root of b;
if q is even,
pq
b is the positive qth root of b if b > 0;
pq
b is undefined b if b < 0;
pq
b is 0 if b = 0.
p p
When q = 2, 2 x is simply written as x.
p
FAQ Can we write 4 = 2 ?
Answer According to the definition, p4 is the principle square root of 4, which is the positive

real number whose square is 4. That is, p4 = 2.

2
FAQ In solving x = 4, we get x = 2. Is this di erent from the above question?
p 2
Answer To find 4 is di erent from solving x = 4.
p
4 is a uniquely defined real number.
2
To solve x = 4 is to find real numbers whose square is 4. There are two such numbers,
namely 2 and 2.
Don’t mix up the two questions.

Example
p4
81 = 3
p3
8= 2
p p2
25 = 25 = 5
p p2
0= 0=0
p6
3 is undefined.
pq
Terminology The symbol b is called a radical (q is called the index and b the
p 2
radicand). FAQ Is a = a always true?
p 2
Answer It is true if (and only if) a 0. If a < 0, we have a = a.
36 Chapter 1. Sets, Real Numbers and Inequalities

(3) Let b be a positive real number. Let p and q be integers where q > 0. We define
p
pq
b = bp ;
q

p p
which is the same as qb .
2
p3 p3
Example 8 = 82 = 64 = 4
3
p3 2 2
Remark Equivalently, we have 8 2 = 8 = 2 = 4.
3

FAQ Are the rules for exponents on page 1 valid if m and n are rational numbers?
Answer The rules remain valid for rational exponents, provided that the base is positive (this is required in the
p
s t s+t
definition of b q ). For example, we have b b = b , where b > 0 and s; t 2 Q. Proof
m p
Write s = n and t = q where m; n; p; q are integers with q; n > 0. Note that
mq + np
s = mq ; t = np and s+t= :
nq nq nq

By definition (equivalent form), we have and t np :

s b =p
b = pb mq b
nq nq

mqnp
p
Denote = nq b. Then we have
s t mq+np
b b nq(s+t)

= nq s+t

= bs+t

FAQ Can we define b raising to an irrational power? For example, can we define 2

? How? Answer This is deep question. The idea will be discussed Chapter 8.

Exercise 1.2
Find the following sets.
2
fx 2 R : x = 2g
2
fx 2 R : x 0 and x = 2g
2
fx 2 Q : x = 2g
Let A = [1; 5], B = [3; 9), C = f1; 5g and D = [5; 1). Find
(a) A \ B (b) A [ B
(c) A C (d) B \ C
(e) C B (f) B C
(g) B (B C) (h) A [ D
C\D
1.3. Solving Inequalities 37

1.3 Solving Inequalities

An inequality in one unknown x can be written in one of the following forms:
F(x) > 0
F(x) 0
F(x) < 0
F(x) 0
where F is a function from a subset of R into R.

Definition Consider an inequality in the form F(x) > 0 (the other cases can be treated similarly).
A real number x0 satisfying F(x0) > 0 is called a solution to the inequality.
The set of all solutions to the inequality is called the solution set to the inequality.
To solve an inequality means to find all the solutions to the inequality, or equivalently, to find the
solution set. In this section, we consider polynomial inequalities
n n1 (1.3.1)
an x + an 1 x + + a1 x + a0 < 0 (or > 0; or 0; or 0)

where n 1 and an , 0.

When n = 1, (1.3.1) is a linear inequality. A revision for solving linear inequalities is given in Chapter 0.
In the following examples, we consider several linear inequalities simultaneously.

Example Find the solution set to the following compound inequality:

1 3 2x 9

Solution The inequality means 2x 9:

1 3 2x and 3

Solving them separately, we get

2x 2 and 6 x

x 1 3 x:
The solution set is fx 2 R : x 1 and 3 xg = fx 2 R : 3 x 1g.
Remark Using interval notation, the solution set can be written as [ 3; 1].
Example Find the solution set to the following:

2x + 1 < 3 and 3x + 10 < 4:

Give your answer using interval notation.

Solution Solving the inequalities separately, we get

2x < 2 and 3x < 6

x < 1 x < 2:
 38 Chapter 1. Sets, Real Numbers and Inequalities

Therefore, we have fx 2 R : x < 1 and x < 2g

solution set =
= fx 2 R : x < 2g
= ( ; 2):
Example Find the solution set to the following:

2x + 1 > 9 and 3x + 4 < 10

Solution Solving the inequalities separately, we get

2x > 8 and 3x < 6

x > 4 x < 2:
The solution set is fx 2 R : x > 4 and x < 2g = ;.

1.3.1 Quadratic Inequalities

A quadratic inequality (in one unknown) is an inequality that can be written in the form
2
ax + bx + c < 0 (or > 0; or 0; or 0) (1.3.2) where a , 0. This
corresponds to n = 2 in (1.3.1).
We use an example to describe three methods for solving quadratic inequalities. The first two
methods make use of the following properties of real numbers.
> 0 and > 0 =)> 0
< 0 and < 0 =)> 0
> 0 and < 0 =) < 0 From these
we get
> 0 () ( > 0 and > 0) or ( < 0 and < 0)
< 0 () ( > 0 and < 0) or ( < 0 and > 0)

2
Example Find the solution set to the inequality x + 2x 15 > 0.
Solution
(Method 1) First we factorize the quadratic polynomial:
2
x + 2x 15 > 0

(x + 5)(x 3) > 0;
and then apply Property (4):
(x + 5 > 0 and x 3 > 0) or (x + 5 < 0 and x 3 < 0)

(x > 5 and x > 3) or (x < 5 and x < 3)

x > 3 or x< 5
The solution set is fx 2 R : x < 5 or x > 3g = ( ; 5) [ (3; 1).
 1.3. Solving Inequalities 39

(Method 2) By factorization, we have

L:S : = (x + 5)(x 3):

The left-side is zero when x = 5 or 3. These two points divide the real
number line into three intervals:

( ;5); ( 5; 3); (3; 1):

In the following table, the first two rows give the signs of (x + 5) and (x on each of these intervals.
Hence, using Properties (1), (2) and (3), we obtain the signs of (x + 5)(x in the third row.
x< 5 x= 5 5<x<3 x=3 x>3
x+5 0 + + +
x 3 0 +
(x + 5)(x 3) + 0 0 +
The solution set is ( ; 5) [ (3; 1).

Remark To determine the sign of (x + 5), first we note that it is 0 when x = 5. Since (x + 5) increases as
x increases, it is positive when x > 5 and negative when x < 5.

2
(Method 3) The graph of y = x +2x 15 is a parabola opening
2 15
y = x + 2x
upward and it cuts the x-axis at x1 = 5 and x2 = 3. To 5
-6 -4 -2 2 4
2
solve the inequality x + 2x 15 > 0 means to find all x
-5
such that the corresponding points on the parabola -15
has y-coordinates greater than 0. From the graph, we
see that the parabola is above the x-axis if and only if
x < 5 or x > 3. Therefore,
Figure 1.5
the solution set is ( ; 5) [ (3; 1).

1.3.2 Polynomial Inequalities with degrees 3

In this section, we consider polynomial inequalities (1.3.1) of degree n 3. To solve such polynomial
inequal-ities, for example p(x) > 0, we can use methods similar to that for quadratic inequalities.
The first step is to factorize p(x).
3 2
Example Factorize the polynomial p(x) = x + 3x 4x 12.
Solution First we try to find a factor of the form (x c) where c is an integer. For this, we try

= 1; 2; 3; 4; 6; 12:

Direct substitution gives p(2) = 0 and so (x 2) is a factor of p(x). Using long division, we obtain
3 2 2
x + 3x 4x 12 = (x 2)(x + 5x + 6)
and then using inspection we get
3 2 4x 12 = (x 2)(x + 2)(x + 3):
x + 3x

In the above procedure, we make use of the following

40 Chapter 1. Sets, Real Numbers and Inequalities

Theorem 1.3.1 Let

n n1
p(x) = cn x + cn 1 x + + c1 x + c0

be a polynomial of degree n where c0; c1; : : : ; cn 2 Z. Suppose (ax b) is a factor of p(x) where
a; b 2 Z. Then
divides cn and b divides c0.

FAQ Can we use Factor Theorem to find all the linear factors?
Answer If some linear factors are repeated more than once, we can’t determine which one is repeated (and also
3
how many times?). For example, let p(x) = x 3x + 2. Using Factor Theorem, we get linear factors
(x 1) and (x + 2). It is incorrect to write p(x) = (x 1)(x + 2). Indeed, we have
2
p(x) = (x 1) (x + 2):

Remark We say that (x 1) is a factor of p(x) repeated twice.

3 2
Example Find the solution set to the inequality x + 3x 4x 12 0.
Solution Factorizing the polynomial p(x) on the left side we obtain
3 2
p(x) = x + 3x 4x 12 = (x 2)(x + 2)(x + 3):

The sign of p(x) can be determined from the following table:

x< 3 x= 3 3<x< 2 x= 2 2<x<2 x=2 2<x

x 2 0 +
x+2 0 + + +
x+3 0 + + + + +
p(x) 0 + 0 0 +

The solution set is fx 2 R : x 3 or 2 x 2g = ( ; 3] [ [ 2; 2].

FAQ Can we use Method 1 described in Section 1.3.1?

Answer You can use that method. However the “and/or” logic is more complicated. If the degree of
the polynomial is 3, there are 4 cases; if the degree is 4, there are 8 cases. The number of cases
doubles if the degree increases by 1.
For the table method, if the degree increases by 1, the number of factors and the number of intervals increase
by (at most) 1 only.

FAQ Can we use graphical method?

3 2 3 2 4x 12
Answer If you know the graph of y = x + 3x 4x 12, y = x + 3x
10
5
you can write down the solution immediately. For
that, you need to know the x-intercepts (obtained by -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2

factoring the polynomial) and also the shape of the

-5
graph (on which interval is the graph going up or -10

down?). This will be dis-cussed in Chapter 5.

Figure 1.6
1.3. Solving Inequalities 41
Exercise 1.3

1. Solve the following inequalities:

(a) 2x 3 4 + 7x (b) 8(x + 1) 2 < 5(x 6) + 7
(c) x 2 3x + 7 < 1 (d) (2x + 7)(5 11x) 0
2
x +1
(e) x 2 2x 3<0 (f) 2x2 3x > 4
2 2x + 3
2x (h) x 4 0
(g) 3x < 4
(i) 2x + 3 < 1
x 4
a
Note: b < 0 is equivalent to a b < 0.
2. Factorize the following polynomials:
(a) 2x3 + 7x2 15x (b) 2x3 + 3x2 2x 3
(c) x3 x2 x 2 (d) x4 3x3 13x2 + 15x
(e) x4 3x3 + x2 + 3x 2 (f) x4 x3 + x2 3x + 2
3. Solve the following inequalities: 2
3)(2x + 1) 0
(a) (x 4)(9 5x)(2x + 3) < 0 (b) (x
(c) x3 2x2 5x + 6 < 0 (d) 3 2
2x + x + 15x 18 0
(e) x3 x2 5x 3 > 0 3 2
(f) x + 3x + 5x + 3 0
(g) x4 + 2x3 13x2 14x + 24 > 0 (h) 4 3 2
6x + x 15x 0
42 Chapter 1. Sets, Real Numbers and Inequalities
Chapter 2

Functions and Graphs

2.1 Functions
Informal definition Let A and B be sets. A function from A into B, denoted by f : A ! B, is a “rule” that
assigns to each element of A exactly one element of B.
Remark If the sets A and B are understood (or are not important for the problem under
consideration), instead of saying “a function from A into B”, we simply say “a function” and instead
of writing f : A ! B, we simply write f .
Terminology and Notation The sets A and B are called the domain and codomain of f respectively.
The domain of f is denoted by dom ( f ).
FAQ In the above informal definition, what is the meaning of a rule?
Answer It is di cult to tell what a rule is. The above informal definition describes the idea of a function. There
is a rigorous definition. However, it involves more definitions and notations. Interested readers may consult
books on set theory or foundation of mathematics.

Notation & Terminology Let f be a function. For each x belonging to the domain of f , the corresponding
element (in the codomain of f ) assigned by f is denoted by f (x) and is called the image of x under f .

Remark Some people write f (x) to denote a function. This notation may be misleading because it also
means an image. However, sometimes for convenience, such notations are used. For example, we
2 2
write x to denote the square function, that is, the function f (from R into R) given by f (x) = x .

In this course, most of the functions we consider are functions whose domains and codomains
are subsets of R. A variable that represents the “input numbers” for a function is called an
independent variable. A variable that represents the “output numbers” is called a dependent
variable because its value depends on the value of the independent variable.

Example Consider the function f : R ! R given by

2
f (x) = x + 2:
44 Chapter 2. Functions and Graphs

2
We may also write y = x + 2 to represent this function. For each input x, the function gives exactly
2
one output x + 2, which is y. If x = 3, then y = 11; if x = 6, then y = 38 etc. The independent
variable is x and the dependent variable is y.

2
Example Let g(x) = x 3x + 7. Find the following:
g(10)
g(a + 1)
2
g(r )
g(x + h)
(5) g(x + h) g(x)
h
Solution
(1) g(10) = 102 3(10) + 7

= 77
(2) g(a + 1) = (a + 1)2 3(a + 1) + 7
2
= (a + 2a + 1) 3a 3 + 7
= a2 a + 5
(3) g(r2) = (r2)2 3(r2) + 7
= r4 3r2 + 7
(4) g(x + h) = (x + h)2 3(x + h) + 7
2 2
= x + 2xh + h 3x 3h + 7
(5) g(x + h) g(x) = 2 2
[(x + h)
3(x + h) + 7] (x 3x + 7)
h h
= (x2 + 2xh + h2 3x 3h + 7) (x2 3x + 7)
h
= 2xh + h2 3h
h
= 2x + h 3
Exercise 2.1

1. Let f (x) = x 5 . Find the following:

x2 + 4
(a) f (2) (b) f (3:5)
(c) f (a + 1) (d) p )
f( a
2
(e) f (a ) (f) f (a) + f (1)
2. Let f (x) = x p
x+1
and g(x) = x 1. Find the following:
(a) f (1) + g(1) (b) f (2)g(2)
(c) f (3) (d) f (a 1) + g(a + 1)
g(3)
f (a2 + 1)g(a2 + 1)
2.2. Domains and Ranges of Functions 45

2 3x + 4. Find and simplify the following:

3. Let f (x) = x
(a) f (a + b) (b) f (1 + h) f (1)
f (a + h) f (a) h
(c)
h

2.2 Domains and Ranges of Functions

To describe a function f , sometimes we just write down the rule defining f , omitting its domain and codomain.

In this course, the codomain is always taken to be R unless otherwise stated.

p
For the domain, it can be determined from the rule defining the function. For example, f (x) = x is
defined for all real numbers x 0 but undefined for x < 0. Therefore, we may take [0; 1) as the domain of
f . The domain obtained in this way is called the natural domain of the function. For a function that is
described by formula, we always take its domain to be the natural domain unless otherwise stated.

Summary Suppose f is a function described by a formula. Then the domain of f is the set of all real numbers
such that f (x) is defined.
Remark For functions appeared in many applied problems, we do not take their natural domains. For example, the
2 2
area A of a circle (to be more accurate, a circular region) with radius r is given by A(r) = r . Although r is defined
for all real numbers r, for the area function A, its domain is taken to be fr 2 R : r > 0g = (0; 1).
FAQ For the above area function, can we take the domain to be [0; 1)?
Answer When the radius is 0, we get a point only. A point may be considered to be a circle, called a degenerated
circle. Under this convention, 0 is included in the domain. In many problems, it doesn’t matter whether we
take (0; 1) or [0; 1) as the domain.
Example For each of the following functions, find its (natural) domain.
(1) f (x) = x2 + 3;

(2) g(x) = 1 ;
x 2
(3) p
h(x) = 1 + 5x

2
Since f (x) = x + 3 is defined for all real numbers x, the domain of f is R.
Note that g(x) is defined for all real numbers x except 2.
The domain of g is fx 2 R : x , 2g = R n f2g.
Remark The domain can also be written as fx 2 R : x < 2 or x > 2g = ( ; 2) [ (2; 1).
p is defined if and only if 1 + 5x 0.
(3) Note that 1 + 5x
The domain of h is fx 2 R : 1 + 5x 0g = fx 2 R : x 1g
5
= [ 1 ; 1):
5
46 Chapter 2. Functions and Graphs
Definition Let f : A ! B be a function and let S A. The image of S under f , denoted by f [S ], is the

subset of B given by f [S ] = fy 2 B : y = f (x) for some x 2 S g:

2
Let f : R ! R be the function given by f (x) = x . For S = f1; 2; 3g, we have f [S ] = f1; 4; 9g.
Let f : R ! R be the function given by f (x) = 2x + 1. For S = [0; 1], we have f [S ] = [1; 3].

Definition Let f : A ! B be a function. The range of f , denoted by ran ( f ), is the image of A under f ,
that is, ran ( f ) = f [A].
Remark By definition, ran ( f ) = fy 2 B : y = f (x) for some x 2 Ag. The
condition ( ) y = f (x) for some x 2 A
means that y is an output (image) corresponding to some input (element of A). When A and B are
subsets of R, ( ) means that the equation
y = f (x)

has at least one solution belonging to A.

2
Example Let f : R ! R be the function given by f (x) = x + 2. Then
3 belongs to the range of f because f (1) = 3, that is, 3 is the image of 1 under f . In terms of solving equation, 3
2
belongs to the range means that the equation 3 = x + 1 has solution in R (the domain of f ).

2
2 belongs to the range because the equation 2 = x + 2 has solution in R, namely, 0;
2
1 does not belong to the range because the equation 1 = x + 2 has no solution in R.

Steps to find range of function To find the range of a function f described by formula, where the
domain is taken to be the natural domain:
Put y = f (x).
Solve x in terms of y.
The range of f is the set of all real numbers y such that x can be solved.

2
f (x) = x + 2
1
g(x) = x 2
p
h(x) = 1 + 5x
Solution
2
(1) Put y = f (x) = x + 2.
2.2. Domains and Ranges of Functions 47
Solve for x. = y 2
x2
x = p :
y 2
Note that x can be solved if and only if y 2 0.
The range of f is fy 2 R : y 2 0g = fy 2 R : y 2g 10
8
= [2; 1): 6

4
Alternatively, to see that the range is [2; 1), we may
2
2
use the graph of y = x + 2 which is a parabola. The
-3 -2 -1 1 2 3
lowest point (vertex) is (0; 2). For any y 2, we can
always find x 2 R such that f (x) = y.
Figure 2.1
4
1

(2) .
Put y = g(x) = x 2
1 2
Solve for x. y =
x 2
x 2 = 1
y
1 -1 1 2 3
x = + 2:
y -2

Note that x can be solved if and only if y , 0.

-4
The range of g is fy 2 R : y , 0g = R n f0g.

Figure 2.2
p
(3) Put y = h(x) = 1 + 5x. Note that y cannot be negative.
p

Solve for x. y = 1 + 5x; y 0

2
y = 1 + 5x; y 0
4
x = y2 1 ; y 0: 3

5
2
Note that x can always be solved for every y
0. 1

The range of h is fy 2 R : y 0g = [0; 1). 1 2 3

p 2
Remark y = 1 + 5x =) y = 1 + 5x
but the converse is true only if y 0. Figure 2.3

p p
Example Let f (x) = x + 7 x2 + 2x 15. Find the domain of f .

2
Solution Note that f (x) is defined if and only if x + 7 0 and x + 2x 15 0.
Solve the two inequalities separately:
x+7 0
x 7;
48 Chapter 2. Functions and Graphs
2 15 0
x + 2x

(x + 5)(x 3) 0 x< 5 x= 5 5<x<3 x=3 x>3

x 3 0 +
x+5 0 + + +
(x 3)(x + 5) + 0 0 +
thus, x 5 or x 3.

Therefore, we have dom ( f ) = fx 2 R : x 7 and (x 5 or x 3)g

= fx 2 R : (x 7 and x 5) or (x7 and x 3)g

= fx 2 R : 7 x 5 or x 3g
= [ 7; 5][[3;1):
Example Let f (x) = 2x + 1 . Find the range of f .
2
x +1
Solution
Put y = f (x) = 2x + 1 .
x2 + 1
Solve for x. y = 2x + 1
x2 + 1
2
yx + y = 2x + 1
2
yx 2x + (y 1) = 0
4y(y 1) 1
p x = if y = 0;
x = 2 4 2y if y , 0; 2
= p if y , 0:
1 y2 + y
1y

Combining the two cases, we see that x can be solved if and y2 + y 0, that is, y2 y 1 0.
2
only if 1 The range of f is fy 2 R : y y 1 0g.
p
To solve the inequality y y 1 0, first we find the zero of the left-side by quadratic formula to get 1
2
2
5.
1 p ! y p !
2 2 y 1=y 5 1+ 5
By the factor theorem and comparing coe cient of y , we see that y 2 2
p p p p p p
y< 1 5 y= 1 5 1 5 <y< 1+ 5 y= 1+ 5 y> 1+ 5
2 2 2 2 2 2

1 p
5
y 0 + + +
2
p
1+ 5
y 0 +
2
2 1 + 0 0 +
y y
y2 1 p p
1+
From the table, we see that ran ( f ) = R: 5 y 5
p 2 2
p
= 1 5 ;1 + 5
2 2
2.3. Graphs of Equations 49
2 1 0, we
Remark To solve the inequality y y

may also use graphical method:

2 y 1, where
The figure shown is the graph of z = y
the horizontal and vertical axes are the y-axis and the
z-axis respectively.

Figure 2.4

Exercise 2.2
1. For each of the following functions f , find its domain.
2
(a) f (x) = x2 5 (b) f (x) =
5x + 6
1 1
(c) f (x) = x2 5 (d) f (x) = x2 2x 3
1 1 p
(e) f (x) = (f) f (x) =
p 2x 3 1 2x
x+3
(g) f (x) = 3
p (h) f (x) = p 1
1 x 2 + 2x + 5
x2 + 3x 10

2. For each of the following functions f , find its range.

(a) f (x) = x2 5 (b) f (x) = x2 2x 3
(c) f (x) = 2 (d) f (x) = 3 1
5x + 6 2x 1
(e) f (x) = 1 (f) f (x) = 1
p
2x 3 x2 5
(g) f (x) = 1
2x 3
x2
Consider a rectangle with perimeter 28 (units). Let the width of the rectangle be w (units) and let
the area of the region enclosed by the rectangle be A (square units). Express A as a function
of w. State the domain of A and find the range of A.

2.3 Graphs of Equations

Recall that an ordered pair of real numbers is denoted by (x0; y0) where x0 and y0 are real
2
numbers. The set of all ordered pairs is denoted by R (read “R two”). The superscript 2 indicates
2
that elements in R are represented by two real numbers. Since an ordered pair of real numbers
2
represents a point in the coordinate plane, R can be identified with the plane.

2
Let f : A ! R be a function where A R . Each element in the domain of f is an ordered pair (x; y)
of real numbers. Its image under f is denoted by f (x; y) , or simply f (x; y). Functions whose
2
domains are subsets of R are called functions of two variables.
2 2
Example Let f : R ! R be the function given by f (x; y) = x + y . Then we have
2
f (1; 2) = 1 + 2 = 5
2
f (2; 1) = 2 + 1 = 3
50 Chapter 2. Functions and Graphs

Consider an equation in the form

F(x; y) = 0 (2.3.1)

where F is a function of two variables. The set of all ordered pairs (x; y) satisfying (2.3.1) is called
2
the graph of (2.3.1). That is, the graph is the following subset of R :
2
(x; y) 2 R : F(x; y) = 0 :

Since ordered pairs can be considered as points in the coordinate plane, the graph can be
considered as a subset of the plane.
Example Consider the following equation

2x + 3y4 = 0:

Since 2(2) + 3(0) 4 = 0, the point (ordered pair) P(2; 0) belongs to the graph of the equation.
Since 2( 1) + 3(2) 4 = 0, point Q( 1; 2) belongs to the graph of the equation.
Since 2(1) + 3(2) 4 = 4 , 0, the point R(1; 2) does not belong to the graph.

Remark The graph of the equation is the line passing through P and Q.

Definition An x-intercept (respectively a y-intercept) of the graph of an equation F(x; y) = 0 is a

point where the graph intersects the x-axis (respectively the y-axis).

Example The graph of the equation

2x + 3y 4 = 0 (2.3.2)
is a line. Its x-intercept is (2; 0) and its y-intercept is (0; 4 ). These are obtained by putting y = 0 and x = 0
3
respectively into (2.3.2).
Example The graph of the equation
1
2 2
x +y =1
0.5
is a circle centered at the origin (0; 0) with radius 1.
The graph has two x-intercepts, namely (1; 0) and ( 1; 0) and two
-1 -0.5 0.5 1
y-intercepts, namely, (0; 1) and (0; 1).
-0.5
-1

Figure 2.5
Example Find the x-intercept(s) and y-intercept(s) of the graph of
2
y = x 5x + 6 (2.3.3)

Solution To find the x-intercepts, we put y = 0 in (2.3.3). Solving

0 = x2 5x + 6

0 = (x 2)(x 3)
2.3. Graphs of Equations 51

we get x = 2 or x = 3. Thus the x-intercepts are (2; 0) and (3; 0).

To find the y-intercept, we put x = 0 in (2.3.3) and get y = 6. Thus the y-intercept is (0; 6).

Symmetry Consider the graph of the equation

2
=x :
8
The graph is a parabola. If (a; b) is a point belonging to the parabola, that is 6

2 2
b = a , then ( a; b) also belongs to the parabola since b = ( a) . Note that 4
the line segment joining (a; b) and ( a; b) is perpendicular to the y-axis;
2
the two points (a; b) and ( a; b) are equidistant from the y-axis
(distances to the y-axis are the same).
-3 -2 -1 1 2 3

We say that the parabola is symmetric about the y-axis.

Figure 2.6

In general, a subset A of the plane is said to be symmetric about a line ‘ if the following condition is
satisfied: For any point P belonging to A (but not belonging to ‘), there is a point Q belonging to A such that

the line segment PQ is perpendicular to ‘;

P and Q are equidistant from ‘.

2
Example The parabola given by x = y is symmetric about the x-axis.

Figure 2.7
2 2
Example The graph of 2x + y = 6 is an ellipse. It is symmetric
about the x-axis and also symmetric about the y-axis.
If (a; b) is a point belonging to the ellipse, then the point ( a; b)
also belongs to the ellipse. Note that
the line segment joining (a; b) and ( a; b) passes
through the origin;
the points (a; b) and ( a; b) are equidistant from the
ori-gin.
We say that the ellipse is symmetric about the origin.
Figure 2.8

In general, a subset A of the plane is said to be symmetric about a point C if the following condition is
satisfied: For any point P belonging to A (but di erent from C), there is a point Q belonging to A such that

the line segment PQ passes through C;

P and Q are equidistant from C.
52 Chapter 2. Functions and Graphs

3
Example The graph of y = x is symmetric about the origin.

Figure 2.9

We close this section with the following example of finding intersection of two curves (in fact,
one is a line). This is the same as solving a system of two equations in two unknowns.

Example Let E and L be the ellipse and the line given by

2 2
2x + y = 6 and x + 2y 3 = 0

respectively. Find E \ L.
Solution We need to solve the following system:

2 2 = 6 (2.3.4)
2x + y
x + 2y 3 = 0 (2.3.5)
From (2.3.5), we get x = 3 2y. Putting into (2.3.4) and solving

2(3 2y)2 + y2 = 6

2 2 = 6
2(9 12y + 4y ) + y
2
9y 24y + 12 = 0
3(y 2)(3y 2) = 0
we get y = 2 or y = 2 . Substitute back into (2.3.5), we get (x; y) = ( 1; 2) or ( 5 ; 2 ).
3 3 3
Therefore we have E \ L = ( 1; 2); ( 5 ;2 ) .
3 3

Exercise 2.3
1. Consider the graph of 2x2 + 3y2 = 4 (which is an ellipse). Find its x- and y-intercepts.

2. Suppose the graph of y = ax2 + bx + c has x-intercepts (2; 0) and ( 3; 0) and y-intercept (0; 6). Find a,
b and c.
2
Consider the graph of y = x + 4x + 5.
Find its x- and y-intercepts.
Show that the graph lies entirely above the x-axis.
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
4. Let C = f(x; y) 2 R : x + y = 5g, E = f(x; y) 2 R : x + 2y = 6g and L = f(x; y) 2 R : 2x + y 3=
0g.
Find the following:
(a) L C (b) L E (c) C E
2 2 2 2
Let C = f(x; y) 2 R : x + y = 1g and L = f(x; y) 2 R : ax + y = 2g where a is a constant. Find
the values of a such that C \ L is a singleton (that is, a set with only one element).
2.4. Graphs of Functions 53

2.4 Graphs of Functions

2
Let f : A ! R be a function where A R. The graph of f is the following subset of R :
2
(x; y) 2 R : x 2 A and y = f (x) :

Example
Constant Functions A constant function is a function f that is given by f

(x) = c;

where c is a constant (a real number).

The domain of every constant function is R.

c
The range is a singleton: fcg.
The graph is a horizontal line whose y-
intercept is (0; c).
Figure 2.10

0
Remark Let f (x) = x . Note that for all x , 0, we have f (x) = 1 and that f (0) is undefined. So
there is a small di erence between f and the constant function 1 whose domain is R.
0
However, for convenience, we treat the function x as the constant function 1.
In the above discussion, we use the symbol 1 to represent the function with domain and
codomain equal to R and assigning every x 2 R to the number 1. Thus the symbol 1 has two
di erent meanings. It may be a function or a number. This abuse of notation is sometimes
used in mathematics. Readers can determine the meaning from the context.

(2) Linear Functions A linear function is a function f given by

f (x) = ax + b;

where a and b are constants and a , 0.

The domain of every linear function is R.

b
The range is also R (note that a is assumed to be non-zero).

The graph is a line with slope a and y-intercept (0; b).

Figure 2.11

Quadratic Functions A quadratic function is a function f given by f

2
(x) = ax + bx + c;

where a; b and c are constants and a , 0.

The domain of every quadratic function is R.

The range is [k; 1) if a > 0 and ( ; k] if a < 0 where k is the y-coordinate of the vertex.
The graph is a parabola which opens upward if a > 0 and downward if a < 0.
54 Chapter 2. Functions and Graphs

a>0
a<0

Figure 2.12(a) Figure 2.12(b)

Remark Besides using the completing square method to find the vertex, we can also use di
erentiation (see Chapter 5).

(4) Polynomial Functions A function f given by

n n1
f (x) = an x + an 1 x + + a1 x + a0;

where a0; a1; : : : ; an are constants with an , 0, is called a polynomial function of degree n.

If n = 0, f is a constant function.
If n = 1, f is a linear function.
If n = 2, f is a quadratic function.
2
3 2 -1 1 2
Example Let f (x) = x 3x + x 1.
The graph of f is shown in Figure 2.13. -2
-4
In Chapter 5, we will discuss how to sketch graphs
of poly-nomial functions. -6

Figure 2.13
The domain of every polynomial function f is R.
There are three possibilities for the range.
If the degree is odd, then ran ( f ) = R.
If the degree is even and positive, then
(i) ran ( f ) = [k; 1) if an > 0;
(ii) ran ( f ) = ( ; k] if an < 0,
where k is the y-coordinate of the lowest point for case (i), or the highest point for case
(ii), of the graph.
Remark The constant function 0 is also considered to be a polynomial function. However, its
degree is assigned to be (for convenience of a rule for degree of product of polynomials).

Rational Functions A rational function is a function f in the form f (x) =

p( x)
q (x ) ;

where p and q are polynomial functions.

2.4. Graphs of Functions 55
1
2
Example Let f (x) = x .
The domain of f is R n f0g. 1
-2 -1 1 2
The range of f is also R n f0g.

-1
The graph consists of two curves, one in the first quadrant
-2
and the other in the third quadrant. It is symmetric about
the origin. This is because f ( x) = 1 = f (x).
x

Figure 2.14
1
Example Let f (x) = x2 .
3
The domain of f is R n f0g. 2

The range of f is (0; 1). 1

The graph consists of two curves, one in the first quadrant
-2 -1 1 2
and the other in the second quadrant. It is symmetric about
1 1
the y-axis. This is because f ( x) = ( x)2 = x 2 = f (x).
Figure 2.15

2x 1

Example Let f (x) = x2 + 3 .

The domain of f is R. 0.5
-5 5 10
The graph of f is shown in Figure 2.16. Note
that when x is very large in magnitude, f (x) is
very small. This is because the degree of the -0.5

nu-merator is smaller than that of the

denominator. See Chapter 3 for more details. Figure 2.16

The range of f can be found using the method described in Section 2.2. Alternatively, it can be found if
the x-coordinates of the highest and lowest point are known. See Chapter 5 for more details.

Square-root Function

Recall that for each positive real number x, there are two real numbers whose square is x.
The two numbers are called the square roots of x. The principle square root of x, denoted by
p
x, is defined to be the positive square root of x.
p

Example The square roots of 9 are 3 and 3. The

principle square root of 9 is 3, that is, 9 = 3. p

By convention, the principle square root of 0 is defined to be 0, that is, 0 = 0.

The operation of taking principle square root can be considered as a function. Each
p
nonnegative real number x can be used as an input and its corresponding output is x.
Definition The principle-square-root function, denoted by sqrt, is the function given by
p
sqrt (x) = x:
56 Chapter 2. Functions and Graphs

Remark
Usually we use a single letter to denote a function. For functions that will be used very
often, we create special notations for them. Usually, we use a few letters, taken from the
names of the functions, to represent the functions.
For simplicity, the principle-square-root function is also called the square-root function.
p p
Sometimes, the square-root function is also denoted by x. Thus the notation x can
have two di erent meanings:
a function (the square-root function)
a real number (the image of x under the square-root function)
p p
Sometimes, the square-root function is also denoted by (a dot inside ).
p p
Thus, (x) = x.
The position of the dot indicates that the variable is put there.

The domain of the square-root function is [0; 1).

The range is also [0; 1).
p
The following steps describe how to draw the graph of y = x.
2
Square both sides to get y = x.
2
The graph pf y = x is a parabola opening to the right. It can be obtained from the
2
parabola given by y = x by rotating 90 in the clockwise direction. Note that in the two
equations, the role of x and y are interchanged.
p
The graph of y = x is the upper half of the parabola obtained in (i).
p is always non- 4
The lower part is not included because x
negative. Squaring introduces extra points. 3

p , it is implied implicitly that x 0

In the equation y = x 2
1
and y 0.
2
The graph of the equation is the following subset of R :
1 2 3 4
Graph 2 p ; x 0; y 0g -1
= f(x; y) 2 R : y = x
2 2 -2
= f(x; y) 2 R : y = x; x 0; y 0g
Figure 2.17

Example For each of the following equations, sketch its graph.

(a) p 2
y= x
(b) p
y= x 2
(c) p
y= 2 x

Solution 2
1
The graph is a half of a parabola. It is obtained by
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
p
moving the graph of y = x two units down. -1
-2
Figure 2.18
2.4. Graphs of Functions 57

Remark Let a be a positive constant.

The graph of y = f (x) + a can be obtained from that of y = f (x) by moving it a units up.
The graph of y = f (x) a can be obtained from that of y = f (x) by moving it a units down.
p
2
(b) Note that x p 2 is defined for x 2 only. The 1

graph of y = x 2 is obtained by moving that of 1 2 3 4 5 6

p
y = x two units to the right.
Figure 2.19
Remark Let a be a positive constant.
The graph of y = f (x a) can be obtained from that of y = f (x) by moving it a units to
the right.
The graph of y = f (x + a) can be obtained from that of y = f (x) by moving it a units to the left.
p
(c) Note that 2 x is defined for x 2 only. The graph
p p 2
of y = 2 x and that of y = x 2 are symmetric 1
with respect to the vertical line x = 2. -4 -2 2 4 6 8

Figure 2.20

In general, two subsets of the plane are said to be symmetric about a line ‘ if for each
point P belonging to any one of the two sets, there is a point Q belonging to the other set
such that either P = Q belongs to ‘ or
the line segment PQ is perpendicular
to ‘; P and Q are equidistant from ‘.

Exponential Functions Let b be a positive real number di erent from 1. The exponential function
with base b, denoted by expb, is the function given by
x
expb(x) = b :

The domain of every exponential function is R.

The range of every exponential function is (0; 1).
0
The y-intercept of the graph of every exponential function is (0; 1). This is because b = 1.
Remark
Because there are infinitely many exponential functions, one for each base, the notation
expb, where b is written as a subscript, indicates that the base is b. Thus, for example,
exp2 and exp3 are the exponential functions with base 2 and 3 respectively.
x
Sometimes, for convenience, we also write b to denote the exponential function with base b.
58 Chapter 2. Functions and Graphs

Example Consider exp2, the exponential function with base 8

6
x
2. It is the function from R to R given by exp2(x) = 2 .
4
The graph of exp2 goes up (as x increases) and the
2
rate that the graph goes up increases as x increases.
-3 -2 -1 1 2 3

Figure 2.21

Example Consider exp 1 , the exponential function with base 25

1 3 1 x 20
. It is the function from R to R given by exp 3 (x) = .
3

1
3
15

The graph of exp 1 goes down (as x increases). 10

3
5

-3 -2 -1 1 2 3

Figure 2.22
In Chapter 8, exponential functions will be discussed in more detail.

Logarithmic Function Recall that for every positive real number x, there is a unique real number y such that
y
10 = x. Di erent positive x give di erent values of y. In this way, we obtain a function defined for all
positive real numbers. This function, denoted by log, is called the common logarithmic function. For
log(x)
each positive real number x, log(x) is defined to be the unique real number such that 10 = x. That
x
is, log(x) = y if and only if y = 10 . For simplicity, log(x) is also written as log x.
Remark Sometimes, for convenience, we also write log x to denote the common logarithmic
function. So the notation log x has two di erent meanings. It can be a function (the log
function) or a number (the image of x under the log function).

The domain of log is (0; 1).

The range is R. 2
1.5
The graph of log is shown in Figure 2.23. As x 1
increases, the graph goes up. The rate that the 0.5
graph goes up de-creases as x increases. Note that 20 40 60 80 100
the x-intercept is (1; 0). This is because log 1 = 0.
Figure 2.23

Remark In Chapter 8, logarithmic functions with bases other than 10 will be considered.
Relation be-tween exponential functions and logarithmic functions will be discussed.

Trigonometric Functions Similar to the common logarithmic function, we use three letters sin, cos and
tan to denote the sine, cosine and tangent functions respectively. Recall that sin(x) is defined to
be the y-coordinate of the point on the unit circle x2 + y2 = 1 corresponding to the angle with
measure x radians. More details on trigonometric functions can be found in Chapter 7.
2.4. Graphs of Functions 59

For simplicity, we write sin(x) = sin x etc.

The sine function: sin

The domain of the sine function

is R. The range is [ 1; 1].
The graph of the sine function has a waveform as shown in Figure 2.24 (the symbol p stands
for the number ). The graph is symmetric about the origin. This is because sin( x) = sin x. The
graph crosses the x-axis infinitely often, at points with x-coordinates 0; ; 2 ; : : :
1
-4p -2p 2p 4p

-1

Figure 2.24
The sine function is periodic with period 2 , that is, sin(x + 2 ) = sin x for all x 2 R.

Definition If f is a function such that f (x + p) = f (x) for all x 2 dom ( f ), where p is a

positive constant, then we say that f is periodic with period p.

The cosine function: cos

The domain of the cosine function

is R. The range is [ 1; 1].
The graph of the cosine function has a waveform. It is symmetric about the y-axis. This is be-
cause cos( x) = cos x. The graph crosses the x-axis infinitely often, at points with x-coordinates
3
2; 2 ;:::
1
-4p -2p 2p 4p

-1

Figure 2.25
The cosine function is periodic with period 2 , that is, cos(x + 2 ) = cos x for all x 2 R.

Remark The graph of the cosine function can be obtained by shifting the graph of the

sine function 2 units to the left. This is because cos x = sin x + 2 for all x 2 R.
60 Chapter 2. Functions and Graphs

(a) The tangent function: tan

sin x 3
Since tan x = cos x , tan x is undefined at x = 2 ; 2;:::

3
The domain of the tangent function is R n f 2 ; 2 ; : : :g.
The range is R.
p p
The tangent function is periodic with period , that is,
-
2 2
tan(x + ) = tan x for all x belonging to the domain.

Figure 2.26

Absolute Value Function The absolute value function, denoted by j j, is the function from R
given by to R
x = 8 0 if x = 0;
< x if x > 0;
jj
>:

> x if x < 0:
For each real number a, the number jaj is called the absolute value of a.

In defining jxj, the domain R is divided into three disjoint subsets, namely (0; 1), f0g and ( ; 0).

If x 2 (0; 1) which means x > 0, then jxj is defined to be x.

If x 2 f0g which means x = 0, then jxj is defined to be 0.
(c) If x 2 ( ; 0) which means x < 0, then jxj is defined to be x.
Functions defined in this way are called piecewise-defined functions.

Remark Unlike most functions, the image of a real number x under the absolute value
function j j is denoted by jxj. That is, jxj = j j(x). Readers may compare this with the square-
p p p
root function , where (x) = x.
Example
(a) j2j = 2

(b) j 3j = ( 3)=3
(c) 2j = 2
(d) 3j = 3
(e) j5 ( 7)j = j12j = 12
(f) 12j j = j9 13j = j 4j = 4
j3 7 + 6j = j 9j j 13j
Remark
jaj is always nonnegative.
jaj = j aj.
jaj is the distance from the point a to 0 on the real number line.
2.4. Graphs of Functions 61

(d) ja bj is the distance between a and b.

(e) p
a2 = jaj.
The domain of j j is R.
The range is [0; 1).
The graph of the absolute value function a V-shape figure.
2 2
It is the union of the following three subsets of R .
f(x; y) 2 R2 : x > 0 and y = xg which is the half- 1

line in the first quadrant with slope equal to 1, starting

from the origin but not including the origin.
-2 -1 1 2
f(x; y) 2 R2 : x = 0 and y = 0g which is the point
-1
f0; 0g, that is, the origin. xg which is the half-line
2
f(x; y) 2 R : x < 0 and y =
-2
in the second quadrant with slope equal to 1, starting
from the origin but not including the origin. Figure 2.27

Remark We may also define the absolute value function in the following ways:
(i) jxj = 8 x if x 0;
x if x < 0:

>

<

> x if x >0 ;

(ii) jxj = 8: x if x 0:
>
<
> x if x 0 ;

(iii) jxj = 8: x if x 0:
>

<
In (i) or
(ii), the domain R is divided into two disjoint subsets.

>

:
In (iii), although R is the union of ( ; 0] and [0; 1), the two subsets are not disjoint; the number 0
belongs to both. However, this will not cause any problem to define j0j because if we use the first rule,
we get j0j = 0 and if we use the second rule, we get j0j = 0 = 0. We say that j0j is well-defined because
its value does not depend on the choice of the rule.
Example For each of the following equations, sketch its graph.

(a) y = 1 j xj

(b) y = jx 1j
Solution
(a) By the definition of the absolute value function, the equation is
8 1 x if x > 0;

y= 1 0 if x = 0;
> 1 ( x) if x < 0:

<

The graph is shown in Figure 2.28. It >

consists of the half-line y = 1 x, x > 0, the point (0; 1) and
the half-line y = 1 + x, x < 0. :
62 Chapter 2. Functions and Graphs

Remark Alternatively, the graph can be 1

-2 -1 1 2
obtained as follows:
The graph of y = xj and that of y = jxj are
symmetric about the x-axis. So the graph of -1

y = xj is an inverted V-shape figure.

-2
Move the inverted V-shape figure 1 unit up.

Figure 2.28
The graph of y = jx 1j is a V-shape figure. It can 2
be obtained by moving the graph of y = jxj one 1

unit to the right.

-2 -1 1 2 3

Figure 2.29

(11) Piecewise-defined Functions Below we give more examples of piecewise-defined functions.

Example Let f : [ 2; 6] ! R be the function given by
f (x) = < 2 if 2 x < 0
x
8
>
2x
4 x
ifif 2 0 x x<6:2
:
For each of the following, find its value: >

(a) f ( 1)
(b) f 1
2
(c) f (3)

Sketch the graph of f .

Solution
(a) f ( 1)=( 1)2=1
(b) f 1 = 2 1 = 1
2 2
(c) f (3) = 4 3 = 1 4
2

The graph of f consists of three parts:

2
the curve y = x , 2 x < 0 (part of a parabola); -2 2 4 6
the line segment y = 2x, 0 x < 2 (excluding the
right endpoint);
the line segment y = 4 x, 2 x 6.
-2

Figure 2.30

Remark In the figure, the little circle indicates that the point (2; 4) is not included in the graph. The little
dot (which can be omitted) emphasizes that the point (2; 2) is included.
2.4. Graphs of Functions 63

The next example shows that piecewise-defined functions can be used in daily life. The piecewise-
defined function in the example is called a step function. It jumps from one value to another.

Example Suppose the long-distance rate for a telephone call from City A to City B is $1.4 for the
first minute and $0.9 for each additional minute or fraction thereof. If y = f (t) is a function that
indicates the total charge y for a call of t minutes’ duration, sketch the graph of f for 0 < t 4 12 .
Solution Note that 8
1:4 if 0 < t 1

f (t) = < 2:3 if 1 < t 2

> <
41 if 3 t 4

3::2 if 2 <t 3
>
5:0 if 4 < t 4 21 :

:
The graph of y = f (t) is shown in Figure 2.31.
5

4.1

3.2

2.3

1.4

1 2 3 4 4.5

Figure 2.31

Remark The ceiling of a real number t, denoted by dte, is defined to be the smallest integer
greater than or equal to t. Using this notation, we have
Exercise 2.4 f (t) = 1:4 + 0:9 dte 1 :

1. For each of the following equations, sketch its graph.

(a) y = 2x 3 (b) y + 3 = 2(x 5)
(c) 7x 5y + 4 = 0 (d) y = j2x 1j + 5
(e) x2 = y2 (f) y = x2
(g) y 2 = x2 (h) y 2 = (x 3)
2

(i) y = x2 + 2x 3 (j) y = p 1 x2
p
x= y
For each of the following equations, use a computer software to sketch its graph.
(a) y = x3 (b) y = x3 2x2 3x + 4
(c) 3 3 2
y = 2x x + 5 (d) y = x 3x + 3x 1
(e) y = x3 (f) y = x3 + 2x2 + 3x 4
(g) 4 (h) 4 2
y=x y=x x3 x + x + 1
(i) 4 3 2 (j) 4 3 2
y = x 3x + 2x + x 1 y = x 4x + 6x 4x
(k) y = x4 (l) y = x4 2x3 + 3x
64 Chapter 2. Functions and Graphs

Can you generalize the results for graphs of polynomial functions of degree 3; 4; : : : ?
2 x 1
Let f (x) = x 2 + 3 . The graph of f is shown on page 55. Note that there is a highest point and
a lowest point. Find the coordinates of these two points. Hint: consider the range of f
The points are called relative extremum points. An easy way to find their coordinates is to use di
erentiation, see Chapter 5.
2
4. An object is thrown upward and its height h(t) in meters after t seconds is given by h(t) = 1 + 4t 5t .
When will the object hit the ground?
Find the maximum height attained by the object.
The manager of an 80-unit apartment complex is trying to decide what rent to charge. Experience has
shown that at a rent of $20000, all the units will be full. On the average, one additional unit will remain
vacant for each $500 increase in rent.
Let n represent the number of $500 increases.
Find an expression for the total revenue R from all the rented
apartments. What is the domain of R?
What value of n leads to maximum revenue?
What is the maximum revenue?

2.5 Compositions of Functions

Consider the function f given by
2
f (x) = sin x:
2 2
Recall that sin x = (sin x) . For each input x, to find the output y = f (x),
first calculate sin x, call the resulted value u;
2
and then calculate u .

u = sin x;
2
y=u .
Given two functions, we can “combine” them by letting one function acting on the output of the other.

Definition Let f and g be functions such that the codomain of f is a subset of the domain of g. The
composition of g with f , denoted by g f , is the function given by
(g f )(x) = g f (x) : (2.5.1)

The right-side of (2.5.1) is read “g of f of x”.

Figure 2.32 indicates that f is a function from A to B and g is a function from C to D where B C.
2.5. Compositions of Functions 65

For each element x of A (the domain A C D

of f ), its image f (x) is an element of
B. Because B C, f (x) is an element B
f g
of C which is the domain of g. There-
fore, f (x) can be used an input for the ! !
function g and the output g f (x) is an
element of D. Thus g f is a function

from A to D.
Figure 2.32

Remark In the above definition, the condition that codomain of f domain of g can be relaxed. In order to
consider g f (x) , we only need f (x) belong to the domain of g. This is satisfied if ran ( f ) dom (g).

In the following two examples, the domains of both f and g are equal to R. Therefore we can consider g f
2
as well as f g. The first example illustrates how the functions sin x and x are used as building blocks for the
2
more complicated function sin x (see the discussion preceding the above definition). The second example
shows that composition of functions is not commutative, that is, f g , g f in general.

Example Let f : R ! R and g : R ! R be given by

2
f (x) = sin x and g(x) = x :
Then we have (g f )(x) = g f (x)

g(sin x)
2 2
(sin x) = sin x:
2
Example Let f (x) = x and g(x) = 2x + 1. Find ( f g)(x) and (g f )(x).
Solution By the definition of composition, we have

( f g)(x) = f (g(x)) = f (2x + 1)

2 2
= (2x + 1) = 4x + 4x + 1
(g f )(x) = g( f (x)) = g(x2)

= 2x2 + 1:

Remark If the range of f is not contained in the domain of g, then we have to restrict f to a smaller set so that
for every x in that set, f (x) belongs to the domain of g. The domain of g f is taken to be the following:

dom (g f ) = fx 2 dom ( f ) : f (x) 2 dom (g)g:

p
Example Let f (x) = x + 1 and g(x) = x. Find the domain of g f.

Solution Note that the domain of f is R and the domain of g is [0; 1). Thus the domain of g f is

dom (g f ) = fx 2 R : x + 1 2 [0; 1)g

= fx 2 R : x 1g
= [ 1; 1):
66 Chapter 2. Functions and Graphs
p
Remark Alternatively, note that (g f )(x) =
x + 1. Thus we have dom (g f ) = fx 2 R : x + 1 0g.

Exercise 2.5
1. Let f (x) = x2 + 1 and g(x) = x + 1. Find the following:
(a) ( f g)(1) (b) (g f )(1)
(c) ( f g)(x) (d) (g f )(x)
(e) ( f g)(a2) (f) p )
(g f )( a
2. For each of the following, find f (x) and g(x) where g(x) is in the form xr with r , 1 such that (g f )(x)
equals the given expression.
(a) p 2 (b) 1
x +1 x+1

2.6 Inverse Functions

x
Let f be the function given by f (x) = 2 for x 2 R. Consider the equation y = f (x), that is,
x (2.6.1)
y=2 :
x
In Equation (2.6.1), if we put x = x1, we obtain the corresponding value of y, namely y1 = 2 1 .
The number x1 is an input of the function f and the value y1 is the corresponding output.
x
Now we consider the reverse problem. If we put y = y1, can we find a real number x1 such that 2 1 = y1?
x
If y1 0, there is no solution because 2 is always positive.

If y1 > 0, there is exactly one solution because f is injective (see definition below) and its
range is (0; 1).
Definition Let f be a function. We say that f is injective if the following condition is satisfied:
( ) x1; x2 2 dom ( f ) and x1 , x2 =) f (x1) , f (x2).

Condition ( ) means that di erent elements of the domain are mapped to di erent elements of the codomain.
It is equivalent to the following condition:
( ) x1; x2 2 dom ( f ) and f (x1) = f (x2) =) x1 = x2.
x
Example Let f (x) = 2 . The domain of f is R. The function f is injective. This is because if x1; x2 2 R
x x
and x1 , x2, then 2 1 , 2 2 .
2
Example Let g(x) = x . The domain of g is R. The function g is not injective. This is because 1 , 1
(both are elements of R), but g( 1) = g(1).

To show that a function f is injective, we have to consider all x1; x2 belonging to the domain
with x1 , x2 and check that f (x1) , f (x2). However, to show that a function g is not injective, it su ces
to find two di erent elements x1; x2 of the domain such that g(x1) = g(x2). Below we give a
geometric method to determine whether a function is injective or not.

Horizontal Line Test Let f : X ! R be a function where X R. Then f is injective if and only if every
horizontal line intersects the graph of f in at most one point.
 2.6. Inverse Functions 67
4 2
g(x) = x
Example The following two figures show the x 4
f (x) = 2
graphs of f and g in the last two examples. It 3 3

is easy to see from the Horizontal Line Test 2 2

that f is injective whereas g is not injective.

1
injective not injective
1
-2 -1 1 2 -2 -1 1 2

Figure 2.33 Figure 2.34

Let f be an injective function. Then given any element y of ran ( f ), there is exactly one element
x of dom ( f ) such that f (x) = y. This means that if we use an element y of ran ( f ) as input, we get
one and only one output x. The function obtained in this way is called the inverse of f .

Definition Let f : X ! Y be an injective function and let Y be the range of f . The inverse (function) of
1
f , denoted by f 1, is the function from Y1 to X such that for every y 2 Y1, f 1
(y) is the unique element of X
1 = y.
satisfying f f (y)

The following figure indicates a function f from a set X to

a set Y. Assuming that f is injective, for each y belonging
to the range of f , there is one and only one element x of X X Y
such that f (x) = y. This element x is defined to be f 1(y).
That is, f
1
f (y) = x if and only if f (x) = y: x > y

Remark

(1) For every x 2 X, we have ( f 1 f )(x) = x. < 1

f
1
For every y 2 Y1, we have ( f f )(y) = y.
(2) f 1 is injective and ( f 1) 1(x) = f (x) for all x2 Figure 2.35

dom ( f ).

Steps to find inverse functions

Let f : X ! R be an injective function where X R. To find the inverse function of f means to find the
1 1 1
domain of f as well as a formula for f (y). If the formula for f (x) is not very complicated, dom ( f ) and
1
(y) can be found by solving the equation y = f (x)
for x. (Step 1) Put y = f (x).
(Step 2) Solve x in terms of y. The result will be in the form x = an expression in y.
(Step 3) From the expression in y obtained in Step 2, the range of f can be determined. This is the domain of
1 1
. The required formula is f (y) = the expression in y obtained in Step 2.

Remark Steps 1 and 2 can be used to find range of a function. If the function is not injective, the
expression in y obtained in Step 2 does not give a function; some y give more than one values of x.
68 Chapter 2. Functions and Graphs

3
Example Let f (x) = 2x + 1. Find the inverse of f .
Solution The domain of f is R. It is not di cult to show that f is injective and that the range of f is R.
These two facts can also be seen from the following steps:
3
Put y = f (x). That is, y = 2x + 1.
Solve for x: y 1 = 2x3
y 1 = x3
q3 2
y 1 = x (x can be solved for all real numbers y)
2

r3 .
Thus we have dom ( f 1) = R and f 1(y) = y 1
2
2
Example Let g : [0; 1) ! R be the function given by g(x) = x . Find the inverse of g.
Solution Because the domain of g is [0; 1), the function g is injective . Moreover, the range of g is [0; 1).
These two facts can also be seen from the following steps:
Put y = g(x). That is, y = x2. Note that y 0 and that x 0 since x 2 dom ( f ).
Solve for x: y = x2; y 0; x 0 p
p
y = x (x can be solved if and only if y 0, x = y is rejected)
1 1 p
Thus we have dom (g ) = [0; 1 ) and g (y) = y.

Remark Usually, we use x to denote the independent variable of a function. For the above
1 q3 x 1 1 p
examples, we may write f (x) = 2 and g (x) = x.

1 1
Caution f (x) , f ( x)

1 y = sin x
Remark We use sin or arcsin to denote the inverse of sin etc. 1
p p
Although the sine function is not injective, we can make it injec-
tive by restricting the domain to [ ; ].
2 2
1 x . The domain of
x = sin y means sin x = y and 2 2
-
2
2
-1
1
sin is [ 1; 1] because 1 sin x 1.

Figure 2.36
1
FAQ Why do we use the notation f ?
Answer The following example gives a reason why we use such a notation. Let f (x) = 2x. Then f is injective
and its inverse is given by f 1(x) = 1 x. The multiplicative constant 1 is 2 1.
2 2
Another reason is to have the “index law” (details omitted):
m n m+n for m; n 2 Z:
f f =f
2.7. More on Solving Equations 69

Graph of the inverse function

Let f : X ! R be a function, where X R. Then its graph is a subset of the plane. If, in addition, f is
1 1
injective, then f has an inverse and dom ( f ) R. Hence the graph of f is also a subset of the
1
plane. There is a nice relationship between the graph of f and that of f :
1
( ) The graph of f and the graph of f are symmetric about the line x = y.
1
Reason Suppose P(a; b) belongs to the graph of f . This means that b = f (a) or equivalently, a = f (b). Thus
1
Q(b; a) belongs to the graph of f . It is straightforward to show that the line segment PQ is perpendicular to
the line y = x (denoted by ‘) and that P and Q are equidistant from ‘.

2 2
y=x
1
p
y= x

1 2

Figure 2.37

2
Figure 2.37 is an illustration for ( ). The function f : [0; 1) ! R given by f (x) = x is injective. Its range
1 1 p
is [0; 1). The domain of f is [0; 1) and f (x) = x.
Exercise 2.6
1. For each of the following functions f , determine whether it is injective or not.
(a) 3 (b) 2
f (x) = x + 2x f (x) = x 5
2. For each of the following functions f , find its inverse.
(a) f (x) = 3x 2 (b) f (x) = x5 + 3 p3
(c) f (x) = 1 + 2x 7 (d) f (x) = 2x3 1
1

2.7 More on Solving Equations

In this section, we will consider fractional equations and radical equations. In solving equations, if
there is a one-sided implication (=)) in any one of the steps, we have to check solution. If all the
steps are two-sided implications (()), there is no need to check solution.
Example For each of the following equations, find its solution set.
(1) 5 = 10
x 2 x+3
(2) x +2 = 1
x 1 x 2 x
x
Solution
70 Chapter 2. Functions and Graphs
(1) Multiplying both sides of the given equation by (x 2)(x + 3), we get

5 = 10
x 2 x+3
5 (x 2)(x + 3) = 10 (x 2)(x + 3)
x 2 x+3
5(x + 3) = 10(x 2)
5x + 15 = 10x 20
35 = 5x
x = 7

Multiplying both sides by x(x 1) which is the LCM of the denominators of the terms appearing in
the equation, we get
x2 1
+
x 1 x = x
2
x
x2 ! 1 x(x 1)
x(x 1) =
+ 2
x 1 x x x
2 1) = 1 (2.7.1)
x + 2(x
2 = 0
x + 2x 3
(x 1)(x + 3) = 0
x=1 or x = 3
By direct substitution, we see that 3 is a solution but 1 is not a solution to the given equation.

The solution set is f 3g.

FAQ Why do we need to check solution?

Answer When we multiply both sides by x(x 1), extra solutions may be introduced. Solutions to (2.7.1)
may not be solutions to the original equation. This is because

a = b =) ac = bc; but the converse is true only if c , 0:

FAQ Can we add some conditions on x so that the implication can go backward?

Answer In the given equation, it is understood that x , 0 and x , 1. This is because the domain of both
f (x) = x +2 (the left-side) and g(x) = 1 (the right-side) are R n f0; 1g. Adding the conditions
x 1 x x2 x
x , 0 and x , 1, each step below is a two-sided implication:
x 2 1 2 and x , 0 and x,1
() x + 2(x 1) = 1
+ = 2
x 1 x x x
::
:
() (x 1)(x + 3) = 0 and x , 0 and x,1
() x = 3:
2.7. More on Solving Equations 71
Example For each of the following equations, find its solution set.

(1) p +x=7
2
x 7
p p
x x 3=3

Solution
(1) Rearranging terms and squaring both sides, we get
p 2 +x 7
x 7 =
p 7 x
x
2 7 =
2 7 = (7 2
x x)
7 = 49 14x + x2
x2
56 = 14x
x = 4

By direct substitution, we see that 4 is the solution to the given equation.

The solution set is f4g.

(2) Rearranging terms and squaring both sides, we get

p p
x x 3 = 3
p 3 p (2.7.2)
x = x 3
p 3 = x 3 (2.7.3)
x 2
p
6 x+9 = x 3
p p
6 x = 12 x
=2
x = 4

By direct substitution, we see that 4 is not a solution to the given equation.

The equation has no solution. The solution set is ;.

FAQ Why do we need to check solution?

Answer When we square both sides of an equation, extra solutions may be introduced. Solutions
to (2.7.3) may not be solutions to (2.7.2). This is because

2 2
a = b =) a = b ; but the converse is true only if a and b have the same sign:

FAQ Can we add some conditions so that the implication can go backward?
p

Answer In the equation, it is understood that x 0 and x 3 0.

Moreover, it is also understood that x 3.
72 Chapter 2. Functions and Graphs

Adding this condition, each step below is a two-sided implication:

p
p p = 3 () p 3=
x x 3 x x 3
() px 2
3 = x 3 and x 9
() x 6 px + 9 = x 3 and x 9

::
: p
() x = 2 and x 9
() x = 4 and x 9
From this we see that there is no solution.
Exercise 2.7

1. For each of the following equations, find its solution set.

(a) (2x + 1)(x 2) = x(x + 2) (b) (2x + 1)(x 2) = x(x 2)

(c) 1 = 2 (d) x x = 4x
x+1 x+2 x+2 x 2 x2 4
(e) 3 p =0 (f) p 2
2x + 5 x 9 +x=9
(g) p (h) p p
2 9+ 9 = x
x x+5 +1=2 x
(i) x6 3
9x + 8 = 0
2
2. Let C(q) = 2q + 12 be the cost to produce q units of a product and let R(q) = 10q q be the
revenue.
Find the profit (function).
Find the break-even quantity.
The stopping distance y in feet of a car traveling at x mph is described by the equation

2
= 0:056057x + 1:06657x:

Find the stopping distance for a car traveling at 35 mph.

How fast can one drive if one needs to be certain of stopping within 200 ft?
Find the right-angle triangle such that the sides adjacent to the right angle di er by 1 unit and the
perime-ter is 12 units.
Chapter 3

Limits

Calculus is the study of di erentiation and integration (this is indicated by the Chinese translation of
“calcu-lus”). Both concepts of di erentiation and integration are based on the idea of limit. In this
chapter, we use an intuitive approach to consider limits, omitting the more di cult - definition.

3.1 Introduction
In this section, we introduce the idea of limit by considering two problems. The first problem is to “find”
the velocity of an object at a particular instant. The idea is related to di erentiation. The second problem
is to “find” the area under the graph of a curve (and above the x-axis). The idea is related to integration.

Problem 1 Suppose an object moves along the x-axis and its displacement (in meters) s at time t
(in seconds) is given by
2
s(t) = t ; t 0:

We want to consider its velocity at a certain time instant, say at t = 2.

Idea Velocity (or speed) is defined by

velocity = distance traveled (3.1.1)
distance
time elapsed
(3.1.1) can only be applied to find average velocities over time intervals. time
We (still) don’t have a definition for velocity at t = 2.
Figure 3.1

To define the velocity at t = 2, we consider short time

1 n Time interval Velocity
intervals about t = 2, say from t = 2 to t = 2 + 2 n . Using
(3.1.1), we can compute the average velocity over the 1 [2,2.5] 4.5 m/s
time intervals [2; 2:5], [2; 2:25] etc. 2 [2,2.25] 4.25 m/s
3 [2,2.125] 4.125 m/s
4 [2,2.0625] 4.0625 m/s
:
:
:
74 Chapter 3. Limits

In general, the velocity v over the time interval 2;2+ 1 is

n
1 2 2 2n
(2 + 2
n ) 2
vn = 1
n
= 4+2 2 n
2 1n
2 + 2n 2 4
1 1 1
= 4 + 2n :
2

It is clear that if n is very large (that is, if the time interval is very short), vn is very close to 4. The
velocity, called the instantaneous velocity, at t = 2 is (defined to be) 4.
2
Problem 2 Find the area of the region that lies under the curve y = x and
1

above the x-axis for x between 0 and 1.

1
Figure 3.2
Idea Similar to the idea in Problem 1, we use approximation to
find/define area. First we divide the interval [0; 1] into finitely many
subintervals of equal lengths:
0;1 1 ;2 2 ;3 ; :::; n 1 ;1: 1

n
; n n
; n n n
For each subinterval i 1 ; i , we consider the rectangular region with base on
h n ni 2
i 1
the subinterval and height n (the largest region that lies under the curve).

If we add the area of these rectangular regions, the sum is smaller

than that of the required region. However, if n is very large, the error
1
is very small and we get a good approximation for the required area. Figure 3.3
The following table gives the sum S n of the areas of the rectangular regions (correct

to 3 decimal places) for several values of n.

In general, if there are n subintervals, the sum S n is !
S n = n 02 + n n ! +n n! + +n n Sum of areas
1 1 1 2 1 2 2 1 n 1 2
0.125
= 12 + 22 + + (n 1)2 0.185
0.219
n
3 :
::
= n(n 1)(2n 1) By Sum of Squares Formula 0.285
3 :
6n ::
= 2n 3n2 + n
3
0.328
3
6n :
::
= 1 1 + 1
500 0.332
3 2n 6n2
1
It is clear that if n is very large (so that the error is small), S n is very close to 3 .
3.2. Limits of Sequences 75
 1
Conclusion The area of the region is 3 .
n(n + 1)(2n + 1)
Sum of Squares Formula 12 + 22 + + n2 =
6
Exercise 3.1
1
1. In the first problem: If we consider short time intervals other than 2; 2 + 2 n , for example consider
1
2; 2 + n or 2 n12 ; 2 , do we get the same result?
2. In the second problem:
For each subinterval, we use the value of y at the left endpoint as the height of the rectangular
region. If we take the right endpoint instead (we will get a surplus in this case), do we get
the same result? How about taking an arbitrary point in each subinterval?
In finding the approximations, we divide [0; 1] into equal subintervals. How about dividing it
into unequal subintervals?

3.2 Limits of Sequences

In the last section, we obtained formulas for vn and S n in Problems 1 and 2 respectively. Each of
these formulas gives a sequence (which is a special type of function). To consider the behavior of
a sequence for large n, we introduce the concept of limit of a sequence.

Definition
A sequence is a function whose domain is Z+ (the set of all positive

integers). A sequence of real numbers is a sequence whose codomain is R.

A sequence of real numbers is a function from Z+ to R. In this course, we will not consider sequences
with codomains di erent from R. Thus, in what follows, a sequence means a sequence of real numbers.

Let f : Z+ ! R be a sequence. For each positive integer n, the value f (n) is called the nth term of the
sequence and is usually denoted by a small letter together with n in the subscript, for example an. The
1
sequence is also denoted by (an) n=1 because if we know all the an’s, then we know the sequence.
1
Sometimes, we represent a sequence (an) n=1 by listing a few terms in the sequence:

a1; a2; a3; a4; a5; : : :

1 1
In the following example, the sequences (an) n=1 and (bn) n=1 are the sequences obtained in
Problem 1 and Problem 2 in the last section respectively.

Example
1
(1) Let an = 4 + 2 n . The sequence (an)1n=1 can be represented by

9 ; 17 ; 33 ; 65 ; ::: (3.2.1)
2 4 8 16
76 Chapter 3. Limits

1 1 + 1 . The sequence (b )1 can be represented by

(2) Let bn = n
3 2n 6n2 n=1
0; 1 ; 5 ; 7 ; 6 ; ::: (3.2.2)
8 27 32 25

Remark
It is not a good way to describe a sequence by listing a few terms in the sequence. For example, in
(3.2.1) or (3.2.2), it may not be easy to find a formula for the nth term. Moreover, di erent people may
obtain di erent formulas. It is better to describe a sequence by writing down a formula for the nth term
explicitly.
1 1
To denote a sequence, some authors use the notation fang n=1 instead of (an) n=1.

1
Definition A sequence (an) n=1 is said to be convergent if there exists a real number L

such that ( ) an is arbitrarily close to L if n is su ciently large.

Remark Condition ( ) means that we can make jan Lj as small as we want by taking n large enough. For the
1
sequence (an) where an = 1 , we can make an arbitrarily close to 0 by taking n large enough. For example,
n=1
2n
if we want 1 0 < 0:01, we can take n > 7; if we want21n 0 < 0:001, we can take n > 10 etc.
2 n

Intuitively, Condition ( ) means that if we let n increase without bound (or let n approach “1”, an
imag-inary point very far on the right), the value an approaches L. Geometrically, this means that
the point (n; an) approaches the horizontal line y = L as n increases without bound.

1 23 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13

Figure 3.4

Remark For simplicity, instead of saying Condition ( ), we will say

( ) an is close to L if n is large.

In the definition of “convergent”, it is clear that if L exists, then it is unique. We say that L is the
1
limit of (an) n=1 and we write nlim!1 an = L.

FAQ Can we just write lim an = L, omitting n ! 1?

Answer For sequences, this will not cause ambiguity. However, for functions, we will consider (in later
limits at infinity limits at a point a a R f x lim f (x) have
sections) as well as (where 2 ). The notations xlim ( ) and x ! a
di erent meanings. !1

The following rules can be proved by definition using an alternative method, called -N method,
to describe condition ( ). However, the -N definition is outside the scope of this course. Readers may convince
themselves that the rules are true using intuition.
3.2. Limits of Sequences 77

Rules for Limits of Sequences

(L1) lim k = k (where k is a constant)
n!1

(L2) lim 1 = 0 (where p is a positive constant)

p
n!1 n
(L3) lim 1 = 0 (where b is a constant greater than 1)
n
n!1 b
(L4)
nlim!1(an + bn) = nlim!1 an + nlim!1 bn
(L5)
nlim!1 anbn = nlim!1 an nlim!1 bn

an lim an
(L6) lim = n!1 provided that lim bn , 0.
n!1
n!1 bn nlim!1 bn

Remark
The meaning of (L1) is that if an = k for all n where k is a constant, then the sequence
1
(an) n=1 is convergent and its limit is k.
1 1
The meaning of (L4) is that if both (an) n=1 and (bn) n=1 are convergent and their limits are L
1
and M respectively, then (an + bn) n=1 is also convergent and its limit is L + M.
The following is a special case of (L5). It can be obtained by putting an = k for all n and applying (L1).
(L5s) lim kbn = k lim bn
n!1 n!1

Using (L4) and (L5s), we get

0
(L4 ) nlim!1(an bn) = nlim!1 an nlim!1 bn
In fact, Rule (L4) is valid for sum and di erence of finitely many sequences. This general
result will be referred to as Rule (L4). Similarly, the result for product of finitely many
sequences will be referred to as Rule (L5).

1
In Problem 1 in the last section, the sequence obtained can be represented by the formula an = 4 + 2 n .
Our intuition tells us that the limit of the sequence is 4. Below we use rules for limits to justify this result.
!
1
Example Find lim 4 + n , if it exists.
n!1 2
1
Explanation The sequence under consideration is given by an = 4 + 2 n . The question asks for the following
1
Does the limit of (an) n=1 exist or not (or equivalently, is the sequence convergent)?
If the answer to (1) is a rmative, find the limit.
Solution lim 4+ 1 = lim 4 + lim 1 Rule (L4)
n!1 n ! n!1n!1 n
2 2
= 4+0 Rules (L1) and (L3)
= 4
78 Chapter 3. Limits

Remark Below is the logic in the above calculation:

1 1 1 are convergent, we can
(1) In the first step, because the constant sequence (4)n =1 and the sequence
2n n=1
apply Rule (L4).
The limits of the two sequences are found by Rule (L1) and Rule (L3) respectively in the second step.

The sequence in the next example is the one obtained in Problem 2 in the last section.

Example Find lim 2n3 2

3n + n , if it exists.
Solution n!1 3
6n
3 !
n!1 3 6n 3 2n
n!16n2
lim 2n 2
3n + n = lim 1 1 + 1
Rewrite the expression
= lim 1 lim 1 1 ! + lim 1 1 ! Rule (L4), rewrite 2nd and 3rd terms

n!1 3 n!1 2 n n!1 6 n2

1 1 1 1 1
lim + lim
2
Rules (L1) and (L5s)
3 2 n!1 n 6 n!1 n
1 1 1 Rule (L2)
3 2 0+ 6 0
1
3

Example Find lim (1 + 2n), if it exists.

n!1
Solution Limit does not exist. This is because we can’t find any real number L satisfying the condition that
2n + 1 is close to L if n is large. Remark If we apply rules for limits, we get

lim (2n + 1) = lim 2n + lim 1 Rule (L4)

n!1 n!1 n!1

= 2 lim n + 1 Rules (L1) and (L5s)

n!1

However, we can’t proceed because lim n does not exist. From this, we see that the given limit does not exist.
n!1
FAQ Can we say that lim (1 + 2n) is 1?
n!1
Answer Limit of a sequence is a real number satisfying Condition ( ) given in the definition on page 76.
Because 1 is not a real number, we should say that the limit does not exist.
In the next section, we will discuss the meaning of lim f (x) = 1 etc.
x!1
n+1
Example Find lim , if it exists.
n!1 2n + 1
Explanation We can’t use Rule (L6) because limits of the numerator and the denominator do not
exist. However, we can’t conclude from this that the given limit does not exist. To find the limit, we
use a trick: divide the numerator and the denominator by n.
3.2. Limits of Sequences 79
n+1 n+1

Solution lim = lim n Divide numerator and denominator by n

n!1 2n + 1 n!1 2n + 1
n
lim 1 +1
n!1 n
= lim 1
2+
Rule (L6), rewrite numerator and denominator
n!1 n 1

lim 1 + lim
n!1 n
= n!1 Rule (L4)
lim 2 + lim 1

n!1 n
n!1
= 1+0 Rules (L1) and (L2)
2+0
= 1
2

Remark We can apply the following shortcut (called the Leading Terms Rule). The method is to
throw away the constant term 1 in the numerator and the denominator (note that if n is very large,
compared with n or 2n, 1 is very small).
lim n + 1 = lim n
n!1 2n + 1 n!1 2n

= lim 1 = 1:
n!1 2 2
The Leading Terms Rule for limits of functions at infinity will be discussed in more details in the
next section (see page 83).

1. For each of the following, find the limit if it exists.

(a) lim 1 (b) lim (7 5 )
p n!1
n!1 n n2
2 4000 12345
(c) lim 3n (d) lim n2
2
n !1 2n + 10000 n !1 n+1
5n2 + 4 1 n
lim (f) lim + ( 1)
3
(e) n!1 2n + 3 n!1 n

Suppose $50,000 is deposited at a bank and the annual interests rate is 2%.
What amount (correct to the nearest cent) will the account have after one year if interests is
compounded quarterly;
compounded monthly?
If interest is compounded n times a year, express the amount An after one year in terms
of n. (c) Does nlim!1 An exist? What is the value?
1
3. For each of the following sequences (an) n=1, use computer to find the first 100 (or more)
terms. Does nlim!1 an exists? If yes, what is the value?
1 n
an = 1 + n
2 n
an = 1 + n
1
(c) an = n sin n (angles are in radians)
80 Chapter 3. Limits

4. Suppose (an) is a sequence such that 0 < an for all n and a1 > a2 > a3 > . Does nlim!1 an
exist? What can you tell about the limit?

3.3 Limits of Functions at Infinity

1
When we consider limit of a sequence (an) n=1, we let n approach 1 through the discrete points n = 1; 2; 3; : : : .

Recall that a sequence means a sequence of real numbers; it is a function from Z + to R. In many cases, we will
consider functions f from a subset of R to R such that f (x) is defined when x is large. For such functions, we can
let x approach 1 continuously (through large real numbers) and consider the behavior of f (x).

Convention A function means a function whose domain is a subset of R and whose codomain is R,
unless otherwise stated.

Definition Let f be a function such that f (x) is defined for su ciently large x. Suppose L is a real
number satisfying the following condition:
( ) f (x) is arbitrarily close to L if x is su ciently large.
Then we say that L is the limit of f at infinity and write lim f (x) = L.
x!1

Remark
The condition “ f (x) is defined for su ciently large x” means that there is a real number r such
that f (x) is defined for all x > r.

L is called the limit because it is unique (if it exists).

For simplicity, instead of saying Condition ( ), we will

say ( ) f (x) is close to L if x is large.

Condition ( ) means that if we let x increase without bound, then the value f (x) approaches L.
To visualize this, imagine a small creature living on the curve y = f (x). Suppose the small creature
moves to the right indefinitely. It will get “closer and closer” to the horizontal line y = L.

Figure 3.5

FAQ For sequences, we just say “limit”. For functions, why are the words “at infinity” added?
Answer For functions, there are other types of limits. In Section 3.5, we will discuss limits of functions at a
(where a 2 R).
3.3. Limits of Functions at Infinity 81

The following rules for limits of functions at infinity are similar to that for limits of sequences. In
(4), (5), (5s) and (6), f and g are functions such that f (x) and g(x) are defined for su ciently large x.

Rules for Limits of Functions at Infinity

(L1) lim k = k (where k is a constant)

x!1

(L2) lim 1 = 0 (where p is a positive constant)

p
x!1 x
(L3) lim 1 = 0 (where b is a constant greater than 1)
x
x!1 b
(L4) lim f (x) g(x) = lim f (x) lim g(x)
x!1 x!1 x!1

The result is valid for sum and di erence of finitely many functions.

(L5) lim f (x) g(x) = lim f (x) lim g(x)

x!1 x!1 x!1

The result is valid for product of finitely many functions.

(L5s) lim k g(x) = k lim g(x)
x!1 x!1
f (x) lim f (x) provided that lim g(x) , 0.
(L6) lim =x!1 x!1
x!1 g(x) lim g(x)
x!1

To consider limits of functions at infinity, we should first check the domains of the functions. For example,
p , the domain of f is fx 2 R : 1 x 0g = ( ; 1]; it is meaningless to talk about limit of f at
if f (x) = 1 x 2
infinity. In the next example, the domain of the function 1 x3 is R n f0g; the function is defined for large x and
hence we may consider its limit at infinity (whether the limit exists; and if exists, find the value).
Example Find lim 1 2 ! = 0+3
, if it exists. = 3
x!1 3 !
x
Solution lim 1 2 = lim 1 lim 2 1
x!1 3 x!1x!1 3
x ! x
1
= 1 2 lim
x !1 3
x
= 1 2 0
= 1
Example Find lim 2 x + 3 , if it exists.

x!1

Solution lim (2 x + 3) = lim 2 x

+ lim 3
x!1 x!1 x!1

= lim 1 + 3
x
x!1 2
 Rule (L4), rewrite 2nd term

Rules (L1) and (L5s)

Rule (L2)

Rule (L4)

Rewrite first term and Rule (L1)

Rule (L3)
82 Chapter 3. Limits
Example Find lim +1 , if it exists.
x2
3
3x 4x + 5
x!1

Explanation Because limits of the numerator and denominator do not exist, we can’t apply Rule (6).
3
The first step is to divide the numerator and denominator by x so that the limits at infinity of the
new numerator and denominator exist.
Solution
+1 x2 + 1
x2 x
3
3
lim 3
= lim Divide numerator and denominator by x
3
x!1 3x 4x + 5 x!1 3x 4x + 5
x3
lim 1 + 1
= x!1 x x3 Rule (L6), rewrite numerator and denominator
x!1 x2 x3

3 1 +
4 5

lim 1
lim + lim
= x!1 x x!1 x3 Rule (L4)
lim 3 lim 4 + lim 5
x!1 2 3
x!1 x x!1 x
= 0+0 Rules (L1), (L2) and (L5s)
3 0+0
= 0

The next example is similar to the last one. To find limits at infinity for rational functions, we can
divide the numerator and denominator by a suitable power of x.
Example Find lim 3
x +1 , if it exists.
3
x!1
3x 4x + 5
Solution
3
x +1 x3 + 1
3
lim = lim x 3
x!1 3x
3
4x + 5 x!1 3x 3 4x + 5 Divide numerator and denominator by x
x3
lim 1 + 1
= x!1 4 x3 Rule (L6), rewrite numerator and denominator
lim 3 + 5
x!1 x2 x3
lim 1 + lim 1
3
= x!1 x!1 x Rule (L4)
lim 3 lim 4 + 5
x!1 2
x!1 x x3
= 1+0
Rules (L1), (L2) and (L5s)
3 0+0
= 1
3

To find limits at infinity for rational functions, we can also use the following shortcut.
3.3. Limits of Functions at Infinity 83
n n1 m m1
Leading Terms Rule Let f (x) = an x + an 1 x + + a1 x + a0 and g(x) = bm x + bm 1 x + + b1 x + b0,

where an , 0 and bm , 0. Then we have

lim f (x) = lim an xn + an 1 xn 1 + + a1 x + a0 = lim n
an x
x!1 g(x) m m1 m
x!1 b x + b x ++ b x + b
m m1 1 0 x!1 bm x
n m
Proof The idea is to extract factor an x in the numerator and bm x in the denominator. Putting
1 + an 1 1 + an 2 1 + + a1 1 +a0 1
2 n
’(x) = an x an x an xn 1 an x
1 + bm 1 1 + bm 2 12 + + b1 1 + b0 1m
bm x bm x bm bm x
xm 1
n
f (x) an x
we have = ’(x). It is straightforward to check that xlim ’(x) = 1. Hence by Rule (5), we obtain
g(x)
m

bm x !1
the required result.
Remark

an
(a) If n = m, the limit is bn .
(b) If n < m, the limit is lim an 1 = 0.
x!1
bm xm n
an nm
(c) If n > m, the limit is lim xn m which does not exist because as x increases indefinitely, x
increases indefinitely. x!1 bm

The Leading Terms Rule can also be applied to “functions similar to rational functions”, for example, for
p p p
f (x) = x + 2 x + 3 and g(x) = 5x + 6 x + 7, we have lim x + 2 x + 3 = lim x
x!1
p + 7 x!1 5x
5x + 6 x
f (x)
The Leading Terms Rule can’t be applied to limits of rational functions at a point: lim , where a 2 R.
x!a g(x)

Below we re-do the last two examples using the Leading Terms Rule.
Example lim 2 = lim x2
x +1 Leading Terms Rule
3 3
x!1
3x 4x + 5 x!1
3x !
x!1 3 x
1 1
= lim Simplify and rewrite expression

= 1 0 Rules (L2) and (L5s)

3

0
Example lim +1 = lim Leading Terms Rule
x3 x3
x!1 3 4x + 5 x!1 3
3x 3x
= lim 1 Simplify expression
x!1 3
= 1 Rule (L1)
3
84 Chapter 3. Limits

In the next example, the function can be considered as a product or a quotient of two functions.
However, we can’t apply Rule (5) or (6) because limit at infinity of one of the functions does not
exist. To find the limit, we need the following result.

Sandwich Theorem Let f , g and h be functions such that f (x), g(x) and h(x) are defined for su
ciently large
x. Suppose that f (x) g(x) h(x) if x is su ciently large and that both lim f (x) and lim h(x) exist and are
x!1 x!1
equal (with common limit denoted by L). Then we have lim g(x) = L.
x!1

Remark The condition “ f (x) g(x) h(x) if x is su ciently large” means that there is a real number r
such that the inequalities are true for all x > r.
sin x
Example Find lim , if it exists.
x!1 x
1
Explanation The given function can be written as a product of two functions: sin x and x . For the
second function, its limit at infinity is 0. However, for the first function, its limit at infinity does not
exist. Thus we can’t apply Rule (5).

Solution Since 1 sin x 1 for all real numbers x, it follows that

1 sin x 1 for all x > 0:
x x x
Note that lim 1 = lim 1 = 0. Thus by the Sandwich Theorem, we have lim sin x = 0.
x!1 x x!1 x x!1 x

Example Find lim (1 + log x), if it exists.

x!1
Remark Since lim log x does not exist, we can’t apply Rule (L4).
x!1
Solution lim (1 + log x) does not exist. This is because if x increases without bound, so does 1 + log x.
x!1

Infinite Limits
In the last example, although limit does not exist, we know that if x increases indefinitely, so does (1 + log x).
In the limit notation lim , the symbol x ! 1 indicates that “x increases indefinitely”, or “x approaches 1”.
x!1
Using the same idea, we also write 1 + log x ! 1 which indicates that the value increases
indefinitely (as x increases indefinitely). Putting y = 1 + log x, we write y ! 1 as x ! 1. Concerning the
graph of y = f (x) in the coordinate plane, x ! 1 means that x goes to the right indefinitely,
approaching the point 1 (an imaginary point on the right) and y ! 1 means that y goes up
indefinitely, approaching the point 1 (an imaginary point at the top).

Notation Let f be a function such that f (x) is defined for su ciently large x. Suppose that
( ) f (x) is arbitrarily large if x is su ciently large.
Then we write lim f (x) = 1.
x!1

Remark
Because 1 is not a real number, lim f (x) = 1 does not mean the limit exists. In fact, it indicates that
x!1
the limit does not exist and explains why it does not exist.
3.3. Limits of Functions at Infinity 85

Instead of lim f (x) = 1, we also write f (x) ! 1 as x ! 1.

x!1
For simplicity, instead of saying Condition ( ), we will
say ( ) f (x) is large if x is large.
Similar to lim f (x) = 1, we also have lim f (x) = which means that
x!1 x!1
( ) f (x) is large negative if x is large.

Example (a) lim (1 + x2) = 1 (limit does not exist) 2

x (b) lim (1 x ) = (limit does not exist)
!1 x!1
100
80 2 4 6 8 10
-20
60 -40
40 -60
20 -80
2 4 6 8 10 -100

Figure 3.7
Figure 3.6

Example lim 2 = lim x2 Leading Terms Rule 8

1+x 6
x!1 1+x x!1 x 4
= lim x
2
x!1

1 (limit does not exist) 2 4 6 8 10

Figure 3.8

Limits at negative infinity

Similar to limits at infinity, we may consider limits at negative infinity provided that f (x) is defined
for x su ciently large negative. Readers can figure out the meaning of the following notations:
xlim f (x) = L where L is a real number;
!
xlim f (x) = 1;
!
xlim f (x) = .
!

Example

(1) lim 1 = 0
x! x
(2) lim x3 = (limit does not exist)
x! 3
x ) = 1 (limit does not exist)
(3) xlim (1
!

FAQ Can we perform addition, multiplication etc. with 1 or ?

Answer Yes and no. For example,

1+1=1,
86 Chapter 3. Limits

2 1=1.
However,
1 1 is undefined,
0 1 is undefined.
Be careful when you perform such operations.

Exercise 3.3
1. For each of the following, find the limit if it exists.
(a) lim 1 (b) lim (15 16x 3)
p
x!1 x 1 x!1
(c) lim 5 x (d) lim p x
x!1 x!1
(e) lim x2 +9 (f) lim x2 + 9
x!1 x3 +1 x2 + 1
x!1
2
(g) lim x + 9 (h) lim jxj
x !1 x+1 x !1 x
jxj
(i) lim x
(j) lim x sin x
x! x!

The concentration C of a drug in a patient’s bloodstream t hours after it was injected is given by

0 :15 t
C(t) = t2 +3 :

(a) Find lim C(t).

t!1
Interpret the result in (a).
10000 .
The population P of a certain small town t years from now is predicted to be P(t) = 35000 +
(t + 2)2
(a) Find the population in the long run.
(b) Use computer to sketch the graph of P. What can you tell from the graph?
4. For each of the following functions f , use computer to find f (x) for large x. Guess whether lim f (x)
x!1
exists or not. If the limit exists, what is the limit?
(a) f (x) = p px
x+1
(b) f (x) = p 2 x
x +x
(c) f (x) = x99
2x

3.4 One-sided Limits

In the last section, we consider limits at infinity (or negative infinity) by letting x approach the
imaginary point 1 (or ). In this section, we consider limits at a point a on the real line by letting x
approach a. Because x can approach a from the left-side or from the right-side, we have left-side
and right-side limits. They are called one-sided limits.
3.4. One-sided Limits 87

Right-side Limits

Definition Let a 2 R and let f be a function such that f (x) is defined for x su ciently close to and
greater than a. Suppose L is a real number satisfying
( ) f (x) is arbitrarily close to L if x is su ciently close to and greater than a.
Then we say that L is the right-side limit of f at a and we write lim f (x) = L.
x!a+
Remark
The condition “ f (x) is defined for x su ciently close to and greater than a” means that there is
a positive real number such that f (x) is defined for all x 2 (a; a+ ). For simplicity, instead of
saying the condition, we will say “ f is defined on the right-side of a”.
Instead of saying Condition ( ), we will say
( ) f (x) is close to L if x is close to and greater than a.

In the definition, it doesn’t matter whether f is defined at a or not. If f (a) is defined, its value has no
e ect on the existence and the value of lim f (x). This is because right-side limit depends on the values
x!a+
of f (x) for x close to and greater than a.
1
Example Let f (x) = 1 2 px . The domain of f is (0; 1) and so f is
1
defined on the right-side of 0. The graph of f is shown in the 0.8

following figure. 0.6

0.4
Imagine a small creature living on the curve. Suppose it moves to the left
0.2
so that the x-coordinate of its position approaches 0 (from the right). From
the graph, we see that the y-coordinate will approach 1. In other 0.5 1 1.5 2
1
words, the right-side limit of f at 0 is 1, that is, lim (1 2 p
x ) = 1.
x!0+ Figure 3.9

FAQ How can we know the graph of f ?

Answer This example is chosen to illustrate the idea of right-side limit. The graph is generated by computer.
1 p 1
lim (1 2 px ) = 1, note that if x is small positive, then so is x and hence is large positive;
To see why x ! 0+ 1 1 px
the expression 2 px = 2 large positive = is small positive and so f (x) = (1 small positive) is
close to 1. 2large positive
p 1
To see why the graph goes down (as x increases), note that if x increases, then so does x and so p x
1
1
decreases; hence px increases; therefore 2 px
increases and thus f (x) decreases. An alternative way
to see this is to use di erentiation (see Chapter 5 and Chapter 9).
p
Example Let f (x) = x. The domain of f is [0; 1) and 1
0.8
so f is defined on the right-side of 0. 0.6

Note that if x is close to and greater than 0, then f (x) is 0.4

p
close to 0. This means that lim x = 0. 0.2
x!0+
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

Figure 3.10
88 Chapter 3. Limits

1
Example Let f (x) = sin x . The domain of f is R n f0g. Thus f is defined on the right-side of 0 and
we can consider the right-side limit of f at 0.

Remark In fact, f (x) is also defined for x < 0 and so we

can consider its left-side limit. See the definition for left- 1
0.5
side limit below. 0.5 1 1.5 2

The graph of f (for 0 < x 2) is shown in Figure 3.11. Note that when
-0.5
x approaches 0 from the right-side, f (x) oscillates between -1
1
1 and 1. Thus lim sin does not exist. Figure 3.11
x!0+ x

sin x
Example Let f (x) = x 2 x . The domain of f is R n f0; 1g.
Thus f (x) is defined for 0 < x < 1 and we can consider lim f (x).
x!0+
The graph of f (for 0 < x 0:8) is shown in Figure 3.12. From
sin x
the graph, we see that lim = 1. 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
2 -1
x!0+ x x -2

Remark The limit can be calculated using the following fact: -3

sin x -4
lim =1
-5
x!0 x

It is a two-sided limit. See next section for more details. Figure 3.12

Left-side Limits
If a function f is defined on the left-side of a, we can consider its left-side limit. The notation lim f (x) = L
x!a
means that
() f (x) is arbitrarily close to L if x is su ciently close to and less than a.

Example Let f (x) = sin x . The domain of f is R n f0; 1g. Thus

x2 x
f (x) is defined for x < 0 and we can consider lim f (x). -2 -1.5 -1 -0.5
-0.5
x!0
-1
The graph of f (for x close to and less than 0) is shown in the
following figure. From the graph, we see that lim sin x = 1. -1.5
x!0 2
x x
-2

Figure 3.13

Similar to lim f (x) = 1 etc., we have the following notations:

x!1
(1) lim f (x) = 1
x!a+

(2) lim f (x) =

x!a+

(3) lim f (x) = 1

x!a

(4) lim f (x) =

x!a
3.5. Two-sided Limits 89

Readers can figure out the meaning of the notations themselves. Geometrically, if any one of these
notations is true, then the line x = a is a vertical asymptote for the graph of f .

Example lim 1 = 1 lim x 11 =

x 0+x x!1
!
-10 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
50
40

30
-20
20
-30
10
-40
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 -50

Figure 3.15
Figure 3.14

Exercise 3.4
1. For each of the following, find the limit if it exists.
(a) p (b) lim 1
lim x 1
x!1+ x!0+ px
(c) lim 1 (d) lim sin 1
x!0 x3 x!0 x
1 1
(e) lim (2 3x) (f) lim (2 3x)
x!0+ x!0

3.5 Two-sided Limits

Definition Let a 2 R and let f be a function that is defined on the left-side and right-side of a. Suppose that

both lim f (x) and lim f (x) exist and are equal (with the common limit denoted by L which is a real number).
x!a x!a+
Then the two-sided limit, or more simply, the limit of f at a is defined to be L, written lim f (x) = L.
x!a

Remark
lim f (x) = L means that
x!a
() f (x) is arbitrarily close to L if x is su ciently close to (but not equal to) a.

The condition “ f be a function that is defined on the left-side and the right-side of a” means that there is
a positive real number such that f (x) is defined for all x 2
(a ) [ (a; a + ).
In considering lim f (x), it doesn’t matter whether f is defined at a or not.
x!a
x
sin

Example Let f (x) = x2 x . The domain of f is R n f0; 1g. Thus f -2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0.5
is defined on the left-side and right-side of 0. In Section 3.4, the -0.5

left-side and right-side limits of f at 0 were found to be -1

-1.5
lim sin x = 1 and lim sin x = 1:
x!0+ x
2
x x!0 x2 x -2
Thus, by definition, the limit of f at 0 exists and lim sin x = 1.
x!0 x2 x Figure 3.16
 90 Chapter 3. Limits

Example Let f (x) = x

jxj . x

For x > 0, we have jxj = x and so f (x) = = 1. 1

x
Hence we get lim x
= 1.
x!0+ jxj x 0.5

For x < 0, we have jxj = x and so f (x) = x = 1.

Hence we get lim x = 1. -3 -2 -1
-0.5
1 2 3

x x!0 jxj -1

Therefore, lim does not exist.

x!0 jxj Figure 3.17

The following rules are useful to find limits of functions at a point a. In Rules (La4), (La5), (La5s)
and (La6), f and g are functions that are defined on the left-side and right-side of a. Some of the
rules are similar to that for limits of functions at infinity.

Rules for Limits of Functions at a Point

(La1) lim k = k (where a 2R and k is a constant)

x !a
n n
(La2) lim x = a (where a 2 R and n is a positive integer)
x !a
pn p
(La2 ) lim x = n a (where a R and n is an odd positive integer)
0
x !a 2
p p (where 0 < a R and n is an even positive integer)
lim n x = n a
2
x !a
x a
(La3) lim b = b (where a 2 R and b is a positive real number)
x !a

(La4) lim f (x) g(x) = lim f (x) lim g(x)

x!a x!a x!a
The result is valid for sum and di erence of finitely many functions.
(La5) lim lim g(x)
f (x) g(x) = lim f (x)
x!a x!a x!a
The result is valid for product of finitely many functions.

(La5s) lim k g(x) = k lim g(x) (where k is a constant)

x!a x!a

f (x) lim f (x)

(La6) lim = x!a provided that lim g(x) , 0.
x!a g(x) lim g(x) x!a
x!a

2
Example Find lim(1 + x ), if it exists.
x!4
2 2 Rule (La4)
Solution lim(1 + x ) = lim 1 + lim x
x!4 x!4x!4
= 1+42 Rules (La1) and (La2)
= 17

Recall that a polynomial function p is a function that can be written in the

following form p(x) = cn xn + cn 1 xn 1 + + c1 x + c0;
3.5. Two-sided Limits 91

where c0; c1; : : : ; cn are constants. Using the method in the above example, we can prove the following
theorem which means that the limit of a polynomial function at any real number can be found by substitution.

Theorem 3.5.1 Let p(x) be a polynomial and let a be a real number. Then we have

lim p(x) = p(a):

x!a

Example Find lim x

1 , if it exists.
2
x!2
x +x 2
x 1 lim(x 1)
Solution lim 2 = x!2 Rule (La6)
2
x!2 x + x 2 lim(x + x 2)
x!2
= 1 2 Theorem 3.5.1
2
2 +2 2
= 1
4

Recall that a rational function r is a function that can be written in the form

p( x)
r(x) = q ( x ) ;

where p and q are polynomial functions. Using the method in the above example, we can prove the
following theorem which means that the limit of a rational function at any a belonging to its domain
can be found by substitution.

Theorem 3.5.2 Let p(x) and q(x) be polynomials and let a be a real number. Suppose that q(a) , 0. Then we
have p(x) p(a)
lim = :
x!a q(x) q(a)
Example Find lim x 1 , if it exists.
x!1 2 2
x +x
1
Explanation The rational function f (x) = x2 + x 2 is undefined at x = 1. This means that 1 does not
belong to the domain of f and so we can’t apply Theorem 3.5.2. If we substitute x = 1 into the
0 0
numerator and denominator, we get 0 . We say that the limit is in the indeterminate form 0 .
To find the limit, we replace f by a function g which coincides with f on the left-side and right-
side of 1 such that the limit of g at 1 can be found by substitution (see the following figures).

1 1
0.8 0.8

0.6 0.6
y = f (x) y = g(x)
0.4 0.4

0.2 0.2

-1 1 2 3 4 5 -1 1 2 3 4 5

Figure 3.18(a) Figure 3.18(b)

92 Chapter 3. Limits

1
The function g is given by g(x) = x + 2 . It can be found by simplifying the expression defining f :

f (x) = x 1 = g(x) for all x 2 R n f1; 2g:

(x 1)(x + 2)

Solution lim x 1 = lim x 1

x!1 2 2 x!1 (x 1)(x + 2)
x +x
= lim 1
Simplify expression
x!1 x + 2

= 1
Theorem 3.5.2
1+2
= 1
3
Example Find lim x+1 , if it exists.
2
x +x 2 x!1

Explanation The rational function f (x) = x+1 is undefined at x = 1. Thus we can’t use Theorem 3.5.2.
x2 + x 2
If we put x = 1 into the numerator and denominator, we get 2 . Limits (left-side and right-side) of the form
non-zero number 0
are 1 or . See the solution below for more details.
0
20
Solution lim x+1 does not exist. This is because if x is close
2
x!1 x + x 2
10
to 1, the numerator is close to 2 whereas the denominator is close to
0 and so the fraction is very large in magnitude (may be positive or
negative).
2 -1 1 2 3
Remark Indeed, the denominator is x + x 2 = (x 1)(x + 2).
Therefore, if x is close to and greater than 1, the denominator is -10

small positive. Hence we have lim x + 1 = . Similarly we

2
x+1 x!
1+ x + x 2 1 20
have lim = .
-

x!1 x2 + x 2 Figure 3.19

2
Example Let f (x) = x + 3. Find lim f (x + h) f (x) .
h!0 h
Explanation The expression f (x + h) f (x) involves two variables x and h. However, the question asks for lim
h h!0
(limit of the expression as h approaches 0). This implies that x is considered as a constant. In this way, the
expression f (x + h) f (x) is considered as a function of h, defined for all h , 0. The limit is in the indeterminate
0 h
form because if we put h = 0 in the expression, the numerator and denominator are both 0. To find the limit,
0
we simplify the expression so that the troublesome factor h in the denominator is canceled.
f (x + h) f (x) 2 2
(x + h) + 3 (x + 3)
Solution =
h h
= (x + 2xh + h2 + 3) (x2 + 3)
2

h
2
2xh + h
h
h(2x + h)
h
2x + h
3.5. Two-sided Limits 93

Since f (x + h) f (x) and 2x + h (considered as functions of h) are equal on the left-side and right-side of
h
h = 0, it follows that f (x + h) f (x)
lim = lim(2x + h)
h!0 h h!0

= 2x + 0 Theorem 3.5.1
= 2x

Remark The expression f (x + h) f (x) is called a di erence quotient. Limits of di erence quotients will be
h
discussed in detail in Chapter 4.
Summary for Limits In this chapter, we have introduced the following types of limits:

lim an; lim f (x); lim f (x); lim f (x); lim f (x); lim f (x):

n!1 x!1 x! x!a x!a+ x!a

Since the definitions for lim an and lim f (x) are similar, we will omit limits of sequences in the following
n!1 x!1
discussion. Note that for functions, the five types of limits take the form
lim f (x)
x!

where can be 1, , a , a+ or a. The notation

lim f (x) = L;
x!

where L is a real number, means the following

f (x) is arbitrarily close to L if x is “su ciently close to

(and di erent from)” ,

which, in short, is written as

f (x) is close to L if x is “close to (and di erent from)” ,

where f (x) is close to L has the usual meaning and

x is “close to (and di erent from)” 1 means x is large;
x is “close to (and di erent from)” means x is large negative;

x is “close to (and di erent from)” a means x is close to and less than a;

x is “close to (and di erent from)” a+ means x is close to and greater

than a; x is “close to (and di erent from)” a has the usual meaning.
If we cannot find a real number L such that lim f (x) = L, then we say that lim f (x) does not exist. There are
x! x!
several possibilities for this. We may have
lim f (x) = 1 or lim f (x) = or other behavior such as oscillation.
x ! x !
lim f (x) = means that f x x
Similar to the above discussion, the notation x! 1 ( ) is “close to” 1 if is “close to (and
di erent from)” , where “close to” 1 means large.
94 Chapter 3. Limits

(k) lim
x!4

Exercise 3.5
1. For each of the following, find the limit, if it exists.
(a) lim(x2 + 3x 4) (b) lim(x2 5x 8)3
x!2 2 x!7 p
3x 5 x x2 +1
(c) lim (d) lim
x!0 2x + 7 x!1 x+1
lim 25+4x (f) lim x2 4
x! 2 4 2
x! 2 x + x 2
x2
(g) lim (h) lim 6x
x2
x! 2 x2 x + 2 x!6 x2 5x 6
2
lim x + 25 x 5x!5 (j) lim x 3
p x!3 x2 + 9
x 2
(l) lim x 5
x 4
p x 1
x!2 2
2. For each of the following f , find lim f (x + h) f (x) .
h!0 h
3
(a) f (x) = 4x 13 (b) f (x) = x
(c) f (x) = 1 (d) p
x f (x) = x

3.6 Continuous Functions

In the last section, we see that for “nice” functions, we can use substitution to find limits, that is, lim f (x) equals
x!a
f (a). Functions with this property are called continuous functions. They are very important in the
theory of more advanced calculus because they have many other nice properties.

Definition Let a 2 R and let f be a function such that f (x) is defined for x su ciently close to a
(including a). If the following condition holds,
( ) lim f (x) = f (a).
x!a
then we say that f is continuous at a. Otherwise, we say that f is discontinuous (or not
continuous) at a. Remark
The condition “ f (x) is defined for x su ciently close to a” means that there exists a positive real number
 such that f (x) is defined for all x 2 (a ; a + ). This condition implies that f is defined on the left-side
and right-side of a as well as at the point a. Condition ( ) means that the left-side and right-side limits
exist and lim f (x) = lim f (x) = f (a).
x!a+ x!a

Condition ( ) can be replaced by the following:

0
( ) f (x) is arbitrarily close to f (a) if x is su ciently close to a.
0
Many authors use ( ) as definition for “ f is continuous at a”.
lim x = a, condition ( ) means that
Since x!a
00 ) x!a x!a
( lim f (x) = f lim x .
If we consider f (x) as an operation: f acts on x, ( 00) means that the operation of taking f and
that of taking limit commute, that is, the order of taking f and taking limit can be interchanged.
3.6. Continuous Functions 95

0
Instead of saying ( ), we will say
( ) f (x) is close to f (a) if x is close to a.

Roughly speaking, ( ) means that if x is change from a to

a + x where x is a small number (see the following figure
which shows the graph of y = f (x) where f is a function
continuous at a), then the corresponding change in y,
denoted by y, is small, where y = f (a + x) f (a).
y
x
Remark x is a symbol to denote a small change in x; it
doesn’t mean a product of two numbers and x. a

Figure 3.20

If a function f is undefined at a, it is meaningless to talk about whether f is continuous at a.

Condition ( ) means that
(1) lim f (x) exists;
x!a
(2) the limit in (1) equals f (a).
If lim f (x) does not exist or if lim f (x) exists but does not equal f (a), then f is discontinuous at a.
x!a 8 x!a

1 if x < 0
< 1 if x 0
Let f (x) = . Determine whether f is continuous at 0 or not.
Example > 0 if x = 0 >
>
:
Explanation The function is defined on the left-side and the right-side of 0 as well as at 0.
Therefore, we may consider whether f is continuous at 0. In fact, we may consider whether f is
continuous at 1 etc., but this is another question.
1
Solution By the definition of f , we have:
0.5

lim f (x) = lim 1 = 1 and lim f (x) = lim 1 = 1.

x!0 x!0 x!0+ x!0+ -3 -2 -1 -0.5 1 2 3

Since lim f (x) , lim f (x), it follows that lim f (x) does not -1
x!0 x !0+ x!0
exist. Hence f is not continuous at 0. Figure 3.21

Example < x2 if x , 0; For each real number a, determine whether f is continuous or discontin-

Let f (x) = 8
:1
>
if x = 0:
uous at a. >

Explanation The domain of f is R. So we may consider continuity of f at any point a 2 R (that is,
whether f is continuous at a).
Solution Consider the two cases where a = 0 or a , 0:
 96 Chapter 3. Limits

2
(a = 0) Note that f (x) = x on the left-side and the right-side of 0. Thus we have
2
lim f (x) = lim x
x!0 x!0
2
= 0 Theorem 3.5.1
0
f (0)

Therefore, f is not continuous at 0.

2
(a , 0) Note that f (x) = x on the left-side and the right-side of a. Thus we have
lim f (x) = 2
lim x
x!a x!a

= Theorem 3.5.1
a2
f (a)

Therefore, f is continuous at a.
4
3
Remark The graph of f is shown in Figure 3.22.
2

-2 -1 1 2

Figure 3.22

In the preceding definition, we consider continuity of a function f at a point a (a real number is

considered as a point on the real line). In the next definition, we consider continuity of f on an open
interval. Recall that an open interval is a subset of R that can be written in one of the following forms:

(;) = fx 2 R : < x < g

( ; 1) = fx 2 R : < xg
( ;) = fx 2 R : x < g
;1)=R

where and are real numbers, and for the first type, we need < .

Definition Let I be an open interval and let f be a function defined on I. If f is continuous at every a 2
I, then we say that f is continuous on I.

Remark
In the definition, the condition “ f is a function defined on I” means that f is a function such that
f (x) is defined for all x 2 I, that is, I dom ( f ).
Since I is an open interval, we may consider continuity of f at any point a belonging to I.

If there exists a 2 I such that f is not continuous at a, then f is not continuous on I.

3.6. Continuous Functions 97

Example In the last example, the domain of f is R. The function is not continuous on R because it is not
continuous at 0. For the open interval (0; 1), the function f is continuous at all a belonging to this interval.
Therefore, f is continuous on (0; 1). Similarly, f is continuous on ( ; 0).

1
Example Let f (x) = x . Show that f is continuous on (0; 1) as well as on ( ; 0).
Explanation The domain of f is R n f0g. Since f is undefined at 0, we can’t consider continuity of f at 0. The
domain can be written as the union of two open intervals: ( ; 0) and (0; 1). The question is to show that f is
continuous on each of these two intervals, that is, f is continuous at every a in the two intervals. We may also
say that f is continuous on ( ; 0) [ (0; 1). However, this terminology will not be used in this course. We will
consider continuity on intervals only, because functions continuous on (closed and bounded) intervals have
nice properties (see Intermediate Value Theorem and Extreme Value Theorem below).

Proof For every a 2 (0; 1), we have

lim f (x) = lim 1

x!a x!a x
= 1 Theorem 3.5.2
a
f (a)

Therefore, f is continuous at a. By definition, f is continuous on (0; 1). Similarly, f is continuous on (

; 0).

Remark The graph of f is shown in Figure 3.23.

4
2

-4 -2 2 4

-2
-4

Figure 3.23

Remark Geometrically, a function f is continuous on an open interval I means that the graph of f on
I has no “break”; if we use a pen to draw the graph on paper, we can draw it continuously without
raising the pen above the paper.

The following two results give examples of continuous functions. They are just immediate
consequences of the corresponding results for limits.

Theorem 3.6.1 Every polynomial function is continuous on R.

Explanation The result means that if p is a polynomial function, then it is continuous on R.

Proof p a R lim p(x) = p(a), that is, p
Let be a polynomial function. For every 2 , by Theorem 3.5.1, we have x!a
is continuous at a. Thus by definition, p is continuous on R.

Theorem 3.6.2 Every rational function is continuous on every open interval contained in its domain.
98 Chapter 3. Limits

Explanation The result means that if f is a rational function and if I is an open interval with I
dom ( f ), then
p( x)
is continuous on I. Recall that f can be written in the form f (x) = q ( x ) where p(x) and q(x) are
polynomials. If q(x) is never 0, then dom ( f ) = R.
If q(x) = 0 has solutions, then dom ( f ) is the union of finitely many open intervals:

dom ( f ) = R n fz1; z2; : : : ; zk 1; zkg = ( ; z1) [ (z1; z2) [ [ (zk 1; zk)

[ (zk; 1);

where z1; : : : ; zk are the (distinct) solutions arranged in increasing order.

p(x)
Proof Let f be a rational function, that is, f (x) = where p(x) and q(x) are polynomials. Let I be an open
q(x)
interval with I dom ( f ). For dom ( f ) and so by the definition of domain, we have (x)
every a 2 I, we have a = p ( a ) = f (a), that is, f is continuous at a. Thus by
q (a )
q(a) , 0. Therefore, by Theorem 3.5.2, we have lim f
x!a
definition, f is continuous on I.

In the preceding definition, we consider continuity on open intervals. If the domain of a function f is in the
form [a; b), we cannot talk about continuity of f at a because f is not defined on the left-side of a. Since f is
defined on the right-side of a, we may consider lim f (x) and also whether the right-side limit equals f (a).
x!a+

Definition Let a be a real number and let f be a function defined on the right-side of a as well as at
a. If lim f (x) = f (a), then we say that f is right-continuous at a.
x!a+
p
Example Let f (x) = x. The domain of f is [0; 1). Using a
0
rule similar to Rule (La2 ), we get
p 2
lim f (x) = lim x 1.5

x!0+ x!0+ 1

= 0 0.5
= f (0):
1 2 3 4
Therefore, f is right-continuous at 0.
Figure 3.24

In the above example, f is also continuous at every a > 0. Thus, it is “continuous” at every a
belonging to its domain, where “continuous at 0” means right-continuous at 0.

Definition Let I be an interval in the form [c; d) where c is a real number and d is 1 or a real number
greater than c. Let f be a function defined on I. We say that f is continuous on I if it is continuous at
every a 2 (c; d) and is right-continuous at c.

Similar to the above treatment, we may also consider continuity of functions f defined on
intervals in the form (c; d] or [c; d].

Definition Let a be a real number and let f be a function defined on the left-side of a as well as at a.
If lim f (x) = f (a), then we say that f is left-continuous at a.
x!a
Definition Let I be an interval in the form (c; d] where d is a real number and c is or a real number
less than d. Let f be a function defined on I. We say that f is continuous on I if it is continuous at
every a 2 (c; d) and is left-continuous at d.
3.6. Continuous Functions 99

Definition Let I be an interval in the form [c; d] where c and d are real numbers and c < d. Let f be a
function defined on I. We say that f is continuous on I if it is continuous at every a 2 (c; d) and is
right-continuous at c and left-continuous at d.

Example Let f : R ! R be the function given by

8
>< jxj if 1 x 1;
f (x) = >
: 1 otherwise:

Discuss whether f is continuous on [ 1; 1].

Explanation In defining f , the word “otherwise” means that if x < 1 or x > 1; this is because it is
given that dom ( f ) = R. Thus we have f (x) = 1 if x < 1 or x > 1.
Solution It is straightforward to check that f is continuous at every a 2 ( 1; 1) and that f is left-continuous at
1 and right-continuous at 1. Thus by definition, f is continuous on [ 1; 1].
Remark
Note that f is also defined on the right-side of 1 (for example).
Thus we can also consider the continuity of f at 1. In fact, since
lim f (x) = 1 and lim f (x) = 1, it follows that lim f (x) does
x!1+ x!1 x!1
not exist and so f is not continuous at 1.
1
-1 1
Let I be an interval in the form [c; d] or [c; d) or (c; d] and let
f be a function defined on an open interval containing I.
Then -1

for every a 2 I, we may consider whether f is continuous at

a. The above example shows that f may be continuous on Figure 3.25

I but not continuous at some a 2 I.

The following theorem describes an important property of continuous functions on intervals.
The proof requires a deep understanding of real numbers and is beyond the scope of this course.

Intermediate Value Theorem Let f be a function that is defined and continuous on an interval I.
Then for every pair of elements a and b of I, and for every real number between f (a) and f (b),
there exists a number between a and b such that f ( ) = .

Explanation In the theorem, the condition “ f is a function that is defined and continuous on an
interval I” means that “ f is a function, I is an interval, I dom ( f ) and f is continuous on I”.
Let x; y and z be real numbers. We say that z lies between x and y if
x z y for the case where x y;
y z x for the case where y x.
Note that if x = y, then z lies between x and y means that z = x = y.
Because I is an interval, if a and b belong to I and a < < b, then belongs to I also.
The result means that if f is a continuous function whose domain is an interval, then its range
is either a singleton (in this case, f is a constant function) or an interval.
100 Chapter 3. Limits

The following result is also called the Intermediate Value Theorem.

Corollary 3.6.3 Let f be a function that is defined and continuous on an interval I. Suppose that a
and b are elements of I such that f (a) and f (b) have opposite signs. Then there exists between a
and b such that f ( ) = 0.

Explanation The condition “ f (a) and f (b) have opposite signs” means that one of the two values is
positive and the other is negative.
Proof The result is a special case of the Intermediate Value Theorem. This is because f (a) and f (b) have
opposite signs implies that 0 lies between f (a) and f (b).

In the Intermediate Value Theorem, the assumption that f is continuous cannot be omitted. The
following example is an illustration.

Example Let f : [0; 2] ! R be defined by

8
>< 1 if 0 x 1;
f (x) = >
: 1 if 1 < x 2:
1
Note that f (0) = 1 and f (2) = 1 have opposite signs.
0.5
However, there does not exist any 2 [0; 2] such that f ( ) = 0.
We can’t apply the Intermediate Value Theorem. This is because 0.5 1 1.5 2
is not continuous on [0; 2]. Indeed, it is not continuous at 0 0.5

since lim f (x) and lim f (x) are not equal. -1

x!0 x!0+
Figure 3.26

Corollary 3.6.4 Let f be a function that is defined and continuous on an interval I. Suppose that f
has no zero in I. Then f is either always positive in I or always negative in I.

Explanation The condition “ f has no zero in I” means that the equation f (x) = 0 has no solution in I,
that is, f (x) , 0 for all x 2 I. The conclusion “ f is either always positive in I or always negative in I”
means that either one of the following two cases is true:
f (x) > 0 for all x 2 I;
f (x) < 0 for all x 2 I.

Proof Suppose f takes both positive and negative values in I, that is, there exist a; b 2 I such that f (a) < 0
and f (b) > 0. Then by the Intermediate Value Theorem (Corollary 1), f has a zero between a and b which
contradicts the assumption that f has no zero in I.

The above corollary is also called the Intermediate Value Theorem. The following example
illustrates how to apply the theorem to solve inequalities.

3 2 4x 12 0.
Example Find the solution set to the inequality x + 3x
Solution Let p : R ! R be the function given by
3 2 4x 12:
p(x) = x + 3x
3.6. Continuous Functions 101

Factorizing we get
p(x) = (x 2)(x + 2)(x + 3):

The zeros of the function p are 3; 2 and 2 (and no more). Since p is continuous on R, it follows from
the Intermediate Value Theorem that on each of the following intervals, p is either always positive
or always negative:
( ;3); ( 3; 2); ( 2; 2); (2; 1):

To determine the sign of p on each of these intervals, we can just pick a point there and find the
value (sign) of p at that point. Taking the points 4, 2:5, 0 and 3, we find that

p( 4) < 0; p( 2:5) > 0; p(0) < 0; p(3) > 0:

Thus we have

p(x) < 0 for x < 3;

p(x) > 0 for 3 < x < 2;

p(x) < 0 for 2 < x < 2;
p(x) > 0 for x > 2.
The solution set is fx 2 R : x 3 or 2 x 2g = ( ; 3] [ [ 2; 2].

Remark The above steps can be expressed in a compact form using a table:

x< 3 x= 3 3<x< 2 x= 2 2<x<2 x=2 x>2

p(x) 0 + 0 0 +
p( 4) < 0 p( 2:5) > 0 p(0) < 0 p(3) > 0

The next result describes an important property of functions continuous on closed and bounded intervals. It
has many important consequences (for example, see the proof of the Mean Value Theorem in the appendix).

Extreme Value Theorem Let f be a function that is defined and continuous on a closed and bounded interval

[a; b]. Then f attains its maximum and minimum in [a; b], that is, there exist x1; x2 2 [a; b] such that

f (x1) f (x) f (x2) for all x 2 [a; b]:

Explanation The theorem is a deep result. Its proof is beyond the scope of this course and is thus omitted.

The following two examples illustrate that in the Extreme Value Theorem,
closed intervals cannot be replaced by open intervals;

the assumption that f is continuous cannot be omitted.

102 Chapter 3. Limits

4
Example Let f : (0; 1) ! R be the function given by

1 3
f (x) = x
2
It is straightforward to show that f is continuous on (0; 1). However, the
function f does not attain its maximum nor minimum in (0; 1). This is
because the range of f is (1; 1); f (x) can be arbitrarily large and it can be
arbitrarily close to and greater than 1 but it can’t be equal to 1.
1
Figure 3.27
Example Let f : [0; 1] ! R be the function given by
4
8
1 if x = 0;
<
f (x) = : 1 if 0 < x 1: 3

f x
maximum in [0; 1]. This is because the range of f
The function does not attain its 2
>
is [1; 1); f (x) can be arbitrarily large. lim f (x) = (limit does not exist).
1
Note that 1
f

is not right-continuous at 0 since x 0+

!

Exercise 3.6 8 1
Figure 3.28
2 if x < 1;
x
1. Let f (x) = > 1 if 1 x < 2;
1 x :
x
>
:

< if 2
Sketch the graph of f for x 2 [0; 5].
Find all the point(s) in R at which f is discontinuous.
x2 + x 2
Let f (x) = p .
1x
What is the domain of f ?
Find lim f (x).
x!1
Can we define f (1) to make f continuous at 1? If yes, what is the value?
1
Let f (x) = sin x .
What is the domain of f ?
Find lim f (x).
x!0
Can we define f (0) to make f continuous at 0? If yes, what is the value?
4. Let p(x) = x5 4 3 2
x 5x + x + 8x + 4. It is given that the equation p(x) = 0 has exactly two solutions,
namely 2 and 1. Use this information to solve the inequality p(x) > 0.
5. Let p(x) = x5 6x4 3x3 + 5x2 + 7.

Show that the equation p(x) = 0 has a solution between 1 and 2.

It is given that p(x) = 0 has exactly one solution between 1 and 2. Is the solution closer to 1 or 2?
Chapter 4

Di erentiation

4.1 Derivatives
Consider the curve shown Figure 4.1. It is clear from intuition that the “slope” changes as we move
0
along the curve. At P , the slope is very steep whereas at P, the slope is gentle (in this sentence,
slope means a piece of ground going up or down).

P0

Figure 4.1

In elementary coordinate geometry, readers have learnt the concept “slope of a line”. It is a
number which measures how steep is the line. For a non-vertical line, its slope is given by
y2 y1
x2 x1
where (x1; y1) and (x2; y2) are two distinct points on the line and the value is independent of the
choice of the two points.

Figure 4.2

For curves, we shouldn’t say “slope of a curve” because at di erent points of the curve, the slopes are di erent.
Instead we should say “slope of a curve at a point”. Below is how we define this concept.
104 Chapter 4. Di erentiation

First we have a curve C and a point P on the curve. To define the slope of C at P, take a point Q on
the curve di erent from P. The line PQ is called a secant line at P. Its slope, denoted by mPQ, can be
found using the coordinates of P and Q. If we let Q move along the curve, the slope mPQ changes.

Figure 4.3

Suppose that as Q approaches P, the number mPQ approaches a fixed value. This value, denoted
by mC;P or simply mP if the curve is understood, is called the slope of C at P; and the line with
slope mP and passing through P is called the tangent line to the curve C at P.

Remark The number mC;P (if exist) is the unique real number satisfying
() mPQ is arbitrarily close to mC;P if Q belonging to C is su ciently close to (but di erent from)
P.
In view of the concept “limit of a function at a point” and the notation lim f (x), we may write
x!a

lim mPQ = mC;P

Q!P
along C

to mean that ( ) holds. Below, we will discuss how to find lim m PQ by rewriting it as the limit of a di erence
Q!P
quotient. along C

Formula for Slope Suppose C is given by y = f (x), where f is a function; and P(x0; f (x0)) is a point
on C. For any point Q on C with Q , P, its x-coordinate can be written as x0 + h where h , 0 (if h > 0,
Q is on the right of P; if h < 0, Q is on the left of P). Thus, Q can be written as (x0 + h; f (x0 + h)).
The slope mPQ of the secant line PQ is
m = f (x0 + h) f (x0)
PQ
(x0 + h) x0
= f (x0 + h) f (x0)
h
Note that as Q approaches P, the number h approaches 0. From these, we see that the slope of C
at P (denoted by mP) is
mP = lim f (x0 + h) f (x0) (4.1.1)
h!0 h
provided that the limit exists.

Remark The limit in (4.1.1) is a two-sided limit. This is because Q can approach P from the left or
from the right and so h can approach 0 from the left or from the right.
4.1. Derivatives 105

2
Example Find the slope of the curve given by y = x at the point P(3; 9).
2
Solution Put f (x) = x . By (4.1.1), the required slope (denoted by mP) is

mP = lim f (3 + h) f (3)
h!0 14
h
12
= lim (3 + h) 2 3 2
h!0 10
h
8
= lim (9 + 6h + h2) 9
h!0 h 6

= lim 6h + h2 4

h!0 h 2

= lim(6 + h)
h!0 -3-2-1 1 2 3

= 6:
Figure 4.4

Definition Let x0 be a real number and let f be a function defined on an open interval containing x0.
Suppose the limit in (4.1.1) exists. Then we say that f is di erentiable at x0.

Convention Open intervals will be denoted by (a; b) including the cases and/or b = 1, unless
where a = otherwise stated. Thus (a; b) can be any one of the following:
(a; b) where a; b 2 R and a < b;
( ; b) where a = and b 2 R;

(a; 1) where a 2 R and b = 1;

( ; 1) where a = and b = 1.

Remark
The condition “ f is a function defined on an open interval containing x0” means that there is an open interval
(a; b) such that (a; b) dom ( f ) and x0 2 (a; b). Hence, f is defined on the left-side and right-side
f (x0 + h) f (x0)
of x0 as well as at x0. The expression in the limit in (4.1.1), considered as a function
of h, h
is defined on the left-side and the right-side of 0 but is undefined at 0.
“ f is di erentiable at x0” means that the slope of the curve C at P exists, where C is given by y
= f (x) and P is the point on C whose x-coordinate is x0.
There is an alternative way to describe the limit in (4.1.1). Putting x = x0 + h, we have x x0 =
h. Note that as h approaches to 0, x approaches to x0. Hence we have
lim f (x + h) f (x ) = lim f (x) f (x ) :
0 0 0
h!0 h x!x0 x x0
Theorem 4.1.1 Let x0 be a real number and let f be a function defined on an open interval containing x0.
Suppose f is di erentiable at x0. Then f is continuous at x0.
106 Chapter 4. Di erentiation

f (x) f (x0) exists (a real number). Hence we have

Proof Since f is di erentiable at x0 , by definition, lim
x!x0 x x0
x!x0 x x0 ( 0
= lim f (x) f (x0) x x )
f (x) f (x0)
lim f = lim lim (x x
(x) f
(x0)
x!x0 x x0 x!x0 0)
x!x0
= lim f (x) f (x0) x x )
x!x0 x x0 ( 0 0
= lim f (x) f (x0) 0

x!x0 x x0

0:
 Limit Rule (La5)
Theorem 3.5.1

Therefore, we get
lim f (x) = lim f (x) f (x ) + f (x )

x!x0 x!x0 0 0

= lim f (x) f (x0) + lim f (x0) Limit Rule (La4)

x!x0 x!x0

= 0 + f (x0) From above and Limit Rule (La1)

= f (x0):
That is, f is continuous at x0.
The following example illustrates that converse of Theorem 4.1.1 is not true.
 2
Example Let f (x) = jxj. The domain of f is R.

The function f is continuous at 0. This is because

1
lim f (x) = lim ( x) = 0;
x 0 x ! 0
!

lim f (x) = lim x = 0, -2 -1 1 2

x!0+ x!0+
Figure 4.5
and so lim f (x) = 0 = f (0). f (0 + h) f (0)
x!0 This is because lim does not exist as the left-side
and
However, f is not di erentiable at 0. h!0 h
right-side limits are unequal:

lim f (0 + h) f (0) = lim h 0 and lim f (0 + h) f (0) = lim h 0

h!0+ h h!0+ h h!0 h h!0 h

= lim 1 = lim 1
h!0+ h!0

= 1 = 1:

Definition Let f be a function.

Suppose that f is di erentiable at every point belonging to an open interval (a; b). Then we say
that f is di erentiable on (a; b).
 4.1. Derivatives 107

Suppose that f is di erentiable at every point belonging to its domain. Then we say that f is a di
eren-tiable function.

Remark If f is a di erentiable function, then its domain can be written as a union of open intervals.

Example Let f (x) = jxj. In a previous example, we have seen that f is not di erentiable at 0. Thus f
is not a di erentiable function. Below we will show that f is di erentiable at every x0 , 0. Thus, f is di
erentiable on (0; 1) as well as on ( ; 0).
(x0 > 0) In this case, if h is a small enough real number, then x0 + h > 0 and so we have
f (x0 + h) f (x0) = jx0 + hj j x0j

= (x0 + h) x0 = h;
which yields
lim f (x0 + h) f (x0) = lim h
h!0 h h!0 h
= lim 1 = 1:
h!0

(x0 < 0) In this case, if h is a small enough real number, then x0 + h < 0 and so we have
f (x0 + h) f (x0) = jx0 + hj j x0j

= (x0 + h) ( x0) = h;
which yields
lim f (x0 + h) f (x0) = lim h
h!0 h h!0 h
= lim 1 = 1:
h!0

A function f is di erentiable means that for every x 2 dom ( f ), the limit of the di erence quotient
lim f (x + h) f (x) exists; the limit is a real number and its value depends on x. In this way, we get a func-
h!0 h
0
tion, called the derivative of f and denoted by f , from dom ( f ) to R.

The graph of f is a curve. The assumption that f is a y = f (x)

di erentiable function implies that at every point on slope = f 0(x0)

the curve, the slope exists; at the point whose x-

0 0
coordinate is x0, the slope is f (x0). Thus f can be (x1 ; f (x1)) ; f (x0))
considered as slope function. (x0
slope = f 0(x1)

Figure 4.6

More generally, if f is di erentiable only at some points in its domain, we can still define the derivative of
on a smaller set.

Definition Let f be a function that is di erentiable at some points belonging in its domain. Then the
derivative of f , denoted by f 0, is the function (from a subset of dom ( f ) into R) given by
0
f (x) = lim f (x + h) f (x) ;
h!0 h
108 n Chapter 4. Di erentiation
0 2 dom ( ) : h!0 h f (x) o
f (x + h)
where the domain of f is x f lim exists .

Example Let f (x) = jxj. Using results in a previous example, we see that
8
1 if x > 0;
0 <
f (x) = >
:
1 if x < 0;
0
where dom ( f ) = fx 2 R : x , 0g.
2
Example Let f (x) = x . Find the derivative of f .
0
Explanation To find the derivative of f means to find the domain of f and find a formula
0
for f (x). Solution By definition, we have
0
f (x) = lim f (x + h) f (x)
h!0 h
= lim (x + h)2 x
2

h!0 h
= lim (x2 + 2xh + h2) x2
h!0 h
= lim 2xh + h2

h!0 h
= lim(2x + h)
h!0

= 2x:
0
The domain of f is R.
Remark The logic in the above solution is as follows:
f (x + h) f (x)
lim = 2x for all x R.
(1) First we find that 2
h!0 h
(2) From (1), we see that the domain of f 0 is R and f 0(x) = 2x for all x 2 R.

3 0
Example Let f (x) = x . Find f (x).
Solution By definition, we have
0
f (x) = lim f (x + h) f (x)
h!0 h
= lim (x + h)3 3
x
h!0 h
= lim (x3 + 3x2h + 3xh2 + h3) x3
h!0 h
= lim 3x2h + 3xh2 + h3
h!0 h
2 2
= lim(3x + 3xh + h )
h!0

= 3x2:
4.1. Derivatives 109

0
Remark The domain of f is R.
Terminology The process of finding derivatives is called di erentiation.
2
In a previous example to find the slope of the parabola y = f (x) = x at the point (3; 9), we use
0 0 0
definition to find f (3). In fact, if we know that f (x) = 2x, then by direct substitution, we get f (3) =
0
6. In the next section, we will discuss how to find f (x) using rules for di erentiation.
0
Terminology f (x0) is called the derivative of f at x0.

To represent a function f , we sometimes write y or f (x). Similarly, the derivative of a function

can be represented in many ways.
Notation
To denote the derivative of a function f , we have the following notations.
0 0 dy ; D f; Dy; f 0(x) and d f (x):
f ; y ;
dx dx
To denote the derivative of f at x0, we have the following notations.

dy
0 0
f (x0); y (x0); dx x=x0 ; D f (x0) and Dy(x0):

0 d
Some readers may wonder why we have the notation as well as the d x
notation. Calculus was “invented” by Newton and Leibniz independently in
d x
the late 17th century. Newton used x˙ whereas Leibniz used d t to denote
0
the derivative of x with respect to t (time). The notation y is simple whereas
dy
d x reminds us that it is defined as a limit of di erence quotient: y

dy = lim y
x
dx x!0 x
where x = h = (x + h) x and y = f (x + h) f (x) are changes in x and Figure 4.7
y respectively.
Caution dy is not a fraction.
dx
dy is f 0 or f 0(x); it is a function or an expression in x. It can be written as d y also. The notation d
dx dx dx
can be considered as an operation; to find dy means to perform the di erentiation operation on y. Some
dx
authors use the notation Dy instead, where D stands for the di erentiation operator (some authors use
Dxy to emphasize that the variable is x).
dy
Although we can define dy and dx (called di erentials), d x does not mean “divide dy by dx”.
In Chap-ter 10, we will describe di erentials briefly (the purpose is to introduce the
substitution method for integration).
110 Chapter 4. Di erentiation

Using d notation, the results obtained in the last two examples can be written as
dx
d x2 = 2x
dx
d x3 = 3x2:
dx
In Exercise 3.5, Question 2(c) and (d), in terms of the d notation, the answers can be written as
dx
d x1 = x
2

dx
1 1
d 1
= 2
:
dx x 2 2x
These are particular cases of a general result, called the power rule which will be discussed in Section 4.2.

Rate of Change
The slope of a line is the rate of change of y with respect to x. The slope of a curve y = f (x) at a point P
x0; f (x0) is the limit of the slopes of the secant lines through P, so it is the rate of change of y with
0 dy
respect to x at P. That is, f (x0) or d x x=x0 is the rate of change of y with respect to x when x = x0.
0 d s
If x = t is time and y = s(t) is the displacement function of a moving object then s (t0) or d t t=t0 is the
rate of change of displacement with respect to time when t = t0, that is, the (instantaneous) velocity at t
= t0. In the Introduction of Chapter 3, we consider the velocity of an object at time t = 2, where the
2
displacement function is s(t) = t . Using di erentiation, the velocity at t = 2 can be found easily:

0 =
s 2t

d 2
(2) = d tt t=2
= 4: t=2

Remark The notation 2t t=2 means substitute t = 2 into the expression 2t. More generally, the notation
f (x) x = means f (x0).
x0
Exercise 4.1

0
1. For each of the following f , use definition to find f (x).
(a) f (x) = 2x2 + 1 (b) f (x) = x3 3x
(c) f (x) = x4 (d) f (x) = 1
x2

4.2 Rules for Di erentiation

Derivative of Constant The derivative of a constant function is 0 (the zero

d
function), that is d x c = 0;
where c is a constant.
4.2. Rules for Di erentiation 111

Explanation In the above formula, we use c to denote the constant function f given by f (x) = c. The
0
domain of f is R. The result means that f is di erentiable on R and that f (x) = 0 for all x 2 R.
Proof Let f : R ! R be the function given by f (x) = c for x 2 R. By definition, we get
0
f (x) = lim f (x + h) f (x)
h!0 h
= lim c c
h!0 h
0
lim hh!0

lim 0
h!0

= 0

Geometric meaning The graph of the constant function c is the horizontal line given by y = c. At
every point on the line, the slope is 0.

Derivative of Identity Function The derivative of the identity function is the constant function 1, that is

d
d x x = 1:
Explanation In the above formula, we use x to denote the identity function, that is, the function f given by f
0
(x) = x. The domain of f is R. The result means that f is di erentiable on R and f (x) = 1 for all x 2 R.
Proof Let f : R ! R be the function given by f (x) = x for x 2 R. By definition, we get
0
f (x) = lim f (x + h) f (x)
h!0 h
= lim x + h x
h!0 h
h
lim hh!0

lim 1
h!0

= 1

Geometric meaning The graph of the identity function is the line given by y = x. At every point on
the line, the slope is 1.

Power Rule for Di erentiation (positive integer version) Let n be a positive integer. Then the power
n
function x is di erentiable on R and we have
d n n1
d x x = nx :
n
Explanation In the above formula, we use x to denote the n-th power function, that is, the function f given
n 0 n1
by f (x) = x . The domain of f is R. The result means that f is di erentiable on R and f (x) = nx for all
 112 Chapter 4. Di erentiation

d 0 0
2 R. When n = 1, the formula becomes d x x = 1x . In the expression on the right side, x is understood to
d
be the constant function 1 and so the formula reduces to d x x = 1 which is the rule for derivative of the identity
function. To prove that the result is true for all positive integers n, we can use mathematical induction. For base
step, we know that the result is true when n = 1. For the induction step, we can apply product rule (will be
discussed later). Below we will give alternative proofs for the power rule (positive integer version).

Proof Let f : R ! R be the function given xn for x 2 R. By definition, we get

by f (x) =
f (x + h) f (x)
0
f (x) = lim h
h!0
= lim (x + h)n xn :
h!0 h
To find the limit, we “simplify” the numerator to obtain a factor h and then cancel it with the factor h
in the denominator. For this, we can use:
a factorization formula n n n 1 n 2 n 2 n 1
a b = (a b)(a +a b + + ab +b )
the Binomial Theorem a + b)n = an + n
a
n 1
b+
n
a
n
2b2 + + n2
a b
2 n2
+
n1
ab
n1 n
+b
(
n n n(n 1) n 1 n(n 1)(n 2 2) n n

where 1 = n and = and 3 =

etc. are the binomial coe cients (see Binomial
2
2 3 2
n
= n;
Theorem in the appendix). However, in the proof below, we only need to know the coe cient
1
the other coe cients are not important.

(Method 1) By the factorization formula, we get

n n n1 n2 n2 n1
(x + h) x = (x + h x) (x + h) + (x + h) x + + (x + h)x +x
n1 n2 n2 n1
= h (x + h) + (x + h) x + + (x + h)x +x
0
( ) h!0 ( ) 1 ( ) ( )
Therefore, f x = lim x + h n + n2 + n2 n1
x+h x+ x+hx +x
= (x + 0)n 1 + (x + 0)n 2 x + + (x + 0) xn 1 Theorem 3.5.1
2 + xn
xn 1 + xn 1 + + xn 1 + xn 1
|{z}
terms
n1
nx
(Method 2) From the Binomial Theorem, we get
n xn= xn + n1 xn 1h + n2 xn 2h2 + + nn2 x2hn 2 + nn1 xhn 1 + h n
x + h) n x
= 1 xn 1h + 2 xn 2h2 ++ n2 x2hn 2 + n1 xhn 1 + hn
n n n n

= h nxn 1 + 2 xn 2h ++ n 2 x2hn 3 + n1 xhn 2 + hn 1

n 2 n n n
0 h!0 n2 n1 because 1 = n
f (x) = lim n 1 + n n2 + n n
Therefore, nx x h+ xh
n1 2
n x2hn 3+ 2 + hn 1
= nx + 2 xn 2 0+ + n2 x 0+ n1 x 0+0
n n n
Theorem 3.5.1
= nxn
1:
4.2. Rules for Di erentiation 113

123 dy
Example Let y = x . Find d x.
123 dy means to find the derivative of the
Explanation The notation y = x represents a power function. To find
dx
function.
Solution dy = d 123
x
dx dx
= 123x123 1 Power Rule

= 123x122

dx123
Caution In the above solution, the first step is “substitution”. It can also be written as . It is wrong to write dx
dy 123 dy 123 d 123 123
d xx which means d x multiplied by x . The notation d x x is the derivative of the power function x . If we
d d 123 123
consider d x as an operator, d x x means “perform the di erentiation operation on the function x ”.

Remark
d 0 1 0
In the power rule, if we put n = 0, the left side is d x x and right side is 0x . The function x
d 0
is understood to be the constant function 1. Thus d x x = 0 by the rule for derivative of
1 1
constant. The domain of the function x is R n f0g. Therefore, 0x is the function whose
1
domain is R n f0g and is always equal to 0. If we extend the domain to R and treat 0x as
the constant function 0, then the power rule is true when n = 0.
Later in this section, we will show that the power rule is also true for negative integers n using the
quotient rule (in fact, it is true for all real numbers n; the result will be called the general power rule).
In Chapter 6, we will discuss integration which is the reverse process of di erentiation. There
is a result called the power rule for integration. However, in this chapter, “power rule” always
means “power rule for di erentiation”.

Constant Multiple Rule for Di erentiation Let f be a function and let k be a constant. Suppose that f
is di erentiable. Then the function k f is also di erentiable. Moreover, we have
d d
d x (k f )(x) = k d x f (x):

Explanation The function k f is defined by (k f )(x) = k f (x) for x 2 dom ( f ). The result means that if
0 0 0 0 0
f (x) exists for all x 2 dom ( f ), then (k f ) (x) = k f (x) for all x 2 dom ( f ), that is, (k f ) = k f .
Proof By definition, we have
0
(k f ) (x) = lim (k f )(x + h) (k f )(x)

h!0 h
= lim k f (x + h) k f (x) Definition of k f
h!0 h !
h!0 h

= lim k f (x + h) f (x)
= k lim f (x + h) f (x) Limit Rule (La5s)

h !0 h
= k f 0(x)
114 Chapter 4. Di erentiation

Remark There is a pointwise version of the constant multiple rule: the result remains valid if di
erentiable function is replaced by di erentiable at a point.
Let f be a function and let k be a constant. Suppose that f is di erentiable at x 0. Then the
0 0
function k f is also di erentiable at x0. Moreover, we have (k f ) (x0) = k f (x0)
There are also pointwise versions for the sum rule, product rule and quotient rule which will be
discussed later. Readers can formulate the results themselves.

4 dy
Example Let y = 3x . Find d x.
Solution dy = d 3x4
dx dx
d
= 3 Constant Multiple Rule
dx
x4
= 3 (4x4 1) Power Rule
= 12x3

Sum Rule for Di erentiation (Term by Term Di erentiation) Let f and g be functions with the same domain.
Suppose that f and g are di erentiable. Then the function f + g is also di erentiable. Moreover, we have

d d d
d x ( f + g)(x) = d x f (x) + d x g(x):
Explanation The function f + g is defined by ( f + g)(x) = f (x) + g(x) for x belonging to the common
0 0 0
domain A of f and g. The result means that if f (x) and g (x) exist for all x 2 A, then ( f + g) (x) = f
0 0 0 0 0
(x) + g (x) for all x 2 A, that is, ( f + g) = f +g .
Proof By definition, we have
0
( f + g) (x) = lim ( f + g)(x + h) ( f + g)(x)
h!0 h
h!0 h

= lim f (x + h) + g(x + h) f (x) + g(x)

Definition of f + g
= lim f (x + h) f (x) + g(x + h) g(x)

h!0 h !
h!0 h h

= lim f (x + h) f (x) + g(x + h) g(x)

= lim (x + h) f (x) + lim g(x + h) g(x)
f

Limit Rule (La4)

h!0 h h!0 h
= f 0(x) + g0(x)

Remark
If the domains of f and g are not the same but their intersection is nonempty, we define f + g
to be the function with domain dom ( f ) \ dom (g) given by ( f + g)(x) = f (x) + g(x). The
following is a more general version of the sum rule:
4.2. Rules for Di erentiation 115

Let f and g be functions. Suppose that f and g are di erentiable on an open interval (a; b). Then
the function f + g is also di erentiable on (a; b). Moreover, on the interval (a; b), we have

d d d
d x ( f + g)(x) = d x f (x) + d x g(x):

There are also more general versions for the product rule and quotient rule. Readers can
formulate the results themselves.

The result is also true for di erence of two functions, that is,
d ( f g)(x) = d f (x) d g(x):
dx dx dx

The result for di erence can be proved similar to that for sum. Alternatively, it can be proved
from the sum rule together with the constant multiple rule:

0 0
( f g) (x) = ( f + ( 1)g) (x)
0
= f 0 (x) + ( 1)g (x) Sum Rule
0
= f 0 (x) + ( 1) g (x) Constant Multiple Rule

0
= f (x) g0(x):
Term by Term Di erentiation can be applied to sum and di erence of finitely many terms.

2 dy
Example Let y = x + 3. Find d x.
Solution dy = d (x2 + 3)
dx dx
= d x2 + d 3 Term by Term Di erentiation
dx dx
= 2x + 0 Power Rule and Derivative of Constant
= 2x

5 7 0
Example Let f (x) = x 6x . Find f (x).
dy
0 d x . Below, we use the
Explanation This question is similar to the last one. If we put y = f (x), then f (x)
notation d to perform di erentiation.
dx
Solution 0 5 7
f (x) = d (x 6x )
dx
= d x5 d 6x7 Term by Term Di erentiation
dx dx
d
= 5x4 6 7 Power Rule and Constant Multiple Rule
dx x
= 5x4 6 (7x6) Power Rule

= 5x4 42x6
116 Chapter 4. Di erentiation

The last two examples illustrate that polynomials can be di erentiated term by term.
n n1
Derivative of Polynomial Let y = an x + an 1 x + + a2 x2 + a1 x + a0 be a polynomial. Then we have
dy = na xn 1 + (n 1)a xn 2 + + 2a x + a :
n n1 2 1
Proof dx dx
n
= dx an x + an 1 x n 1 + + a2 x 2 + a1 x + a0

dy d

d n d n1 d 2 d d
d x an x + d x an 1 x + + d x a2 x + d x a1 x + d x a0 Term by Term Di erentiation

d n d n1 d 2 d Constant Multiple Rule and

an d x x + an 1 d x x + + a2 d x x + a1 d x x + 0
Derivative of Constant
n1 n2
annx + an 1(n 1)x + + a2 (2x) + a1 1 Power Rule

2
Example Let f (x) = 2x (x 5x + 7). Find the derivative of f at 2.
0 0
Explanation The question is to find f (2). We can find f (x) using one of the following two ways:
product rule (will be discussed later);
expand the expression to get a polynomial.
Then putting x = 2, we get the answer. Below we use the second method to find f 0(x).
0 2 5x + 7)
Solution f (x) = d 2x (x
dx
= d
2x3 10x2 + 14x
dx
= 2 (3x2) 10 (2x) + 14 1 Derivative of Polynomial

= 6x2 20x + 14
0 2
The derivative of f at 2 is f (2) = 6(2 ) 20(2) + 14
= 2
Product Rule Let f and g be functions with the same domain. Suppose that f and g are di erentiable. Then

the function f g is also di erentiable. Moreover, we have

d d d
d x ( f g)(x) = g(x) d x f (x) + f (x) d x g(x):

Explanation The function f g is defined by ( f g)(x) = f (x) g(x) for x belonging to the common domain A of f
0 0 0 0 0
and g. The result means that if f (x) and g (x) exist for all x 2 A, then ( f g) (x) = g(x) f (x) + f (x)g (x) for all
0 0 0
2 A, that is, ( f g) = g f +fg .
Proof By definition, we have
0
( f g) (x) = lim ( f g)(x + h) ( f g)(x)
h!0 h
= lim f (x + h)g(x + h) f (x)g(x) Definition of f g
h!0 h
4.2. Rules for Di erentiation 117

To find the limit, we use the following technique: “subtract and add” f (x + h)g(x) in the numerator.
0
( f g) (x) = lim f (x + h)g(x + h) f (x + h)g(x) + f (x + h)g(x) f (x)g(x)
h!0 h !
h f (x + h)g(x) + ) ( h f (x)g(x)
= lim f (x + h)g(x + h) f (x + h g x)
h!0 h ! h!0 ( ) h !
= lim f (x + h) g(x + h) g(x) + lim g x f (x + h) f (x)
Limit Rule (La4)
h!0

= lim f (x + h) lim g(x + h) g(x) + lim g(x) lim f (x + h) f (x)

h h Limit Rule (La5)
h ! 0 h ! 0 h ! 0 h ! 0

0 0 Theorem 4.1.1 &

= f (x)g (x) + g(x) f (x)
Limit Rule (La1)

In the last step, the first limit is found by substitution because f is continuous; the third limit is g(x) because
considered as a function of h, g(x) is a constant.

2 dy
Example Let y = (x + 1)(x + 3). Find d x.
Explanation The expression defining y is a product of two functions. So we can apply the product rule.
Alter-natively, we can expand the expression to get a polynomial and then di erentiate term by term.
Solution 1 dy = d (x + 1)(x2 + 3)
dx dx
2 d d 2
= (x + 3)dx (x + 1) + (x + 1) dx
(x + 3)
Product Rule
= (x2 + 3) (1 + 0) + (x + 1) (2x + 0) Derivative of Polynomial

= 3x2 + 2x + 3

Solution 2 dy = d (x + 1)(x2 + 3)
dx dx
= d (x3 + x2 + 3x + 3)
dx
2
= 3x + 2x + 3 Derivative of Polynomial

Quotient Rule Let f and g be functions with the same domain. Suppose that f and g are di erentiable
f
and that g has no zero in its domain. Then the function g is also di erentiable. Moreover, we have,

f g(x) d f (x) f (x) d g(x)

! 2
d
d x g (x) = dx g(x) dx :

Explanation The condition “g has no zero in its domain” means that g(x) , 0 for all x 2 dom (g). The function
f is defined by f (x) = f (x) for x 2 A, where A is the common domain of f and g. The result means that if
g g g(x) g (x ) f 0 (x) f (x)g0(x) 0
f for all x 2 A, that is, f gf0 fg
0 0 0 0
f (x) and g (x) exist for all x 2 A, then =
g (x) = g(x)2 g g2
.
118 Chapter 4. Di erentiation
Proof The proof is similar to that for the product rule.

Example Let y = x2 + 3x 4 dy

= d
2x + 1 . Find dx .
3
Solution dx d x 2x +1 4!
dy x2 + x
(2x + 1) d (x2 + 3x 4) (x2 + 3x 4) d (2x + 1)

dx dx
= 2 Quotient Rule
(2x + 1)
= (2x + 1)(2x + 3) 2 Derivative of Polynomial
(x + 3x 4)(2)
2
(2x + 1)
= (4x2 + 8x + 3) (2x2 + 6x 8)
2
(2x + 1)
= 2x2 + 2x + 11
2
(2x + 1)

Power Rule for Di erentiation (negative integer version) Let n be a negative integer. Then the
n
power func-tion x is di erentiable on R n f0g and we have
d n n1
d x x = nx :
Explanation Since n is a negative integer, it can be written as m where m is a positive integer. The
n m 1 n
function x = x =x m is defined for all x , 0, that is, the domain of x is R n f0g.
m
Proof Let f : R n f0g ! R be the function given by f (x) = x , where m = n. By definition, we have
0 d 1
f (x) =
dx xm
d d
xm 1 1 xm
= dx dx Quotient Rule
m 2
x )
m m1
x 0 1 mx Derivative of Constant &
x2m Power Rule (positive integer version)
mx(m 1) 2m
m1
mx
n1
nx
Example Find an equation for the tangent line to the curve y = 3x2 1 at the point (1; 2).
x
Explanation The curve is given by y = f (x) where f (x) = 3x2 1 . Since f (1) = 2, the point (1; 2) lies on the
x
curve. To find an equation for the tangent line, we have to find the slope at the point (and then use
0
point-slope form). The slope at the point (1; 2) is f (1). We can use rules for di erentiation to find f
0 0
(x) and then substitute x = 1 to get f (1).
dy
Solution To find d x , we can use quotient rule or term by term di erentiation.
 4.2. Rules for Di erentiation 119

dy = d 3x2 1
(Method 1)
dx dx x
x d (3x2 1) (3x2 1) d x
= dx dx Quotient Rule
2
x
= x 3 (2x) (3x2 1) 1 Derivative of Polynomial
2
x
2
3x + 1
2
x
(Method 2) dy = d
(3x2 1)x 1
dx dx
= d (3x 1
x )
dx
= d 3x d Term by Term Di erentiation
x1
dx dx
= 3 ( 1)x 2 Derivative of Polynomial & Power Rule

= 3+ 1 :
x
2 dy x=1 1
The slope of the tangent line at the point (1; 2) is
dx =3+1=4.

Equation for the tangent line: y 2 = 4(x 1) (point -slope form)

4x y 2 = 0 (general linear form)

The next result is a special case of the general power rule. Since the square root function appears often in

applied problems and the proof is not di cult, we give the result here.
Derivative of the Square Root Function The derivative of the square root function p 1

x is 2p x , that is,
dp = 1 :
x
p
dx 2 x
Explanation The domain of the square root function is [0; 1). Since the function is undefined on the left-side
0
of 0, we can only consider di erentiability of the function on (0; ). The result means that f (x) = 1 for all
p
1 2 x
p .
x 2 (0; 1) where f (x) = x
p
Proof Let f : [0; 1) ! R be the function given by f (x) = x. For every x > 0, note that if h is a small enough real
number, then x + h 2 dom ( f ) and hence if h is a small enough non-zero real number, we have
f (x + h) f (x) p p p p p p
= x+h x = x+h p x x + h+ x

h h x+h x
(x + h) x hh +p
= p = p p
h x+h+ x
h p x + h+ x
1
= p p
x+h+ x
120 Chapter 4. Di erentiation
which, by definition, implies that

0
f (x) = lim 1

p x + h + px
h!0

= h!0 1 1
Limit Rule (La6)
lim p p
+
x+h x
= p p Limit Rule (La4)
lim + lim
x+h x
h!0 1 h!0 By continuity &
=
p x + 0+ px Limit Rule (La1)
= 1
p
2 x
In the second last step, the first limit is found by substitution because the square root function is continuous;
the second limit is the limit of a constant.
p (x + 1). Find dy .
Example Let y = x
dx
dy dp
Solution x (x + 1) dx
dx = (x + 1) d p +
p
d (x + 1)Product Rule
dx x x dx
= (x + 1) 1 + p 1 Derivative of Square Root Function
p
2 x x
p 1 p & Derivative of Polynomial
= x + + x
p
2 2 x
p 1
3 x
= +
2 p
2 x
3 1
Remark If we expand the expression defining y, we get x 2 + x 2 . The derivative can be found if we know the
3
derivative of x 2 .
Power Rule for Di erentiation (n + 1 n+ 1
version) Let n be an integer. Then the function x 2 is di erentiable
2
n+ 2
on (0; 1) and we have dx x =n+ 2 xn 2 :
d 1 1 1

Explanation Denoting the function by f , if n = 0, then f is the square root function; if n is positive,
1
then the domain of f is [0; 1); if n is negative, then the domain of f is (0; 1). Putting r = n + 2 , then
r 0 r1
we have f (x) = x and the result means that f (x) = rx for all x > 0. This result has the same form
as the power rule and it will be referred to as the power rule.

Remark There is a more general result called the General Power Rule (see Chapter 9).
n+ 1 n p
Proof Let f be the function given by f (x) = x 2 . Note that f (x) = x x and so by the Product Rule and the
4.2. Rules for Di erentiation 121

Rule for Derivative of the Square Root Function, the function f is di erentiable on (0; 1) and we have
0
f (x) = d p
dx x x
n

= p d n+ n d p
x dx x x dx x Product Rule
= p n 1+ n 1 Power Rule &
x nx x p Derivative Square Root Function
2 x
n 1
1 n 1
nx 2 +! 2 x 2

1 n 1
n+ 2 x 2

Below, we redo the preceding example using the n + 2 version of the power rule.
p dy

Example Let y = x (x + 1). Find dx .

Solution dy = d x 1 (x + 1)
2
dx d
dx x 2 + x 2
= d x
3 1
3
= dx + d x1
2 2 Term by Term Di erentiation
dx d
x
= 3x 3 1 1 Power Rule
2 1 + x2 1
2 2
= 3 x1 + 1 x 1
2 2
2 2
Example Let y = 2x2 3 dy

px . Find dx .

Solution 1 dy = d 2x2 3
dx dx p x
p d 2 2 3) d p
(2x 3) (2x
= x dx dx x Quotient Rule
p 2
( x)
p 2 1
x 2 (2x) (2x 3) 2p Derivative of Polynomial &
= x
p p x Derivative of Square Root Function
4x x 3
x x +
= p
2 x
x
= p + 3
3 x
p
2x x
122 Chapter 4. Di erentiation

Solution 2 d
dy d x (2x
2 3)x 1
2
dx 1
3x
d 3 = dx 2
2x 2
3
d 1

2 dx x ! 2
2 Term by Term Di erentiation
3 x
3 1 dx !
Power Rule
x
3 2 2

2
2 2x
3
1
1
3 3

= 3x 2 + 2 x 2

We close this section with the following “Caution” and “Question”. The “caution” points out a
common mistake that many students made.

Caution d 2x , x 2x 1, we can’t apply the Power Rule because 2x is not a power function;
dx
it is an exponential function (see Chapter 8).
Question Using rules discussed in this chapter, we can di erentiate polynomial functions as well as rational

2 3
functions. For example, to di erentiate f (x) = (x + 5) , we can first expand the cube to get a
polynomial of degree 6 and then di erentiate term by term. How about the following
2 30
f (x) = (x + 5) ?
p 2
f (x) = x + 5 ?
For (1), we can expand and then di erentiate term by term (if we have enough patience). However,
2 r
this doesn’t work for (2). Note that both functions are in the form x 7!(x + 5) which can be
considered as composition of two functions:
2 2 r
7!(x + 5) 7!(x + 5) :
In Chapter 9, we will discuss the chain rule, a tool to handle this kind of di erentiation.

Exercise 4.2
1. For each of the following y, find ddyx .

(a) y = 9
(b) y = 2x + 3x
(c) y = x2 + 5x 7 (d) y = x (x 1)
(e) y = (2x 3)(5 6x) (f) y = (x2 + 5)3
(g) y = 234 (h) y = x 1
x x
(j) y = p
p
(i) y = x 1 +1
+ x x
1 x 0
2. For each of the following f , find f (a) for the given a.
(a) f (x) = x3 4x, a = 1 (b) f (x) = 2 + 4 , a = 2
(c) f (x) = 3x 3 5x 3 , a = 27 (d) f (x) = x2
x3 x p
2 x, a = 4

1 2 2
x +1
(e) f (x) = (x2 + 3)(x3 + 2), a = 1 (f) f (x) = , a=2
+ 3x 5 2x 3
(g) f (x) = x2
2
, a=1
x 7x + 5
4.3. Higher-Order Derivatives 123
4 2
3. Consider the curve given by y = 3x 6x + 2.

Find the slope of the curve at the point whose x-coordinate is 2.

(b) Find an equation for the tangent line at the point (1; 1).
Find the point(s) on the curve at which the tangent line is horizontal.
d dy
It is known that d x sin x = cos x. For each of the following y, find d x .
(a) y = x sin x (b) y = sin x
x+1
x2 + 1
(c) y= (d) y = x (x + 2) sin x
sin x
Let f be a di erentiable function.
d 2 d
Use product rule to show that d x f (x) = 2 f (x) d x f (x).
d 3 2 d
Use product rule and the result in (a) to show that d x f (x) = 3 f (x) d x f (x).
d n
Can you guess (and prove) a formula for d x f (x) , where n is a positive integer?
6. (a) Use the result in 5(a) to find d (x3 + 5x2 2)2.
dx
d 2 3
Use the result in 5(b) to find d x (x + 5) . Compare your answer with that in Q.1(f).

4.3 Higher-Order Derivatives

0
Let f be a function that is di erentiable at some points belonging to dom ( f ). Then f is a function.
0 0 0
If, in addition, f is di erentiable at some points belonging to dom ( f ), then the derivative of f exists
00 00 0 0
and is denoted by f ; it is the function given by f (x) = lim f (x + h) f (x) and is called the second
h!0 h
derivative of f .
00 00
If, in addition, f is di erentiable at some points belonging to dom ( f ), then the derivative
00 000
of f is denoted by f , called the third derivative of f .
(n)
In general, the n-th derivative of f (where n is a positive integer), denoted by f , is defined to be the
derivative of the (n 1)-th derivative of f (where the 0-th derivative of f means f ). For n = 1, the first
0 (n)
derivative of f is simply the derivative f of f . For n > 1, f is called a higher-order derivative of f .
Notation Similar to first order derivative, we have di erent notations for second order derivative of f .
00 ; 2 2 2 00 f (x):
00 ; f d y ; D f; D y; f (x) and
y
d2
2 2
dx dx
Readers may compare these with that on page 109. Similarly, we also have di erent notations for
other higher-order derivatives.

3 2
Example Let f (x) = 5x 2x + 6x + 1. Find the derivative and all the higher-order derivatives of f .
Explanation The question is to find for each positive integer n, the domain of the n-th derivative of f and a
(n) 0 00
formula for f (x). To find f (x), we can apply di erentiation term by term. To find f (x), by definition, we
00 d 0 0
have f (x) = d x f (x) which can be simplified using the result for f (x) and rules for di erentiation.
124 Chapter 4. Di erentiation
Solution 0 3 2
f (x) = d (5x 2x + 6x + 1)

dx
= 15x2 4x + 6 Derivative of Polynomial

(x) = d (15x2 4x + 6)
f 00 dx
= 30x 4 Derivative of Polynomial
(x) = d (30x 4)
f 000
dx
= 30 Derivative of Polynomial
(x) = 0 Derivative of Constant
f (4)
(n) (n)
From this we see that for n 4, f (x) = 0. Moreover, for every positive integer n, the domain of f is R.
Example Let f (x) = x3 1 . Find f 0(3) and f 00( 4).
x
Explanation
0 0
To find f (3), we find f (x) first and then substitute x = 3. Although f (x) is written as a quotient of two
0 3 1
functions, it is better to find f (x) by expanding (x 1)x .
00 00 00
To find f ( 4), we find f (x) first and then substitute x = 4. To find f (x), we di erentiate the
0
result obtained for f (x).
Solution 0 3
f (x) = d (x
dx 1)x 1
= d
dx x x1
2

= 2x ( 1)x 2 Term by Term Di erentiation & Power Rule

= 2x + x 2
0 2
f (3) = 2 (3)+3
= 55
9
00 d
f (x) =
2x + x 2 0
By result for f (x)
dx
= 2 + ( 2)x 3 Term by Term Di erentiation & Power Rule
= 2 2x 3
00 3
f ( 4) = 2 2(4)
= 65
32

Meaning of Second Derivative

0 dy is the slope function; it is the rate of change
The graph of y = f (x) is a curve. of Note that f (x) =
2
dx
= d y is the derivative of the slope function, it is the rate of change
00
y with respect to x. Since f (x) dx2
4.3. Higher-Order Derivatives 125

of slope and is related to a concept called convexity (bending) of a curve. More details can be
found in Chapter 5.
0 d s
If x = t is time and if y = s(t) is the displacement function of a moving object, then s (t) = d t is
00 d2 s 2
the velocity function. The derivative of velocity is s (t) or ; it is the rate of change of the velocity dt

(function), that is, the acceleration (function).

Exercise 4.3
dy
1. For each of the following y, find 2 .
x2
3 2
(a) y = x 3x + 4x 1 (b) y = (2x + 3)(4 x)
(c) p (1 + x) (d) y = 1 2x
y= x x
2

3 2
y = (x + 1)
For each of the following f , find f 00(a) for the given a.
(a) f (x) = 7x6 8x5 + 15x, a=1
(b) f (x) = x2(1 2x), a=2
(c) f (x) = (2 + 3x)2, a=0
n n1
Let f (x) = an x + an 1 x + + a1 x + a0 be a polynomial of degree n.
0
Find f (0) and f (0).
(n) (n+1)
Find f (x) and f (x).
126 Chapter 4. Di erentiation
Chapter 5

Applications of Di erentiation

In this chapter, we will discuss applications of di erentiation to curve sketching and extremal
problems. For curve sketching, we need to consider geometric meanings of the first and second
order derivatives. For conve-nience, some of the concepts and results are given not in their most
general forms. Many of the concepts and results are stated for functions that are di erentiable,
twice di erentiable etc. Below are the meanings of these terms.
Terminology Let f be a function that is defined on an open interval (a; b). We say that
0
f is di erentiable on (a; b) if f (x) exists for all x 2 (a; b);
00
f is twice di erentiable on (a; b) if f (x) exists for all x 2 (a; b).

Explanation The condition “ f is a function defined on an open interval (a; b)” means that (a; b)
dom ( f ).

Terminology Let f be a function and let x0 be a real number. We say that

f is defined on an open interval containing x0 if there is an open interval (a; b) such that x0 2
(a; b) and (a; b) dom ( f );
f is di erentiable on an open interval containing x0 if there is an open interval (a; b) such that
x0 2 (a; b) and f is di erentiable on (a; b);

Remark If f is a function defined on an open interval containing x0, then we may consider continuity
and di erentiability of f at x0.
p
Example Let f (x) = x. The domain of f is [0; 1).
Although 0 2 dom ( f ), the function f is not defined on an open interval containing 0. This is
because there does not exist any open interval (a; b) such that 0 2 (a; b) and (a; b) dom ( f ).
If x0 is a positive real number, then f is defined on an open interval containing x0. This is
because x0 2 (0; 1) and (0; 1) dom ( f ).
0
For x > 0, by the Power Rule, we have f (x) = 1 . Thus, f is di erentiable on (0; ).
p
2 x 1
If x0 is a positive real number, then f is di erentiable on an open interval containing x0.
00 1
For x > 0, by the Constant Multiple Rule and the Power Rule, we have f (x) = 4p x3 . Thus, f is

twice di erentiable on (0; 1).

128 Chapter 5. Applications of Di erentiation

5.1 Curve Sketching

5.1.1 Increasing and Decreasing Functions
Definition Let f be a function and let I be an interval such that I dom ( f ). We say that f is

strictly increasing on I if for any two numbers x1; x2 2 I, where x1 < x2, we have f (x1) < f (x2);
strictly decreasing on I if for any two numbers x1; x2 in I, where x1 < x2, we have f (x1) > f (x2).

Remark
In the definition, I can be an open interval, a closed interval or a half-open half-closed interval
in the form [a; b) or (a; b].
Although we can define the concepts “ f is strictly increasing (or strictly decreasing) on a set S , where
dom ( f )”, we will not use such concepts in this course because the concepts “strictly
increasing (or strictly decreasing) on an interval” are good enough for our consideration;
moreover, a function strictly increasing (or strictly decreasing) on a set S 1 and also on a set
S 2 may not be strictly increasing (or strictly decreasing) on S 1 [ S 2.
Geometric Meaning A function is strictly increasing (respectively strictly decreasing) on an interval I
means that for x 2 I, the graph of f goes up (respectively goes down) as x goes from left to right.
Terminology For simplicity, instead of saying “strictly increasing”, we will say “increasing” etc.

Remark Some authors have a di erent definition for “increasing”. In that case, “increasing” and
“strictly increasing” refer to di erent concepts.

3
Example Let f : R ! R be the function given by f (x) = x .
Then f is increasing on R.
3 3
Reason If x1 < x2, then x1 < x2 .

Figure 5.1

1
Example Let f : (0; 1) ! R be the function given by f (x) =
px .
Then f is decreasing on (0; 1).
p p 1 1
Reason If 0 < x1 < x2, then x1 < x2 and so p x1 > p x2 .

Figure 5.2

2
Example Let f : R ! R be the function given by f (x) = x .
Then f is decreasing on ( ; 0) and increasing on (0; 1).
Reason
2 2
If x1 < x2 < 0, then x1 > x2 .
If 0 < x1 < x2, then x12 < x22. Figure 5.3
5.1. Curve Sketching 129

Remark
If a function is increasing (respectively decreasing) on an interval I, then it is also increasing (respectively
decreasing) on any interval J with J I. For the function f in the above example, we can also
say that f is increasing on (0; 1]; f is decreasing on [ 10; 2] etc.
If a function is continuous on an interval [a; b) and if it is increasing (respectively decreasing) on the
open interval (a; b), then it is increasing (respectively decreasing) on [a; b). Similar results holds if [a;
b) is replaced by (a; b] or [a; b]. For the function in the above example, it is decreasing on ( ; 0] and
increasing on [0; 1). These intervals are maximal in the sense that they cannot be enlarged.
Definition Let f be a function and let I be an interval with I dom ( f ) such that f is increasing (respectively
decreasing) on I. We say that I is a maximal interval on which f is increasing (respectively decreasing) if
there does not exist any interval J with I $ J dom ( f ) such that f is increasing (respectively decreasing) on J.

Example For the function f given in the preceding example, the interval ( ; 0] is the maximal interval

on which f is decreasing and [0; 1) is the maximal interval on which f is increasing.

In the above examples, we can determine where the function f is increasing or decreasing
3
using inspection or using the graph of f . In general, given a function f , for example, f (x) = 27x x ,
it is not easy to see where f is increasing or decreasing. For di erentiable functions, the next
theorem describes a simple way to determine where f is increasing or decreasing.

Theorem 5.1.1 Let f be a function that is defined and di erentiable on an open interval (a; b).
0
If f (x) > 0 for all x 2 (a; b), then f is increasing on (a; b).
0
If f (x) < 0 for all x 2 (a; b), then f is decreasing on (a; b).
0
If f (x) = 0 for all x 2 (a; b), then f is constant on (a; b), that is, f (x1) = f (x2) for all x1; x2 2 (a; b),
or equivalently, there exists a real number c such that f (x) = c for all x 2 (a; b).
0
Explanation In the first result, the condition “ f (x) > 0 for all x 2 (a; b)” means that the slope is always positive.
From intuition, we “see” that the graph of f goes up. However, this is not a proof.
Proof The results can be proved rigorously using a result called the Mean-Value Theorem. For details, see
Theorem B.3.1 in the Appendix.

Example Let f : R ! R be the function given by

f (x) = 27x x3:

Find the interval(s), if any, on which f is increasing or decreasing.

Explanation
The question is to find maximal interval(s) on which f is increasing and to find maximal
interval(s) on which f is decreasing.
130 Chapter 5. Applications of Di erentiation

Before getting the answer, we do not know whether there is any interval on which f is increasing
or decreasing, so in the question, “if any” is added. Moreover, we do not know whether there are
more than one intervals on which f is increasing or decreasing, so instead of asking for “interval”,
we ask for “interval(s)”. This kind of wording is cumbersome; therefore, sometimes, we simply
ask: “Find the intervals on which f is increasing or decreasing”.
Because f is continuous, it su ces to find maximal open intervals on which f is increasing or
decreasing. For this, we have to solve f 0(x) > 0 or f 0(x) < 0 respectively.
0 d 3
Solution Di erentiating f (x), we get f (x) = (27x x )
dx ( ; 3) ( 3;3) (3; 1)
= 27 2
3x 3 + + +
= 3(3 + x)(3 x): 3+x + +
3 x + +
0 +
From the table, we see that f
f & % &
on the interval [ 3; 3], f is increasing;
on the intervals ( ; 3] and [3; 1), f is decreasing.

Remark
In the last row of the above table, the first & indicates that f is decreasing on ( ; 3) etc. This
information is obtained from Theorem 5.1.1.
Since f is decreasing on ( ; 3), by continuity, it is decreasing on ( ; 3] etc.

Example Let f : R ! R be the function given by

4 3
f (x) = x 4x + 5:

Find where the function f is increasing or decreasing.

Explanation This example is similar to the last one. The question is to find maximal intervals on
which f is increasing or decreasing.
0 d 4 3
Solution Di erentiating f (x), we get f (x) = (x 4x + 5)
dx ( ;0) (0; 3) (3; 1)
3 2
= 4x 12x 4 + + +
2
= 4x (x 3) x2 + + +
x 3 +
From the table, we see that f0 +
on the interval [3; 1), f is increasing; f & & %

on the interval ( ; 3], f is decreasing.

Remark In the above example, to get the maximal interval on which f is decreasing, the following
simple result is used.
5.1. Curve Sketching 131

Theorem 5.1.2 Let f be a function that is defined on an open interval (a; c). If f is increasing
(respectively decreasing) on (a; b) as well as on (b; c) and is continuous at b, then it is increasing
(respectively decreasing) on (a; c).

Proof We give the proof for the increasing case. Let x1; x2 2 (a; c) and x1 < x2. We want to show
that f (x1) < f (x2). For this, we consider the following cases:
If x1; x2 2 (a; b), then f (x1) < f (x2) since f is increasing on (a; b).

If x1; x2 2 (b; c), then f (x1) < f (x2) since f is increasing on (b; c).
If x1 2 (a; b) and x2 = b, then f (x1) < f (x2) since f is increasing on (a; b) and continuous at b.
If x1 = b and x2 2 (b; c), then f (x1) < f (x2) since f is increasing on (b; c) and continuous at b.
If x1 2 (a; b) and x2 2 (b; c), then f (x1) < f (b) < f (x2) by Cases (3) and (4).

5.1.2 Relative Extrema

In the last section, we use Theorem 5.1.1 to find where a function f is increasing or decreasing. For that, we
0 0
solve inequalities f (x) > 0 and f (x) < 0. In each of the tables obtained in the last two examples, the
0
intervals are obtained from R by deleting the zeros of f . For example, in the last example, R n f0; 3g =
0
; 0) [ (0; 3) [ (3; 1). Zeros of f are important because they play an important role in extremum problems.

Definition Let f be a function and let x0 be a real number such that f is defined on an open interval
0
containing x0. If f (x0) = 0, then we say that x0 is a stationary number of f .
Explanation
d y 0
If x = t is time and y = f (t) is the displacement (function) of a moving object, then d t = f (t)
0
is the velocity (function). Thus f (t0) = 0 means that the velocity at time t0 is 0, that is, the
object is stationary at that moment.
In the definition, the condition “ f is defined on an open interval containing x0” can be omitted because
0
the condition “ f (x0) = 0” implicitly implies that f is defined on the left-side and right-side of x0 as well
as at x0. However, we will continue to use this lengthy description to give the general setting.

Definition Let f be a function and let x0 be a real number such that f is defined on an open interval
0 0
containing x0. If f (x0) does not exist or f (x0) = 0, then we say that x0 is a critical number of f .
Explanation
Most functions considered in this course are di erentiable (on open intervals that are subsets
of their domains). For such functions, critical numbers and stationary numbers are the same.
Instead of “critical number”, many authors use the term “critical point”. However, many
students mis-understand this terminology and take x0; f (x0) as a critical point.
Caution A critical point is a point on the real line (that is, a real number) rather than a point on
the graph of f (an ordered pair).
132 Chapter 5. Applications of Di erentiation

2
Example Let f : R ! R be the function given by f (x) = x + 4x 11. Find the critical number(s) of f .
Explanation Because f is di erentiable on R, the question is to find the stationary numbers of f .
0 d 2 + 4x 11)
Solution Di erentiating f (x), we get f (x) = (x
dx
= 2x + 4:

0
Solving f (x) = 0, we get x =2 which is the critical number of f .

Definition Let f be a function and let x0 be a real number such that f is defined on an open interval
containing x0. We say that
] f has a relative maximum at x = x0 if f (x0) f (x) for all x su ciently close to x0; f

has a relative minimum at x = x0 if f (x0) f (x) for all x su ciently close to x0.

Remark The condition “ f (x0) f (x) for all x su ciently close to x 0” means that there exists an open interval ( ; )

with x0 2 ( ; ) such that f (x0) f (x) for all x 2 ( ; ). The interval ( ; ) may be di erent from (a; b).

Terminology Suppose that f has a relative maximum (respectively relative minimum) at x0. Then
the number x0 is called a relative maximizer (respectively relative minimizer) of f ;

the ordered pair x0; f (x0) is called a relative maximum point (respectively relative minimum
point) of the graph of f ;
the number f (x0) is called a relative maximum value (respectively relative minimum value) of f .

Remark The terms relative maximum value and relative minimum value will not be used in this course
because they are ambiguous; a value can be a relative maximum value as well as a relative minimum value.

If a function f has a relative maximum (respectively relative

min-imum) at x0, then the graph of f has a peak (respectively a Local maximum point

valley) at x0; f (x0) , that is, the point x0; f (x0) is higher than
(respectively lower than) its neighboring points. However, it may
not be the high-est point (respectively lowest point) on the
whole graph. For this reason, we say that x0; f (x0) is a local
maximum point (respectively local minimum point) of the graph. Figure 5.4

The adjectives “relative” and “local” will be used interchangeably. For example, a local maximizer
means a relative maximizer and a local minimum point means a relative minimum point etc.
A local maximizer or a local minimizer will be called a local extremizer and a local maximum
point or a local minimum point will be called a local extremum point etc.

Remark Consider the function f : [0; 2] ! R defined by

f (x) = 2x2 + 3x + 1:

The graph of f is shown in Figure 5.5. Although f (0) f (x) for all x su ciently close to and greater 0,
the number 0 is not considered as a local minimizer of f .
5.1. Curve Sketching 133
2
1
In order to consider whether a number is a local
extremizer of a function, the function has to be defined on 1 2

an open interval con-taining the number.

-1 Figure 5.5

The following theorem gives a necessary condition for local extremizers.

Theorem 5.1.3 Let f be a function and let x0 be a real number such that f is defined on an open
interval containing x0. Suppose that f has a local extremum at x 0. Then x0 is a critical number of f ,
0 0
that is, f (x0) does not exist or f (x0) = 0.
0 0
Proof Suppose that f (x0) exists (that is, f is di erentiable at x0). We want to show that f (x0) = 0.
Without loss of generality, we may assume that f has a local maximum at x0 (otherwise, we may consider
the function f instead). By definition, there exists an open interval (a; b) with x0 2 (a; b) dom ( f ) such that

f (x) f (x0) for all x 2 (a; b): (5.1.1)

0
Note that f (x0) = lim f (x0 + h) f (x0) ; the limit exists and is a two-sided limit. Thus we have
h!0 h

0 f (x0 + h) f (x0) = lim f (x0 + h) f (x0) :

f (x0) = lim
h!0 h h!0+ h
0
To show that f (x0) = 0, we show that one of the one-sided limits is at least zero and the other is at most zero.

For h < 0 such that a < x0 + h, by (5.1.1), we have f (x0 + h) f (x0) which implies that
f (x + h) f (x ) 0: 0 0
h
Hence we have lim f (x0 + h) f (x0) 0.
h 0 h

!
For h > 0 such that x0 + h < b, by (5.1.1), we have f (x0 + h) f (x0) which implies that
f (x + h) f (x ) 0:
0 0
h
Hence we have lim f (x0 + h) f (x0) 0.
h 0+ h

Therefore, the required result follows.

0
Remark For di erentiable functions f , the result means that if f has a local extremum at x0, then f (x0) = 0.

p
Example Let f be the function given by f (x) = 2 x x. We want to apply Theorem 5.1.3 to look for all
the possible local extremizers of f .
Note that the domain of f is [0; 1). Thus local extremizers of f must belong to (0; 1). For x > 0, by the
0 1
Power Rule, we have f (x) = p 1. Thus f is di erentiable on (0; 1). To look for local extremizers of f , by
x
0 1
Theorem 5.1.3, we only need to find positive real numbers x0 such that f
(x0) = 0. Solving p x 1 = 0, we get
x = 1, which is the only possible candidate for local extremizer of f .
0
The next example shows that the converse Theorem 5.1.3 is not true: if f (x0) = 0, f may not
have a local extremum at x0.
134 Chapter 5. Applications of Di erentiation

Example Let f : R ! R be the function given by

3 2
f (x) = x 3x + 3x:
0 d 3 2
Then we have f (x) = (x 3x + 3x)
dx
= 3x2 6x + 3
= 3(x 1)2:
Thus f is di erentiable on R. The number 1 is a critical number of f .
However, it is not a local extremizer of f since f is increasing on R. Figure 5.6

Suppose x0 is a critical number of a function f . At x0, the function f may have a local maximum,
a local minimum or neither. The next result describes a simple way to determine which case it is
using the first derivative of f .

First Derivative Test Let f be a function that is di erentiable on an open interval (a; b) and let x0 2 (a; b).
Suppose that x0 is a critical number of f .
0
If f (x) changes from positive to negative as x increases through x0, then x0 is a local maximizer of f .

0
If f (x) changes from negative to positive as x increases through x0, then x0 is a local minimizer of f .
0
If f (x) does not change sign as x increases through x0, then x0 is neither a local maximizer nor
local minimizer of f .
0
Explanation The assumption on x0 is that f (x0) = 0.
0 0
The condition “ f (x) changes from positive to negative as x increases through x0” means that f (x) > 0
0
for x su ciently close to and less than x0 and f (x) < 0 for x su ciently close to and greater
than x0.
0 0
The condition “ f (x) does not change sign as x increases through x0” means that f (x) is
either always positive or always positive for x su ciently close and di erent from x0.

Proof We give the proof for (1) and (3). The proof for (2) is similar to that for (1).
0
If f (x) changes from positive to negative as x increases through x0, then there is an open interval
0
in the form (a; x0) such that f (x) > 0 for all x 2 (a; x0) and there is an open interval in the
0
form (x0; b) such that f (x) < 0 for all x 2 (x0; b); hence by Theorem 5.1.1 and continuity, f is
increasing on (a; x0] and decreasing on [x0; b). Therefore, f has a local maximum at x0.
0
If f (x) does not change sign as x increases through x0, then there are open intervals in the form (a; x0) and (x0;
0 0
b) such that f (x) > 0 for all x 2 (a; x0) [ (x0; b) or f (x) < 0 for all x 2 (a; x0) [ (x0; b). In the first case, by
Theorem 5.1.1 f is increasing on (a; x0) as well as on (x0; b) and hence by continuity, it is
increasing on (a; b). In the second case, f is decreasing on (a; b). Therefore, in any case, f does not have
a local extremum at x0.

Remark For “nice” functions (for example, polynomials), the above result includes all possibilities.
But we can construct weird functions f such that x0 is a critical number of f and that f 0 changes sign
infinitely often on the left and right of x0. Figure 5.7 shows the graph of the function f given below;
the number 0 is a critical number of f .
5.1. Curve Sketching 135

8 0 x if x = 0:
f (x) =
> x2 sin 1 if x , 0;
<

>
:

Figure 5.7

Example Let f : R ! R be the function given by

f (x) = 27x x3:

Find and determine the nature of the critical number(s) of f .

Explanation The question is to find all the critical numbers of f and for each critical number,
determine whether it is a local maximizer, a local minimizer or not a local extremizer.
0 3
Solution Di erentiating f (x), we get f (x) = d (27x x )
dx
= 27 3x2
= 3(3 + x)(3 x):
0
Solving f (x) = 0, we get the critical numbers of f : x1 = 3 and x2 = 3.

When x is su ciently close to and less than 3, f 0(x) is negative; when x is su ciently close to and
0
greater than3, f (x) is positive. Hence, by the First Derivative Test, x1 = 3 is a local
minimizer of f .
0
When x is su ciently close to and less than 3, f (x) is positive; when x is su ciently close to and greater
0
than 3, f (x) is negative. Hence, by the First Derivative Test, x2 = 3 is a local maximizer of f .

Remark The function in the above example is considered

( ; 3) ( 3;3) (3; 1)
in the last subsection in which a table is obtained. It is
3 + + +
clear from the table that f has a local minimum at 3 and a
3+x + +
local maximum at 3. In the next example, we will use the
3 x + +
table method to determine nature of critical numbers.
0 +
f
f & % &
Example Let f : R ! R be the function given by

4 3
f (x) = x 4x + 5:

Find and determine the nature of the critical number(s) of the f .

Explanation The function is considered in an example in the last subsection. Below we just copy
the main steps from the solution there.
0 3 2 ( ; 0) (0; 3) (3; 1)
Solution f (x) = 4x 12x
= 4x2(x 3) 0 +
f
f & & %
136 Chapter 5. Applications of Di erentiation

0
Solving f (x) = 0, we get the critical numbers of f : x1 = 0 and x2 = 3.

From the table, we see that

the critical number x1 = 0 is not a local extremizer of
f ; the critical number x2 = 3 is a local minimizer of f .

5.1.3 Convexity
In studying curves, we are also interested in finding out how the curves bend. Both curves shown in Figures
5.8(a) and (b) go up (as x goes from left to right). However the way how they bend are quite di erent.

Figure 5.8(a) Figure 5.8(b)

In Figure 5.8(a), the curve goes up faster and faster, that is, the slope becomes more and more
positive as we move from left to right (the slope is increasing). We say that the curve is bending up.
In Figure 5.8(b), although the curve goes up, the slope becomes less and less positive (the
slope is decreasing). We say that the curve is bending down.

Similarly we can consider curves that go down.

Figure 5.9(a) Figure 5.9(b)

The curve in Figure 5.9(a) goes down. However, the slope becomes less and less negative.
This means that the slope is increasing and we say that the curve is bending up.
The curve in Figure 5.9(b) also goes down. Moreover, the slope becomes more and more
negative. This means that the slope is decreasing and we say that the curve is bending down.

In summary, curves having shape shown in Figure 5.10(a) [or part of it] is said to be bending up
and those having shape shown in Figure 5.10(b) [or part of it] is said to be bending down.
5.1. Curve Sketching 137

bending

up bending
down

Figure 5.10(a) Figure 5.10(b)

Alternatively, if the curve is the graph of y = f (x) where f is a di erentiable function, the graph is
bending up (respectively bending down) means that the graph is always above (respectively
always below) the tangent lines.

Remark In many books, instead of bending up and bending down, the terms concave up and
concave down respectively are used.

Bending up and bending down are properties of curves. Below are properties of functions
corresponding to these geometric properties.

Definition Let f be a function that is defined and di erentiable on an open interval (a; b). We say that
0
f is strictly convex on (a; b) if f is increasing on (a; b); f
0
is strictly concave on (a; b) if f is decreasing on (a; b).
0
Since f is the slope function, f is strictly convex on (a; b) means that the slope is increasing
and so in the interval (a; b), the graph of f is bending up. Similarly, f is strictly concave means that
in (a; b), its graph is bending down.

Terminology For simplicity, instead of saying “strictly convex”, we will say “convex” etc.

The next theorem describes a simple way to find where a function is convex or concave. The
00
method is to consider the sign of f .
Theorem 5.1.4 Let f be a function that is defined and is twice di erentiable on an open interval (a; b).
00
(1) If f (x) > 0 for all x 2 (a; b), then f is convex on (a; b).
00
(2) If f (x) < 0 for all x 2 (a; b), then f is concave on (a; b).

Proof We give the proof for (1). The proof of (2) is similar to that for (1).
Note that f 00 is the derivative of f 0. If f 00(x) > 0 for all x 2 I, that is, ( f 0)0(x) > 0 for all x 2 (a; b),
then by Theorem 5.1.1, f 0 is increasing on (a; b), that is, f is convex on (a; b).

Example Let f : R ! R be the function given by

f (x) = 27x x3:

Find the interval(s) on which f is convex or concave.

138 Chapter 5. Applications of Di erentiation

Explanation
The question is to find maximal open interval(s), if any, on which f is convex or concave.
The given function f is a “nice” function (a polynomial function). It can be di erentiated any
(n)
number of times: f (x) exists for all positive integers n and for all real numbers x. In
particular, f is twice di erentiable on R. To apply Theorem 5.1.4, we have to solve inequalities
00 00
f (x) > 0 and f (x) < 0. This is done by setting up a table.

Solution Di erentiating f (x), we get 0 = d 3

f (x) (27x x )
dx
= 27 2
3x :
0 00 2
Di erentiating f (x), we get f (x) = d (27 3x )
dx ( ; 0) (0; 1)
= 6x:
6
On the interval ( ; 0), f is convex. x +
f 00 +
On the interval (0; 1), f is concave.

Remark
When we consider “a function is convex/concave on an interval”, unlike increasing/decreasing, we do not
include the endpoint(s) of the interval. This is because the concept is defined for open intervals only.
0
Note that for a function f whose domain is a closed and bounded interval [a; b], f (x) is
undefined when x = a or b.
There is a more general definition for convex/concave functions. The definition does not
0
involve f and it can be applied to closed intervals also.

Example Let f : R ! R be the function given by

4 3
f (x) = x 4x + 5:

Find where the graph of f is bending up or bending down.

Explanation This question is similar to the last one. The graph of f is bending up (or down) means that
00
convex (or concave). So we have to find intervals on f is which f is positive (or negative).
0 4 3
Solution Di erentiating f (x), we get f (x) = d (x 4x + 5)
dx
= 4x3 12x2:
0 00 3 2
Di erentiating f (x), we get f (x) = d (4x 12x )
dx ( ;0) (0; 2) (2; 1)
= 12x2 24x
12x + +
= 12x (x 2):
x 2 +

f 00 + +

On the intervals ( ; 0) and (2; 1), the graph of f is bending up.

5.1. Curve Sketching 139

On the interval (0; 2), the graph of f is bending down.

Definition Let f be a function and let x0 be a real number such that f is continuous at x0 and di
erentiable on both sides of x0. If f is convex on one side of x0 and concave on the other side, then
we say that x0 is an inflection number of f .

Explanation
The condition “ f is di erentiable on both sides of x0” means that there is an open interval in the form (a;
0
x0) and an open interval in the form (x0; b) such that f (x) exists for all x 2 (a; x0) [ (x0; b).

The condition “ f is convex on one side of x0 and concave on the other side” means that there is
an open interval in the form ( ; x0) and an open interval in the form (x0; ) on which f is convex on
one of them and concave on the other, that is, there is a change of convexity at x0.

Suppose that x0 is an inflection number of a function f . By definition, on one side of the point
x0; f (x0) , the graph of f is bending up and on the other side, the graph is bending down. That is,
there is a change of bending at the point x0; f (x0) .

Terminology Suppose that x0 is an inflection number of a function f . Then the point x0; f (x0) is
called an inflection point of the graph of f .

In the following example, the function f is discussed in a previous example. Below we just copy
part of the table obtained in the solution there.

Example Consider the function f : R ! R given by

4 3
f (x) = x 4x + 5:

From the table

( ; 0) (0; 2) (2; 1)
+ +
f 00
we see that the inflection numbers of f are 0 and 2.
Remark We can also say that the inflection points of the graph are (0; 5) and (2; 11).

The next result gives a necessary condition for inflection number.

Theorem 5.1.5 Let f be a function and let x0 be a real number such that f is di erentiable on an open interval
00 00
containing x0 and that f (x0) exists. Suppose that x0 is an inflection number of f . Then we have f (x0) = 0.

Proof By symmetry, we may assume that f is convex on the left-side of x0 and concave on the
0
right-side of x0, that is, there exist real numbers a and b with a < x0 < b such that f is increasing
0
on (a; x0) and decreasing on (x0; b), which by continuity of f at x0, implies that
0 0
f (x) < f (x0) for all x 2 (a; x0) [ (x0; b):
140 Chapter 5. Applications of Di erentiation

0
Thus, the function f has a local maximum at x0. Hence by Theorem 5.1.3 (and using the assumption that the
0 0 00
derivative of f at x0 exists), the derivative of f at x0 is 0, that is, f (x0) = 0.
00
Remark The converse of Theorem 5.1.5 is not true: if f (x0) = 0, x0 may not be an inflection number of f .

Example Let f : R ! R be the function given by

4
f (x) = x :
Then we have 0 3
f (x) = 4x
00 2 ( ;0) (0; 1)
f (x) = 12x
f 00 + +
00
Although f (0) = 0, the number 0 is not an inflection number of f . This is
because f is convex on ( ; 0) as well as on (0; 1).

Remark The function f is convex on ( ; 1). Figure 5.11

Terminology
0 00
If f (x0) = 0, we say that x0 is a stationary number of f . However, if f (x0) = 0, we do not
have a specific name for x0.
For local extremizers, there are two types: local maximizers and local minimizers.
Correspondingly, there are also two types of inflection numbers. However, we do not have
specific names to distinguish the two types.

Example Let f : R ! R be the function given by

4 2
f (x) = x 6x + 5x 6:

Find the inflection point(s) of the graph of f .

Explanation To find the inflection points of the graph, first we find the inflection numbers of the
function. For that, we solve the equation f 00(x) = 0. By Theorem 5.1.5, solutions to this equation
include all the possible can-didates for inflection numbers. However, for each of these candidates,
we have to check whether the convexity of f are di erent on the left-side and right-side of it.
Solution Di erentiating f (x), we get f 0(x) = d (x4 6x2 + 5x 6)
dx
= 4x3 12x + 5:
0 00 = d (4x3 12x + 5)
Di erentiating f (x), we get f (x)
dx
= 12x2 12
= 12(x + 1)(x 1):
Solving f
00
(x) = 0, we get two solutions: x1 = 1 and x2 = 1.
5.1. Curve Sketching 141

( ; 1) ( 1;1) (1; 1)
12 + + +
x+1 + +
x 1 +
f 00 + +
From the table, we see that f is convex on ( ; 1), concave on ( 1; 1) and convex on (1; 1). Hence x = 1
1
and x2 = 1 are the inflection numbers of f . 1) = ( 1; 16).
The inflection points of the graph are 1; f (1) = (1; 6) and 1; f (

To determine the nature of critical numbers, we can use the First Derivative Test discussed in
the last subsection. Below, we discuss an alternative way using second derivatives.

Second Derivative Test Let f be a function and let x0 be a real number such that f is di erentiable on
an open interval containing x0. Suppose that x0 is a critical number of f , that is, f 0(x0) = 0.
(1) If f 00(x0) < 0, then x0 is a local maximizer of f (in fact, we have f (x0) > f (x) for all x su ciently close
to and di erent from x0).
(2) If f 00(x0) > 0, then x0 is a local minimizer of f (in fact, we have f (x0) < f (x) for all x su ciently close
to and di erent from x0).

Explanation Below we give a proof for (1). To prove (2), we can use the method for (1).
00
Alternatively, we can apply (1) to the function f because ( f ) (x0) < 0 in this case.
00
Proof It su ces to prove (1). Suppose that f (x0) < 0. We want to show that f is increasing on the
left-side of x0 and decreasing on the right-side.
0
By definition, together with the condition f (x0) = 0, we have
f 0(x + h)
0 > f 00(x0) = lim 0 ;
h!0 h
0
which implies that f (x0 + h) > 0 if h is su ciently close to and less than 0, that is,

0
f (x) > 0 if x = x0 + h is su ciently close to and less than x0:

Hence, by Theorem 5.1.1, f is increasing on the left-side of x0. Similarly, f is decreasing on the right-side of
x0. Therefore, by the continuity of f at x0, we see that f (x0) > f (x) for all x su ciently close to and di erent
from x0.
Remark
To determine the nature of a critical number using the Second Derivative Test, we consider
00
the sign of f at the critical number. If we apply the First Derivative Test, we consider the
0
sign of f on the left-side and the right-side of the critical number.
00
If f (x0) = 0, we can’t apply the Second Derivative Test. At x0, the function f may have a
local maximum, a local minimum or neither. See the last example in this subsection.
142 Chapter 5. Applications of Di erentiation

Some students have the following conjecture:

0
Suppose f (x0) = 0 and x0 is not a local extremizer of f , then x0 is an inflection number of f .
For “nice” functions (for example, polynomial functions), the conjecture is correct. However,
we can construct weird functions with “weird” critical point (see Figure 5.7).
However, when we consider nature of a critical number, there is no need to discuss whether
it is an inflection number because critical numbers are related to first derivatives whereas
inflection numbers are related to second derivatives.

Below, we redo a previous example using the Second Derivative Test.

Example Let f : R ! R be the function given by

f (x) = 27x x3:

Find and determine the nature of the critical number(s) of f .
Solution Di erentiating f (x), we get f 0(x) = d (27x x3)
dx
2
27 3x
= 3(3 + x)(3 x):
0
Solving f (x) = 0, we get the critical numbers of f : x1 = 3 and x2 = 3.

0 00 d 2
Di erentiating f (x), we get f (x) = (27 3x )
dx
6x
00
At x1 = 3, we have f ( 3) = 18 > 0; therefore, x1 is a local minimizer of f .
00
At x2 = 3, we have f (3) = 18 < 0; therefore, x2 is a local maximizer of f .

Example Let f , g and h be functions from R to R given by

4 4 3
f (x) = x ; g(x) = x ; h(x) = x :
00 00 00
It is clear that x1 = 0 is a critical number of f , g and h. Moreover, we have f (0) = g (0) = h (0). However,

at x1 = 0, f has a local minimum;

at x1 = 0, g has a local maximum;
at x1 = 0, h does not have a local extremum.

4 y= 4 3
y=x x y=x

Figure 5.12(a) Figure 5.12(b) Figure 5.12(c)

5.1. Curve Sketching 143

5.1.4 Curve Sketching

Given a function f that is twice di erentiable on an open interval (a; b), to sketch the graph of y = f (x) for
a < x < b, we can use the first derivative of f to find where the graph goes up or down and use the
second derivative of f to find where the graph bends up or down. Hence we can locate the local
extremum points and inflection points of the graph. Intercepts give additional information for the graph.
If f is a rational function, limits at infinity ( 1) and vertical asymptotes (infinite limits) are also useful.
The following table gives the shape of the graph of f corresponding to the four cases
0 00
determined by the signs of f and f . For example, first row first column corresponds to that both
0 00
f and f are positive: the figure indicates that the graph goes up and bends up.
0 0
f >0 f <0
f 00 > 0
f 00 < 0

3
Example Sketch the graph of y = 27x x for x 2 [ 5:5; 5:5].
Explanation In the question, we are ask to draw the graph of f where f (x) = 27x x3 for 5:5 x 5:5.
In the graph, we should locate the endpoints 5:5; f ( 5:5) and 5:5; f (5:5) . In two previous examples, we
obtain the following:

( ; 3) ( 3;3) (3; 1) ( ; 0) (0; 1)

0 + +
f f 00
0 00
The three numbers 3, 3 (zeros of f ) and 0 (zero of f ) divide R into four intervals: ( ; 3), ( 3; 0), (0; 3)
0 00
and (3; 1). On each of these intervals, we can use the above tables to consider the signs of f and f .
Solution (3; 1)
( ; 3) ( 3;0) (0; 3)
f0 + +
f 00 + +
f
On the graph, we have

Local minimum point 3; f ( 3) =( 3; 54)

Inflection point 0;f (0) = (0; 0)
144 Chapter 5. Applications of Di erentiation

Local maximum point 3; f (3) = (3; 54)

Intercepts p ; 0) and ( p ; 0)
(0; 0), (3 3 3 3

Endpoints 5:5; f ( 5:5) = ( 5:5; 17:875)

:; f :5) = (5:5; 17:875)

and 5 5 (5
following figure:

The required graph is shown in the

40
20

-4 -2 2 4

-20
-40

Remark Since f is an odd function, the graph is symmetric about the origin.

4 3 1:5 x 4:2.
Example Sketch the graph of y = x 4x + 5 for
Explanation In two previous examples, we obtain the following:

( ;0) (0; 3) (3; 1) ( ; 0) (0; 2) (2; 1)

0 + + +
f f 00
Solution
( ; 0) (0; 2) (2; 3) (3; 1)
0 +
f

f 00 + + +
f
On the graph, we have
Inflection points 0; f (0) = (0; 5) and 2;f (2) = (2; 11)
Local minimum point 3; f (3) = (3; 22)
Endpoints 1:5;f ( 1:5) ( 1:5; 23:6)
and 4:2; f (4:2) (4:2; 19:8)
following figure:

The required graph is shown in the

20
10

-1 1 2 3 4

-10
-20
5.1. Curve Sketching 145

Remark There are two x-intercepts. Approximate values of their x-coordinates are 1:2 and 3:9
which can be estimated using the Intermediate Value Theorem.

3 2
Example Sketch the graph of y = x + 3x 45x for 9 x 6.
0 2
Solution Di erentiating f (x), we get f (x) = 3x + 6x 45
= 3(x 3)(x + 5) ( ;5) ( 5;3) (3; 1)
3 + + +
x 3 +
x+5 + +
0 + +
f
0 00
Di erentiating f (x), we get f (x) = 6x + 6
( ; 1) ( 1; 1)
f 00 +
Combining the two tables, we get
( ; 5) ( 5; 1) ( 1;3) (3; 1)
0 + +
f
f 00 + +
f
On the graph, we have
Local maximum point 5; f ( = ( 5; 175)
5)
Inflection point 1; f ( 1) = ( 1; 47)

Local minimum point 3 (3 81)

; f (3) = ;

p 3 ;0 ;0
Intercepts (0; 0), 3 + 3 21 and 3p 21
Endpoints 9;f ( 9) 2= ( 9; 81) and 26; f (6) = (6; 54)

The required graph is shown in the following figure:

150
100

50

-8 -6 -4 -2 2 4 6

-50
146 Chapter 5. Applications of Di erentiation
Exercise 5.1

1. For each of the following functions f , find the interval(s) on which it is increasing.
(a) 2 5x + 6 (b) f (x) = 1 + 3x x3
f (x) = 2x
(c) 3 2 63x (d) f (x) = 2x3 + 9x2 6x + 7
f (x) = x + 6x
(e) 4 3 2 48x (f) f (x) = x + 4
f (x) = 3x + 4x 24x
x
2. For each of the following functions f , find and determine the nature of its critical number(s).
(a) f (x) = x2 + 7x 13 (b) f (x) = x4 2x3
2
(c) 5 3 (d) f (x) =x + x + 1
f (x) = x 15x
x+1
3. For each of the following functions f , find the interval(s) on which it is convex.
(a) p (b) f (x) = x3 6x2 + 9x
f (x) = x
(c) f (x) = 3x5 9x4 + 8x3 (d) f (x) = x + 2
x
4. For each of the following functions f , find its inflection number(s).
(a) f (x) = 2x3 + 9x2 108x + 35 (b) f (x) = 1 1 + 1
x x2
5. For each of the following equations, sketch its graph (you have to choose a suitable interval).
(a) y = x3 6x2 (b) y = 8x3 2x4
(c) 2 2 (d) 3
y = (x 3) y=x +x+1

5.2 Applied Extremum Problems

In this section, we will consider application of di erentiation to applied extremum problems. In such
problems, we are interested in absolute (or global) extrema rather than relative extrema.

5.2.1 Absolute Extrema

Definition Let f be a function and let x0 be a real number belonging to the domain of f .
If f (x0) f (x) for all x 2 dom ( f ), then we say that f attains its (absolute or global) maximum at
x0 and that the number f (x0) is the (absolute or global) maximum (value) of f .
If f (x0) f (x) for all x 2 dom ( f ), then we say that f attains its (absolute or global) minimum at
x0 and that the number f (x0) is the (absolute or global) minimum (value) of f .

Remark Maximum and minimum values are unique (if exist).

2
Example Let f : R ! R be the function given by f (x) = x + 1. Then
f attains its (absolute) minimum at 0 and the minimum of f is 1;

f does not attain its (absolute) maximum, that is, there does not exist any x0 2 R such that f
(x0) f (x) for all x 2 R.
Terminology Maximum and minimum (values) of a function f are called (absolute or global) extrema of f .
5.2. Applied Extremum Problems 147

Recall (Extreme Value Theorem ) Let f : [a; b] ! R be a continuous function. Then f attains its
(absolute) maximum and minimum. That is, there exist x1; x2 2 [a; b] such that
f (x1) f (x) f (x2) for all x 2 [a; b]:

Note Extrema may occur at the endpoints a, b or at points in (a; b).

Figure 5.13 shows the graph of a function f with

domain [a; b]. Note that f attains its absolute minimum
y = f (x)
at x2 which belongs to the open interval (a; b) and a x1 x2 b
attains its absolute max-imum at b which is an
endpoint. Also note that f has a relative maximum at x1
but it does not attains its absolute maximum there.

Figure 5.13

Let f : [a; b] ! R be a function that is di erentiable on (a; b). Suppose that f attains its maximum
or minimum at x0 where a < x0 < b. Then by Theorem 5.1.3, x0 must be a critical number of f , that
0
is, f (x0) = 0. Thus we have the following procedures to find the absolute extrema of f .

Steps to find absolute extrema

Find the critical number(s) of f in (a; b).
Find the values of f at the endpoints a and b and that at the critical number(s) found in (1).
The maximum and minimum values of f are, respectively, the greatest and smallest of the values
found in Step 2.

FAQ Do we need to check the nature (relative maximum or minimum) of the critical numbers?
Answer If you want to find absolute extrema, there is no need to check the nature of the critical numbers. Even if
you know that f has a local maximum (say) at a certain critical number x0, you still have to compare values.
However if you know that f is increasing on [a; x0] and decreasing on [x0; b], then you can tell that f attains its
absolute maximum at x0, that is, f (x0) is the absolute maximum; and to get the absolute minimum, you can
compare the values f (a) and f (b).

Example Find the absolute extremum values of the function f given by

3 2
f (x) = 2x 18x + 30x

on the closed interval [0; 3].

Explanation In this question, the domain of f is taken to be [0; 3]. Since f is continuous on [0; 3], it
follows from the Extreme Value Theorem that f attains its absolute extrema. Note that f is di
erentiable on (0; 3). Thus we can apply the above steps to find the absolute extremum values.
Solution Di erentiating f (x), we get f 0(x) = d
(2x
3 2
18x + 30x)
dx
= 6x2 36x + 30 (0 < x < 3)
148 Chapter 5. Applications of Di erentiation
0 2 36x + 30 = 0 (0 < x < 3)
Solving f (x) = 0, that is, 6x

6(x 1)(x 5) = 0 (0 < x < 3)

we get the critical number of f in (0; 3): x1 = 1.
Comparing the values of f at the critical number and that at the endpoints:

x 0 1 3
f (x) 0 14 18
we see that the maximum value of f is 14 and the minimum value of f is 18.
10 3 2
y = 2x 18x + 30x

1 2 3

-10

Figure 5.14

5.2.2 Applied Maxima and Minima

Example An article in a sociology journal stated that if a particular health-care program for the elderly
were initiated, then t years after its start, n thousand elderly people would receive direct benefits, where
n(t) = 2
6t + 32t; 0 t 10:
t3
3
After how many years does the number of people receiving benefits attain maximum?
2 33
0 d 2
n (t) = dt
t
Solution Di erentiating n(t), we get 6t + 32t
= t 12t + 32 (0 < t < 10)
0 2 12t + 32 = 0 (0 < t < 10)
Solving n (t) = 0, that is, t
(t 8)(t 4) = 0 (0 < t < 10);
we get the critical numbers of n in (0; 10): t1 = 4 and t2 = 8.
Comparing the values of n at the critical numbers and that at the endpoints:

x 0 4 8 10
n(x) 0 160 128 160
3 3 3
we see that n attains its maximum at t1 = 4 and also at t2 = 10.
The number of people receiving benefits attains maximum after 4 years as well as after 10 years.

Remark Although the maximum (if exist) of a function is unique, the above example shows that the
values of x at which a function attains its maximum may not be unique. The following figure show
the graph of the function n. Note that there are two highest points.
5.2. Applied Extremum Problems 149

60
40 n = t3 2
6t + 32t

3
20

2 4 6 8 10

Figure 5.15

Example Find the dimensions of the rectangle that has maximum area if its perimeter is 20 cm.
Explanation The question asks for the length and width of the rectangle.
In the solution below, the domain of the area function A
is not a closed interval. We can’t use the steps as in the x
last example. Instead, we consider where A is increasing
or decreasing.
Solution Let the length of one side of the rectangle be x cm. 10 x

Then the length of an adjacent side is (10 x) cm.

Note that 0 < x and 0 < 10 x. Thus we have 0 < x < 10.
2
The area A (in cm ) of the rectangle is Figure 5.16

A(x) = x (10 x); 0 < x < 10:

We want to find the value of x at which A attains its maximum.

0 d (10x 2
Di erentiating A(x), we get A (x) = x )
dx
= 10 2x (0 < x < 10):
0 (0; 5) (5; 10)
Solving A (x) = 0, we obtain the critical number of A: x1 = 5.
0 +
A
Since A is increasing on (0; 5) and decreasing on (5; 10), it follows
A % &
that A attains its absolute maximum at x1 = 5.
The dimensions of the largest rectangle is 5 cm 5 cm.

Remark The largest rectangle is, in fact, a square.

FAQ Can we include 0 and 10 in the domain of A?

Answer We may allow 0 and 10 in the domain of A. If x = 0 or 10, we get a rectangle one side of which
is 0 cm. Such a figure is called a degenerate rectangle. Including the endpoints, the domain becomes a
closed and bounded interval. Below we redo this problem using the method for the last example.

Alternative solution Let the length of one side of the rectangle be x cm. Then the length of an
2
adjacent side is (10 x) cm. The area A (in cm ) of the rectangle is
A(x) = x (10 x); 0 x 10:
150 Chapter 5. Applications of Di erentiation

Di erentiating A(x), we get A0(x) = 10 2x (0 < x < 10).

0
Solving A (x) = 0, we obtain the critical number of A: x1 = 5. Comparing the values of A at the
critical number and that at the endpoints:
0510 A(x) 0 25
0
we see that A attains its maximum at x1 = 5. Hence the dimensions of the largest rectangle is 5 cm 5
cm.

FAQ Can we apply the Second Derivative Test to check that A has maximum at x1 = 5?

Answer If you use the Second Derivative Test, you can only tell that A has local maximum at x1 =
5. In this problem, we want global maximum.
However, there is a special version of the Second Derivative Test which can be applied to this problem.

Second Derivative Test (Special Version) Let f be a function and let x0 be a real number such that f is di
erentiable on an open interval (a; b) containing x0. Suppose that x0 is the only critical number of f in (a; b).
00
If f (x0) < 0, then in (a; b), f attains its maximum at x0, that is, f (x0) f (x) for all x 2 (a; b).
00
If f (x0) > 0, then in (a; b), f attains its minimum at x0, that is, f (x0) f (x) for all x 2 (a; b).

Explanation Below we give a proof for (1). For this, we use a method called Proof by Contradiction.
The result we want to prove is in the form “Assumption; Conclusion”.
The assumption is “ f is di erentiable on an open interval (a; b) containing x0 and x0 is the
only critical number of f in (a; b)”.
00
The conclusion is “If f (x0) < 0, then in (a; b), f attains its maximum at x0”.
00
The negation (opposite) of the conclusion is “It is not true that if f (x0) < 0, then in (a; b), f attains its
00
maximum at x0” which can be restated as “ f (x0) < 0 and in (a; b), f does not attain its maximum at x0”.
The method of Proof by Contradiction is to assume that the conclusion is false and use it
(together with the given assumption) to deduce something that contradicts the given assumption.
0
More specifically, we want to deduce that there exists x2 2 (a; b) with x2 , x0 such that f (x2) = 0,
which contradicts the assumption that x0 is the only critical number of f in (a; b).
In the proof below, we write “Without loss of generality, we may assume that x 1 > x0”. It means
that the other case where x1 < x0 can be treated similarly.
Proof We give a proof for (1). For (2), it can be proved similarly or alternatively proved by applying
(1) to the function f .
00
Suppose that (1) does not hold, that is, suppose that f (x0) < 0 but there exists x1 2 (a; b) such

that f (x1) > f (x0):

Without loss of generality, we may assume that x1 > x0. Applying the Extreme Value Theorem to f
on the interval [x0; x1], we see that there exists x2 2 [x0; x1] such that
f (x2) f (x) for all x 2 [x0; x1]:
5.2. Applied Extremum Problems 151

It is clear that x2 , x1. Moreover, we have x2 , x0; this is because

can’t happen
f (x0) > f (x) if x is su ciently close to x0 and x , x0

00
by the Second Derivative Test (since f (x0) < 0). Thus we have

x2 2 (x0; x1) and f (x2) f (x) for all x 2 (x0; x1);

which implies that f has a local minimum at x . By Theorem 5.1.3,
2
0
we have f (x2) = 0, which (together with that x2 , x0) contradicts
a x 0 x2 x1 b
the assumption that x0 is the only critical number of f in (a; b).
Figure 5.17

Alternative solution to the rectangle problem Let the length of one side of the rectangle be x cm.
2
Then the length of an adjacent side is (10 x) cm. The area A (in cm ) of the rectangle is

A(x) = x(10 x); 0 < x < 10:

0
Di erentiating A(x), we get A (x) = 10 2x (0 < x < 10).
Solving A0(x) = 0, we obtain the critical number of A: x1 = 5.
0 00 d
Di erentiating A (x), we get A (x) = (10 2x) = 2.
dx
00
Since A (5) = 2 < 0 and 5 is the only critical number of A in (0; 10), it follows from the Second Derivative
Test (Special Version) that A attains its maximum at x1 = 5. Hence the dimensions of the largest rectangle is
5 cm 5 cm.

Example A rectangular box without lid is to be made from a square cardboard of sides 18 cm by cutting
equal squares from each corner and then folding up the sides. Find the length of the side of the square
that must be cut o if the volume of the box is to be maximized. What is the maximum volume?

Solution 1 Let the length of the side of the square to be cut o be x cm. Then the base of the box is
a square with each side equals to (18 2x) cm. Hence we have 0 < x < 9.

x
18 18 2x

18 2x x

Figure 5.18 Figure 5.18(b)

3
The volume V, in cm , of the open box is

V(x) = x (18 2x)2; 0 < x < 9:

0 d (324x 2 3
Di erentiating V(x), we get V (x) = 72x + 4x )
dx
= 324 144x + 12x2 (0 < x < 9)
152 Chapter 5. Applications of Di erentiation
0 2 = 0 (0 < x < 9)
Solving V (x) = 0, that is 324 144x + 12x

12(x 9)(x 3) = 0 (0 < x < 9)

we get the critical number of V in (0; 9): x1 = 3. (0; 3) (3; 9)
Since V is increasing on (0; 3) and decreasing on (3; 9), it follows 0 +
V
% V &
that on (0; 9), V attains its maximum at x1 = 3.
To maximize the volume of the box, the length of the side of the square that must be cut o is 3 cm.
3
The maximum volume is V(3) = 432 cm .

Solution 2 Let the length of the side of the square to be cut o be x cm. Then the base of the box is
a square with each side equals to (18 2x) cm. Hence we have 0 x 9 (when x = 0 or 9, we get a
degenerate box with zero volume).
3
The volume V, in cm , of the open box is
V(x) = x (18 2x)2; 0 x 9:

Di erentiating V(x), we get 0 = d (324x 72x2 + 4x3)

V (x)
dx
= 324 2 (0 < x < 9)
144x + 12x
0 2
Solving V (x) = 0, that is 324 144x + 12x = 0 (0 < x < 9)
12(x 9)(x 3) = 0 (0 < x < 9)
we get the critical number of V in (0; 9): x1 = 3.
Comparing the value of V at the critical number and that the the endpoints:

x 0 3 9
V(x) 0 432 0

we see that to have maximum volume, the length of the side of the square that must be cut o is
3 cm; and that
3
the maximum volume is 432 cm .

Solution 3 Let the length of the side of the square to be cut o be x cm. Then the base of the box is
a square with each side equals to (18 2x) cm. Hence we have 0 < x < 9.
3
The volume V, in cm , of the open box is
V(x) = x (18 2x)2; 0 < x < 9:
Di erentiating V(x), we get 0 d (324x 2 3
V (x) = 72x + 4x )
dx
= 324 2 (0 < x < 9)
144x + 12x
0 2
Solving V (x) = 0, that is 324 144x + 12x = 0 (0 < x < 9)
12(x 9)(x 3) = 0 (0 < x < 9)
we get the critical number of V in (0; 9): x1 = 3.
0 00 2
Di erentiating V (x), we get V (x) = d (324 144x + 12x )
dx
= 144 + 24x:
5.2. Applied Extremum Problems 153

00
Since V (3) = 72 < 0 and x1 = 3 is the only critical number of V in (0; 9), it follows from the Second
Derivative Test (Special Version) that in (0; 9), V attains its maximum at x1 = 3. Thus the length of the side of
3
the square that must be cut o is 3 cm and the maximum volume is V(3) = 432 cm .

400
V = x(18 2x)2
300
200

100

2 4 6 8

Figure 5.19

5.2.3 Applications to Economics

Suppose a manufacturer produces and sells a product. Denote C(q) to be the total cost for producing and
marketing q units of the product. Thus C is a function of q and it is called the (total) cost function. The rate of
change of C with respect to q is called the marginal cost, that is,
d C
marginal cost = d q :

Denote R(q) to be the total amount received for selling q units of the product. Thus R is a function of q and it is
called the revenue function. The rate of change of R with respect to q is called the marginal revenue, that is,

d R
marginal revenue = d q :

Denote P(q) to be the profit of producing and selling q units of the product, that is,

P(q) = R(q) C(q):

Thus P is a function of q and it is called the profit function.

Denote qmax to be the largest number of units of the product that the manufacturer can
produce. Assuming that q can take any value between 0 and qmax. Then for each of the functions
C, R and P, the domain is [0; qmax]. Suppose that the cost function and the revenue function are di
erentiable on (0; qmax) and suppose that producing 0 or qmax units of the product will not give
maximum profit. Then in order to have maximum profit, we need
d P
d q = 0;
or equivalently,
d C d R
d q= d q;
that is, marginal cost = marginal revenue.

Example The demand equation for a certain product is

q 90 + 2p = 0; 0 q 90;
154 Chapter 5. Applications of Di erentiation
where q is the number of units and p is the price per unit, and the average cost function is

2 2 0 < q 90:
Cav = q 8q + 57 +
q
At what value of q will there be maximum profit? What is the maximum profit?
Explanation Although the average cost function is undefined at q = 0, we may include 0 in the
domain of the cost function. The cost function and the revenue function are di erentiable on (0; 90).
However, we do not know whether maximum profit would be attained in (0; 90) or at an endpoint.
So we use the method for finding absolute extrema for functions on closed and bounded intervals.
Solution The cost function C is given by
3 2 (0 q 90);
C(q) = q Cav = q 8q + 57q + 2

and the revenue function R is given by

R(q) = p q = 90 q q (0 q 90):
2
Therefore the profit function P is given by
P(q) = R(q) C(q)
2 3 2
= 45q q
(q 8q + 57q + 2)
2
3 15 2
= q + 2 q 12q 2; (0 q 90):
Di erentiating P(q), we get 0 = d 3 15 2 12q 2
P (q) q + q
dq 2
= 2
3q + 15q 12 (0 < q < 90)
0 2
Solving P (q) = 0, that is, 3q + 15q 12 = 0 (0 < q < 90)
3(q 1)(q 4) = 0 (0 < q < 90);
we get the critical numbers of P: q1 = 1 and q2 = 4.
Comparing the values of P at the critical numbers as well as that at the endpoints:
q 0 1 4 90

P(q) 2 15 6 669332
2

we see that maximum profit is attained at q2 = 4 and the maximum profit is 6 (units of money).
Remark If we know that maximum profit is not attained at the endpoints, we can simply compare
the values of P at q1 and q2.

5
1 2 3 4 5 6

-10

3 15 2 12q 2
P= q + q
2
-20

Figure 5.20
5.2. Applied Extremum Problems 155

Exercise 5.2
1. For each of the given function f , find its absolute extrema on the given interval.
(a) f (x) = 4x3 + 3x2 18x + 1, [0; 3]
(b) f (x) = 3x5 + 5x3 + 2, [ 2;0]
(c) f (x) = 1 + 2x3 3x4, [ 1; 1]
Find two positive real numbers whose sum is 50 and whose product is a maximum.
2 2
Find two real numbers x and y satisfying 2x + y = 15 such that x + y is
minimized. Can you find a geometric meaning for the result?
Find the dimensions of the rectangle of area 100 square units that has the least perimeter.
A rectangular field is to be enclosed by a fence and divided equally into two parts by a fence
parallel to one pair of the sides. If a total of 600 m of fence is to be used, find the dimensions
of the field if its area is to be maximized.
2 1
A book is to contain 36 in of printed matter per page, with margins of 1 in along the sides and 1 2 in
along the top and Find the dimensions of the page that will require the minimum amount of
bottom. paper.
7. Suppose that a ball is thrown straight up into the air and its height after t seconds is 5 + 24t 16t2 feet.
Determine how long it will take the ball to reach its maximum height and determine the maximum height.
8. It is known from experiments that the height (in meter) of a certain plant after t months is given (approx-
imately) by
pt t; 0 t 1:
h(t) =
How long, on the average, will it take a plant to reach its maximum height? What is the maximum height?

A company manufactures and sells x pieces of a certain product per month. The monthly cost
(in dollars) is
C(x) = 120000 + 100x
and the price-demand equation is
x
p = 300
15
where 0 x 4000. Find the maximum profit, the production level that will give the maximum
profit, and the price the company should charge for each piece of the product.
156 Chapter 5. Applications of Di erentiation
Chapter 6

Integration

6.1 Definite Integrals

2
In the introduction of Chapter 3, we consider the area of the region under the curve y = x and above the x-
axis for x between 0 and 1. To get approximations for the area, we divide [0; 1] into n equal subintervals:

x0; x1]; [x1; x2]; : : : ; [xn 1; xn];

i
where xi = n for 0 i n; and for each i = 1; : : : ; n, in the subinterval [xi 1; xi], we take the left endpoint xi 1
and consider the sum n f (xi 1) 1 , that is, f (x0) 1 + + f (xn 1)1 . We have seen that the sum is close to
P
= n n n

1
i 1

3 (which is the required area) if n is large. Using limit notation, the result can be written as
X
n 1 1
nlim f (xi 1) = : (6.1.1)
!1 n 3
i=1

The above idea can be generalized to any continuous functions f on any closed and bounded interval. Moreover,
need not be non-negative.

Theorem 6.1.1 Let f be a function that is continuous on a closed and bounded interval [a; b]. Then
the follow-ing limit exists:
Xn b a
lim f (xi 1) n ;

n!1 i=1
i
where xi = a + n (b a) for 0 i n.

Explanation y = f (x)
By the construction of the xi’s, we have x0 = a, xn = b,
x0 < x1 < < xn, and for every i = 1; : : : ; n, the
b a
subinterval [xi 1; xi] has length and xi 1 is the left-
endpoint of the subinterval. n

If f is non-negative non [a; b], that is, f (x) 0 for all

b a
x 2 [a; b], then nlim f (xi 1) n is the area bounded
!1 x1 xn 1
i=1 x0 xn
by the graph of , P
f the x-axis and the vertical lines given

by x = a and x = b. Figure 6.1

158 Chapter 6. Integration

Definition Let f be a function that is continuous on a closed and bounded interval [a; b]. The number
n b a i
nlim = f (xi 1) n , where xi = a + n (b a) for 0 i n, is called the definite integral of from a to
P b
!1 i 1 f (x) dx, that is, b
R n
b and is denoted by a
f x x = lim X f (x ) b a :
(6.1.2)
Z ( )d n!1
i=1
i1 n
a
Example The result given in (6.1.1) can be written as
1 1
x2 dx = : (6.1.3)
3
0

Remark In Theorem 6.1.1, in each subinterval [xi 1; xi], instead of taking the left endpoint xi 1, we
can take the right endpoint xi (see Figure 6.2) and we have
X Z
n b a b
lim f (x ) = f (x) dx: (6.1.4)
i a
n!1 n
i=1

y = f (x) y = f (x)
xn 1 xn
x0 x1 x0 t1 x1 t2 tn xn

Figure 6.2 Figure 6.3

n b a is close to
In fact, we can take an arbitrarily point (denoted by ti) in [xi 1; xi]: the sum =
f (ti) n

R b P
a f (x) dx if n is large enough (see Figure 6.3). i 1

More generally, the subintervals [x0; x1]; : : : ; [xn 1; xn] need not be of equal lengths. All we
need is that the lengths are small enough: if a = x0 < x1 < < xn = b and x1; : : : ; xn are small
enough, where xi is the length of the ith subinterval [xi 1; xi], then for every choice of t1; : : : ; tn with
ti 2 [xi 1; xi] for 1 i n, the sum (called a Riemann Sum)
n
X
(ti) xi
i=1
R b
is close to a f (x) dx. Many authors use this to define definite integral.

2
Below, we apply (6.1.4) to deduce the result given in (6.1.3). For this, we take f (x) = x , a = 0, b
i
= 1 and xi = n for 0 i n.
6.1. Definite Integrals 159

Example By (6.1.4), we have X

1 n i 2 1
2
x dx = lim
Z0 n!1 i=1 n n
1 nX 2
= lim 3
i
n!1 n i=1

= lim 1 n(n + 1)(2n + 1) Sum of Squares Formula

3
n!1 n 6

= lim 2n 3 Leading Term Rule

3
n!1 6n
= 1
3

Rb
FAQ Can we define f (x) dx if f is not continuous on [a; b]?
a
Answer R b we need Theorem 6.1.1. The condition “ f is continuous on [a; b]” is used to
In definingn a f (x) dx,1
guarantee that nlim = f (xi 1) exists.
P
n

!1 i 1
In general, if f is a function defined on [a; b] such that there exists a (unique) real number I satisfying
P x0 x1 xn b and ti 2 [xi 1 xi] for 1 ,

() n
i=1 f (ti) xi is arbitrarily close I if x1; : : : ; xn are su ciently small, where xi = xi xi 1 for 1 i n,
a= < < < = ; i n
R b
then the unique number I is defined to be a f (x) dx.

Remark
In view of ( ), we may write b n

X
Za f (x) dx = lim f t x ;
(i) i
k k!0 i=1

where k k ! 0 means the lengths xi’s tend to zero. However, this kind of limit is di erent from
that discussed in Chapter 3.
The symbol was introduced by Leibniz and is called the integral sign. It is an elongated S and was
because a definite integral is a limit of sums.

chosen R
Since the definite integral of a (continuous) function on [a; b] depends on the function f and the interval
b
[a; b] only, it can simply be denoted by a f , omitting the variable x and the notation dx. However, the
b f x x are two reasons:
R ( ) d is preferred. There R
notation a
Pn
(1) the notation dx reminds us of the factors xi in the sums f (ti) xi;
i=1
(2) with the variable included in the notation, it is easier to handle the substitution method
for integra-tion (see Chapter 10).
Rb
In the notation f (x) dx, the variable x is called a dummy variable; it can be replaced by any other
a R
12 1

symbol. For example, using t as the dummy variable, (6.1.3) can be written as 0 t dt = 3 .
Note that if we use t as the dummy variable, we have to change dx to dt accordingly.
160 Chapter 6. Integration

Z2
Example Use definition to find x dx.
1
i
Solution Applying (6.1.2) to f (x) = x, a = 1, b = 2 and xi = 1 + for 0 i n, we get
n
X
Z 2 n !
i 1 1
x dx = lim 1+
1
n!1 i=1
n n
1 X n
= lim (n + i 1)
2 i=1
n!1 n
= 1 n(n + 2n 1) Sum of A.P.
nlim
2 2
!1 n
= lim 3n 1
n!1 2n
= lim 3n Leading Term Rule
n!1 2n

3
2:

2
Remark The value of the definite integral is the area of the trapezoidal
region shown in Figure 6.4. Readers can check that the result agrees
1
with that obtained by using formula for area of trapezoid.

1 2

Figure 6.4

Definite Integral for Constant Functions Let c be a constant and let a and b be real numbers with a < b.
Then Z b
we have c dx = c (b a).
a
i
Proof Applying (6.1.2) to f (x) = c and xi = a + n (b a) for 0 i n, we get
X
b n b a
c dx = nlim c
a !1
n
i=1 b a
= nlim c n Sum of Constants
n
!1
= nlim c (b a) Rule (L1) for Limit
!1

= c (b a)
Remark If c > R b c dx is the area of the rectangular region shown in c
0, then
Figure 6.5. a

a b
Figure 6.5

Rules for Definite Integrals Let f and g be functions that are continuous on a closed and bounded

interval [a; b]. Let be a constant and let c 2 (a; b). Then we have
 6.1. Definite Integrals Z b Z b 161
(Int1) Za b f (x) + g(x) dx = a f (x) dx + a g(x) dx
h i

Proof Apply definition and Rule (L4) for limits of sequences.

(Int2) Z b Z b
a f (x) dx = a f (x) dx

Proof Apply definition and Rule (L5s) for limits of sequences.

Remark Using Rules (Int1) and (Int2), we get

Z b h i Z b Z b
a f (x) g(x) dx = a f (x) dx a g(x) dx:

In fact, Rule (Int1) is valid for sum and di erence of finitely many (continuous) functions.
Z Z Z
b c b
y = f (x)
(Int3) f (x) dx = f (x) dx + f (x) dx.
a a c

Explanation The proof for the result is not easy. For the case where
is nonnegative on [a; b], the result can be seen from the geometric
interpretation shown in Figure 6.6.
a c b
Figure 6.6
Example Z 1 2 01 2
0 5x dx = 5 Z x dx Rule (Int2)

= 5 1 by (6.1.3)
3
= 5
3
Z2 Z2 Z2
Example (3 x) dx = 3 dx x dx Rule (Int1)
1 1 1
3 Definite Integral for Constant
= 3 (2 1)
2 & Example on Page 160
3
2
R b
In defining a f (x) dx, we need a < b. For convenience, we introduce the following:

Convention Let f be a function that is continuous on a closed and bounded interval [a; b] and let c 2
[a; b]. Then we define
Za Zb
(1) f (x) dx = f (x) dx
b a
c
f (x) dx = 0
c
162 Chapter 6. Integration

2
Example 2 (1 + 2x 3x2) dx = 0 since the function 1 + 2x 3x2 is continuous on [0; 3] (for example)
and 2 2 [0; 3].
Example Z 10 2 = 1 2 by convention
x dx Z0 x dx

= 1 by (6.1.3)
3
R b
Terminology In a definite integral a f (x) dx,
the function f is called the integrand;
the numbers a and b are called the limits of integration; a is the lower limit and b the upper limit.

Exercise 6.1
1. For each of the following definite integrals, use the results in this section to find its value:
1 R 1
x x dx
x2
(a) R 3 )d (b) 2 4 1 x 3 dx.
0 (1
definition to find the definite integral
R
2. Use 3 3 3 n2(n + 1)2 0

Given: 1 +2+ +n = 4

6.2 Fundamental Theorem of Calculus

In the last section, we give the definition and some examples of definite integral. Although we have some
rules that are useful in calculating definite integrals, we still have to know the definite integrals of some “basic
functions”. For example, using rules, we can find the definite integrals of polynomials provided that we know
R b n
a x dx for positive integers n. Finding definite integrals by first principle (that is, by definition) is very
tedious. In this section, we describe a simple way (Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, Version 2) to find
definite integrals. It is quite surprising that di erentiation and integration are related— they are reverse
process of each other (see Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, Versions 1 and 3).

Given a function f that is continuous on a closed and bounded interval [a; b], in order to “find”
R b
the definite integral a f (x) dx, we introduce an auxiliary function F from [a; b] into R defined by
x
F(x) = a f (t) dt a x b:
In the construction of F, for each x 2 (a; b], the value F(x) is defined
to be the definite integral of f over the interval [a; x] and for x = a, by
convention, F(a) = a f (t) dt is defined to be 0. Note that x is used as the
Ra
independent variable for the function F. For clarity, we use another symbol
t as the dummy variable for the definite integral of f over [a; x].
Geometrically, if f is nonnegative on [a; b], then F can be considered as an
“area function” with F(x) equal to the area under the graph of f (and above a x b
Figure 6.7
the horizontal axis) from a to x.
6.2. Fundamental Theorem of Calculus 163

By the construction of F, the required definite integral is F(b). If we can find a formula for F(x),
then we can solve the problem. The following result gives a relation between F and f .

Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, Version 1 Let f be a function that is continuous on a closed and
bounded interval [a; b]. Let F be the function from [a; b] into R defined by
x
F(x) = f (t) dt for a t b:
a

0
Then F is continuous on [a; b] and di erentiable on (a; b) with F (x) = f (x) for all x 2 (a; b).

Explanation The proof of this result will be given in the appendix. Below we explain how to “obtain”
0
F = f on (a; b) intuitively for the case where f is nonnegative on [a; b]. Recall that
0
F (x) = lim F(x + h) F(x) :
h!0 h
For x 2 (a; b) and for su ciently small h > 0 (such that a + h b),
we have
F(x + h) F(x) = Z a x+h f (t) dt Z a x f (t) dt by construction of F

= Za x Z x+h ! Z x f (t) dt Rule (Int3)

f (t) dt + x f (t) dt a

Z x+h
= f (t) dt:
x
Note that x+h
x f (t) dt is the area of the region below the graph
of f (and R
above the horizontal axis) from x to x + h. If h is
small, then [x; x+h] is a short interval and the area of the small
region under consideration can be approximated by the area of
the rectangular region with base [x; x+h] on the horizontal axis
and height equal to f (x). Thus we have a x x+h b

Z Figure 6.8
x x+h f (t) dt is close to f (x) h if h is small;

from which we obtain

F x + h) F(x) x+h

( =R f (t) dt is close to f (x) if h is small:

x
h h
0
Taking limit, we get F (x) = f (x).
Remark To be more precise, the above argument gives lim F(x + h) F(x) = f (x) only.
h!0+ h

R b
In view of the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus (Version 1), to find a f (x) dx, we should
0
look for func-tions G such that G = f .
Definition Let f be a function that is continuous on a closed and bounded interval [a; b]. Suppose
that G is a function that is defined on [a; b] such that the following two conditions are satisfied:
164 Chapter 6. Integration

G is continuous on [a; b];

0
G is di erentiable on (a; b) and G (x) = f (x) for all x 2 (a; b).
Then we say that G is a primitive for f on [a; b].

2 3 0
Example Let f (x) = 3x and let G(x) = x . Note that f and G are continuous on R and that G (x) = f
(x) for all x 2 R. Thus G is a primitive for f on every closed and bounded interval [a; b].
3
Remark Primitive is not unique. For example, the function G1(x) = x + 1 is also a primitive for f (on
every closed and bounded interval). In fact, for every constant C, the function

3 (6.2.1)
x +C

is a primitive for f (on every closed and bounded interval). It is natural to ask whether there are any
more primitives:
0
If F (x) = f (x) for all x 2 R, must F be in the form (6.2.1)?
Corollary 6.2.2, which is based on the following theorem, tells that the answer is a rmative.

Theorem 6.2.1 Let F and G be functions that are defined on a closed and bounded interval [a; b]. Suppose that
0 0
and G are continuous on [a; b] and are di erentiable on (a; b) with F (x) = G (x) for all x 2 (a; b). Then
on [a; b], the functions F and G di er by a constant, that is, there exists a constant C such that

F(x) G(x) = C for all x 2 [a; b]:

Explanation The following is the geometry meaning of the result:

0 0
The condition “F (x) = G (x) for all x 2 (a; b)” means that at corresponding points (same x-
coordinates), tangents to the graphs of F and G are parallel.
The conclusion is that the graph of F can be obtained from that of G by moving it upward (C >
0) or downward (C < 0).

Proof Let f be the function from [a; b] into R defined by

f (x) = F(x) G(x):

0 0 0
Note that f (x) = F (x) G (x) = 0 for all x 2 (a; b). Hence by Theorem 5.1.1, there exists a constant
C such that
f (x) = C for all x 2 (a; b):

Since f is continuous on [a; b], it follows that

f (x) = C for all x 2 [a; b]

from which we get the required result.

Corollary 6.2.2 Let f be a function that is continuous on a closed and bounded interval [a; b]. Suppose
that F and G are primitives for f on [a; b]. Then on [a; b], the functions F and G di er by a constant.
6.2. Fundamental Theorem of Calculus 165

Proof This is an immediate consequence of Theorem 6.2.1 since by the definition of primitive, the functions F
0 0
and G are continuous on [a; b] and di erentiable on (a; b) and F (x) = f (x) = G (x) for all x 2 (a; b).
2
Example Find the value of the definite integral 3x2 dx.
1
2 3
Solution Let f (x) = 3x and let G(x) = x . Then G is a primitive for f on [1; 2].
By the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus (Version 1), the function F given by
x
2
F(x) = 3t ; dt; 1 x 2:
1

is a primitive for f on [1; 2].

By Corollary 6.2.2, on the interval [1; 2], the functions F and G di er by a constant, that is, there exists a
constant C such that for all x 2 [1; 2]:
3
F(x) x = C
Putting x = 1 and using the construction of F, we get

1=C:

3
which implies that F(x) = x 1 for all x 2 [1; 2]. Hence, we have
Z2
2
3x dx = F(2) by construction of F
1 3 1
= 2
= 7:

Remark The above procedure can be used to find the definite integral of f on any closed and
bounded interval [a; b]. This is because G is a primitive for f on every [a; b].

From the above example, we see that given a function f that is continuous on a closed and bounded interval
b
[a; b], if we can find a primitive for f over [a; b], then we can find the definite integral a f (x) dx. The following
b f x x find the constant C).
R a ( ) d (there is no need to R
result describe an alternative procedure for finding

Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, Version 2 Let f be a function that is continuous on a closed and
bounded interval [a; b]. Suppose that G is a primitive for f on [a; b]. Then we have
b
f (x) dx = G(b) G(a):
a

Proof Let F be the function from [a; b] into R defined by

x
F(x) = f (t) dt; a x b:
a

By the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, Version 1, the function F is a primitive for f on [a; b].
Hence by Corollary 6.2.2, there exists a constant C such that

F(x) G(x) = C for all x 2 [a; b]: (6.2.2)

 166 Chapter 6. Integration

Therefore, we have
Zb
f (x) dx = F(b) by construction of F
a F(b) F(a) since F(a) = 0
=
= G(b) + CG(a) + C by (6.2.2)

= G(b) G(a)

Below we redo the last example using the second version of the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus.
2
2
Example Evaluate 3x dx
1
3 2
Solution Since the function G(x) = x is a primitive for the function 3x on the interval [1; 2], it
follows from the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus (Version 2) that
2
2
3x dx = G(2) G(1)
1
3 3
= 2 1
= 7:

FAQ Can we use other primitives for f ?

Answer The Fundamental Theorem tells that any primitive will work. Try it yourselves.

Notation We will use the notation G(b) G(a) quite often. For simplicity, it will be
h ib b
denoted by G(x) a or G(x) a:

5
Example Find 2x dx.
3
R b
Explanation To find a f (x) dx, in applying the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus (Version 2), we
0
have to find a function G that is continuous on [a; b] such that G = f on (a; b). In this course,
functions that we considered are “nice”—there is no need to check continuity; we just need to
0
check that G = f (usually valid on a much larger interval).
Solution By inspection, we see that the function x2 is a primitive for the integrand 2x (on every
closed and bounded interval). Thus by the Fundamental
Z
Theorem of Calculus (Version 2), we have
h i
3 2x dx = 5
x2 3
5
= 52 32

= 16:

Remark The definite integral is the area of the trapezoidal region that lies below the line y = 2x,
above the x-axis and is bounded on the left and right by the vertical lines x = 3 and x = 5. Use
formula to check the answer yourselves.
6.3. Indefinite Integrals 167

Exercise 6.2
For each of the following functions f , use inspection to find a primitive. Is your answer a primitive for
f on every closed and bounded interval [a; b]? If not, what can you tell about [a; b]?
(a) f (x) = x (b) f (x) = 1
5
(c) f (x) = x (d) f (x) = 2x + 1
(e) f (x) = 1 (f) f (x) = p x
p
2 x
2. Use inspection to find a primitive for f (x) = x4 and hence evaluate the following definite integrals.
R
1 x 3
x4 x4 dx
(a) 03
4d (b) R13 4
R0
(c) x dx (d) R 7x dx
0

6.3 Indefinite Integrals

Suppose that f and F are functions that are continuous on a closed and bounded interval [a; b]. To
0
show that F is a primitive for f on [a; b] means to show that F (x) = f (x) for all x 2 (a; b). In view of
this, we introduce a concept similar to primitive.

Definition Let f be a function that is continuous on an open interval (a; b). Suppose F is a function defined on
0
(a; b) such that F (x) = f (x) for all x 2 (a; b). Then we say that F is an antiderivative for f on (a; b).

Example
1
(1) Let f (x) = x2 and let F(x) = 3
3 x . Then we have

0
F (x) = f (x) for all x 2 R:

Thus F is an antiderivative for f on every open interval contained in R.

(2) Let g(x) = 1 and let G(x) p
p 2 x. Then we have
x

0
G (x) = g(x) for all x > 0:

Thus G is an antiderivative for g on every open interval contained in (0; 1).

Remark Suppose that F is an antiderivative for f on (a; b). Then F is a primitive for f on every
closed and bounded interval [c; d] contained in (a; b). If in addition, F and f are defined at a and b
and are continuous on [a; b], then F is a primitive for f on [a; b].

The following result is similar to that given in Corollary 6.2.2.

Theorem 6.3.1 Let f be a function that is continuous on an open interval (a; b). Suppose that F and
G are antiderivatives for f on (a; b). Then on (a; b), the functions F and G di er by a constant.

Proof Apply the proof (the first part) for Theorem 6.2.1
168 Chapter 6. Integration

Theorem 6.3.1 means that if we can find one antiderivative for a continuous function f on an
open interval (a; b), then we can find all. More precisely, if F is an antiderivative for f on (a; b), then
all the antiderivatives for f on (a; b) are in the form
F(x) + C; a<x<b (6.3.1)

where C is a constant.
Note that (6.3.1) represents a family of functions defined on (a; b)—there are infinitely many of them, with each
C corresponds to an antiderivative for f and vice versa. We call the family to be the indefinite integral of
f (with respect to x) and we denote it by Z
(x) dx:

That is, Z
f (x) dx = F(x) + C; a < x < b;
0
where F is a function such that F (x) = f (x) for all x 2 (a; b) and C is an arbitrary constant, called
constant of integration.

Example Using the two results in the last example, we have the following:
Z 1
(1) 2 3 < x < 1, where C is an arbitrary constant.
x dx = 3 x + C;
Z 1
(2) p p x > 0, where C is an arbitrary constant.
x dx = 2 x + C;
Remark
R
2 1 3
Sometimes, for simplicity, we write x dx = 3 x + C etc.
The interval R is omitted because it can be determined easily.
The symbol C is understood to be an arbitrary constant. Since we can use any symbol to
R 2 1 3
denote the independent variable, we may also write t dt = 3 t +C etc.R
Instead of a family of functions, sometimes we write f (x) dx to represent a function only. See the
discussion in the Alternative Solution on page 177.
Terminology

To integrate a function f means to find the indefinite integral of f (that is, to find f (x) dx if x is chosen
to be the independent variable). R
R f (x) dx, the function f is called the integrand.
Same as that for definite integrals, in the notation

Integration of Constant (Function) Let k be a constant. Then we have

Z < x < 1:
k dx = kx + C;

Explanation As usual, C is understood to be an arbitrary constant.

6.3. Indefinite Integrals 169

Proof The result follows from the Constant Multiple Rule for Di erentiation and the Rule for
Derivative of the Identity Function:
d d
d kx = k dx x
x
= k
Z
Example 3 dx = 3x + C

Power Rule for Integration (positive integer version) Let n be a positive integer. Then we have
Z n
x dx = n + 1 + C; < x < 1:
xn+1

Proof The result follows from the Constant Multiple Rule and Power Rule (positive integer version) for Dif-
ferentiation: 1 d
d xn+1
=
dx n + 1 n + 1 dx xn+1
= 1 (n + 1)xn+1 1
n+1
= n
x
Z 1 x4 + C
x dx = x3+1
3
Example
3+1 +C= 4
Remark In the formula for Integration of Constant, putting k = 1, we get
Z < x < 1:
1 dx = x + C;

0
By considering the constant function 1 as the function x , the above result can be written as
Z x0 dx = + C; < x < 1:
x0+1
0+1
R xn dx = x n+1
Thus the Power Rule + C is also valid for the case where n = 0.
n+1

Power Rule for Integration (negative integer version) Let n be a negative integer di erent from 1. Then
we have Z
n
xn+1
x dx = + C; x , 0:
n+1
xn+1

Explanation The result means that on the intervals ( ; 0) and (0; 1), the function n+1 is an antiderivative for
n
the function x .
Proof The result follows from the Constant Multiple Rule and Power Rule (negative integer version) for
Di erentiation.
1 1
5+1 x
Z Z 5
Example dx = x
x
5 dx = 5 + 1 + C = 4x4 + C
Z 1
FAQ What is
x dx ?
170 Chapter 6. Integration
1+1
Answer You can’t apply the Power Rule if n = 1. Note that x is meaningless. You will learn a formula

1+1
in Chapter 8.
Power Rule for Integration (n + 1 version) Let n be an integer. Then we have
2
23
1
n+
xn+
x 2 dx = + C; x > 0:
3
Z n+2
Proof The result follows from the Constant Multiple Rule and Power Rule (n + 1 version) for Di erentiation.
2

Remark The above result can be written as x > 0;

Z
xr dx = rx+ 1 + C;
r+1
1
where r = n + and n is an integer. In fact, the formula is valid for all real numbers r , 1 (see Chapter 10).

2
1 1
Z 1 Z x2
1
+1
Example dx =
p x 2 dx = 1 + C = 2x 2 + C
x 2
+1

Constant Multiple Rule for Integration Let k be a constant and let f be a function that is continuous
on an open interval (a; b). Then we have
Z Z

k f (x) dx = k f (x) dx; a < x < b:

Proof The result follows from the Constant Multiple Rule for Di erentiation.
Z

Example Find 2x7 dx.

Explanation The question is to find the family of functions that are antiderivatives for the integrand
(on some open intervals). The answer should be given in the form “a function of x +C”. Usually, for
integration problems, there is no need to mention the underlying open intervals. For the given
problem, the function 2x7 is continuous on R and so it has antiderivatives on R.
Solution Z 2x7 dx = 2Z x7 dx Constant Multiple Rule

= 2 7+1 +C! Power Rule

x7+1
= 1 x8 + 2C

4
Remark From the answer, we see that the function 1 x8 is an antiderivative for the function 2x7 (on R). There-

fore, we can also write 4

Z 1
2x7 dx = 8
x + C:
4
 1 8 1 8
Although the answers 4 x + 2C and 4 x + C look di erent, they represent the same family of
functions. In general, to do integration, we can use rules and formulas to get an antiderivative for
the integrand and then add a constant of integration.
6.3. Indefinite Integrals 171

Sum Rule for Integration (Term by Term Integration) Let f and g be functions that are continuous
on an open interval (a; b). Then we have
Z h i Z Z

f (x) + g(x) dx = f (x) dx + g(x) dx; a < x < b:

Proof The result follows from the Sum Rule for Di erentiation.
Z

Example Find (1 + x3) dx.

Explanation We use rules and formulas for integration to obtain an antiderivative for the integrand
and then add a constant of integration.
Solution Z 3 Z Z x3 dx Term by Term Integration
(1 + x ) dx = 1 dx +

= x + x4 + C Power Rule
4
Remark Using the Sum Rule together with the Constant Multiple Rule, we obtain the following:
Z h i Z f (x) dx Z
f (x) g(x) dx = g(x) dx:

More generally, Term by Term Integration can be applied to sum and di erence of finitely many terms.

(1) Z x 11 + 3!
dx
p
x
Z
2
(2x 3)(x + 1) dx

Explanation The question is to find the given indefinite integrals. The answers should be given in
the form “a function of x +C”.
Solution !
(1) Z x 11 + 3 dx = Z x dx Z Z 3x 1 dx Term by Term Integration
p 11 dx + 2
x
2 Z 1
Power Rule, Integration of Constant
x
= 11x + 3 x 2 dx & Constant Multiple Rule
2
1
2
= x
2
11x + 3 x + C Power Rule
2 1
2
= 1 x2 p +C
2 11x + 6 x
Remark In the second step, there is no need to add a constant of integration (because there
is an indef-inite integral in the third term). In the third step, we must add a constant of integration
(otherwise, the expression represents a function but not a family of functions).
172 Chapter 6. Integration
(2) Z 2 2
3)(x + 1) dx = Z 3x + 2x 3) dx Z Rewrite the integrand
(2x (2x3

= Z 2x3 dx Z Z 2x dx 3 dx Term by Term Integration

3x2 dx +
= 2 Z x3 dx 3 Z x2 dx + 2 Z x dx 3x Constant Multiple Rule
& Integration of Constant
= 2 x 4 3 x + 2x 3 2 3x + C Power Rule
4 3 2
= x4 +x
2 3x + C
x3
2
h
i
Caution Z Z Z
f (x) g(x) dx , f (x) dx g(x) dx

FAQ Do we have a rule for integration that corresponds to the product rule in di erentiation?
Answer In integration, corresponding to the product rule, there is a technique called integration by parts. A
brief introduction to this technique will be given in Chapter 10.

To close this section, we give an example to illustrate the steps for finding definite integrals
using rules for integration.

Example Evaluate the following definite integrals:

2
2
(1) (x 2x + 3) dx
1
1
2
x (x + 1) dx
0

Solution
2 " 2 Term by Term Integration,
2
x3 x2
(1) (x 2x + 3) dx = 2 + 3x Power Rule, Constant Multiple Rule
Z 1 3 2 # 1 ! & Fundamental Theorem of Calculus
= 3 4+6
!
3
1 1 3
8

Z1 Z1
(2) 2
x (x + 1) dx = (x3 + x2) dx Rewrite the integrand
#
0
=
" 0
4
+3 0
1
x4 x3 Term by Term Integration, Power Rule &
= 1 +1 Fundamental Theorem of Calculus

4 3
= 7
12
6.4. Application of Integration 173

Exercise 6.3
1. Perform the following integration: (d) (x + 3) dx
(c) R (x 3x + 2) dx
px
R 4
(a) 2 x5 dx (b) 3 dx
7 2 px
R 2
2 R
p
(e) R
3x x dx (f) R (x 5x + 1)(2 3x) dx
2 2 x2 + 1
(g) R (x 3) dx (h) R x2 dx
2. Evaluate the following definite integrals:
R 3 3 R 3 3 x
dx 4 x
(a) 2x ) dx (b) 32 d 2 + 5) dx
02 2 4
(1
(c) R
21 4 5 x
2
(d) R (x
04 2
3x
1
R R
x + +
(e) 2( 3x 5) dx (f) 12 x
p x 2 dx
2 x2 + 1 2
R1 R 0
(g) p x dx (h) x (2 3x) dx

6.4 Application of Integration

y = f (x)
Area under Graph of Function Let f be a function that is continuous
on a closed and bounded interval [a; b]. Suppose that f is
nonnegative on [a; b]. Then the area A of the region that lies below
the graph of f and above the x-axis from x = a to x = b is given by A

b
A= f (x) dx: a b
a Figure 6.9

Example Find the area of the region that is bounded by the curve
p R2
= x, the line x = 1 and the x-axis.
R1
Explanation The curve, the vertical line and the x-axis divide the R3 R4
plane into six regions—five of them are unbounded (R1; R2; R4; R5 R5 R6

and R6) and one of them is bounded (R3, the required one).
Figure 6.10a
p
Solution Let f (x) = x. The region under consideration lies below the graph of f and above the x-
axis from x = 0 to x = 1. The required area A is
1
A = f (x) dx
0 p
Z y= x
1 1

= 0 x 2 dx
2 2 3 1

3 1 A
2
= 6x 70
4 35

2 Figure 6.10b
= (square units):
3
174 Chapter 6. Integration

Area between Graphs of Functions Let f and g be

functions that are continuous on a closed and bounded
interval [a; b]. Sup-pose that f (x) g(x) for all x 2 [a; b] (this
y = g(x)
means that the graph of f lies below that of g). Then the
area A of the region that is bounded by the graphs of f
A
and g and the vertical lines x = a and x = b is given by
Z
bh i y = f (x)
A= g(x) f (x) dx: a b
a
Figure 6.11

Proof For the case where f is nonnegative (hence the graphs of both f and g are above the x-axis),
we have A = Ag A f , where Ag (respectively A f ) is the area of the region that lies below the graph
of g (respectively the graph of f ) and above the x-axis from x = a to x = b (see Figure 6.12a).
Hence, using rules for definite integrals (Int1) and (Int2), we have
Z Z Z
b
b b h i
A= g(x) dx
a f (x) dx = g(x) f (x) dx:
a a

y = g1(x)

y = f1(x)

Ag
y = g(x)
Af

a b
Figure 6.12a y = f (x)

Figure 6.12b

For the general case, we can move the region upward suitably so that the graph of f is above the x-
axis and then apply the result for the case where f is nonnegative (see Figure 6.12b). Indeed, since
f is continuous on [a; b], there exists a constant k such that f (x) + k 0 for all x 2 [a; b]. Let f1 and g1
be the functions from [a; b] into R given by
f1(x) = f (x) + k and g1(x) = g(x) + k for a x b:

Since area is translation invariant, the required area A is equal to the area of the region that is
bounded by the graphs of f1 and g1 and the vertical lines x = a and x = b. Hence by what we obtain
for the special case (since f1 isZ nonnegative), we have Z b
A= a
b
g1(x) f1 (x) dx = a g(x) f (x) dx:
h i h i

Example Find the area of the region bounded by the parabola y = x2 and the line y = x + 2.
6.4. Application of Integration 175

Explanation The parabola and the line divide the plane into five regions—
R3
four of them are unbounded (R1; R2; R3 and R5) and one of them is bounded (R4, the
required one).
R2
Solution Solving for the x-coordinates of the intersection points of
the parabola and the line:
= x+2 R1 R4 R5
x2
x 2 = 0 Figure 6.13a
x2
(x 2)(x + 1) = 0;
we get x1 = 1 and x2 = 2.
2
The region under consideration lies below the graph of y = x + 2, above that of y = x (and between the
vertical lines x = 1 and x = 2). The area A of the region is y=x+2
2

A = Z h i
1 (x + 2) x2 dx
#2
x2 x3
= " 3 1 !
2 + 2x
8 1 1
= 2+4 ! 2 2 +3 A y=x
2
3
9
= 2 (square units):
-1 2

Figure 6.13b

3 2
Example Find the area of the combined region bounded by the curve y = x 5x + 6x and the x-axis.
Explanation The curve and the x-axis divide the plane into six regions— four
R1
of them are unbounded (R1; R3; R4 and R5) and two of them are bounded
(R2 and R6). The two bounded regions intersect at one point and their union
forms a combined region. The question is to find the area of R2 R3
R6
R2 [ R6.
R4 R5

Solution Solving for the x-coordinates of the intersection points of

Figure 6.14a
the curve and the x-axis:
2
5x + 6x = 0
x3
2 5x 6) = 0
x (x
x (x 2)(x 3) = 0;
3 2
y = x 5x + 6x
we get x1 = 0, x2 = 2 and x3 = 3.
A1
The required area A is A = A1 + A2 (see Figure 6.14b).
2 3
Note that for 0 x 2, the curve is above the x- A2
axis, for 2 x 3, the x-axis is above the curve.

Figure 6.14b
176 Chapter 6. Integration
Therefore, we have

A =Z 3 2 3 3 2
(x 5x + 6x) 0 dx + Z 0 (x 5x + 6x)] dx
02 2

= "4 5
3 + 3x2
# 2
0
"
4
5
3 3
#
+ 3x2 2

x4 x3 x4 x3

= 3 0! 4 3 !
8 9 8
= 37 :

12

Next we will give some examples that can be done using definite integrals as well as indefinite integrals.
Before that, we give a result that is also known as the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus.

Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, Version 3 Let 0

f be a function such that f is continuous on an open
interval (a; b). Then for every x0 2 (a; b), we have
Zx
0
f (x) = f (t) dt + f (x0) for all x 2 (a; b):
x0

Proof Let g be the function from (a; b) into R defined by

x
0
g(x) = f (t) dt for a < x < b:
x0

0
From the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus (Version 1), we see that g is an antiderivative for f on (a; b). Since f
0
is also an antiderivative of f on (a; b), it follows from Theorem 6.3.1 that there exists a constant k such that

f (x) g(x) = k for all x 2 (a; b):

Putting x = x f x g x =k k=f x gx = x0 f (t) dt =
have ( 0) ( 0) which yields ( ) since ( 0) Rx0 0. Therefore we
0, we get 0

f (x) = g(x) + f (x0) for all x 2 (a; b)

and the required result follows.

Example Find an equation for the curve that passes through the point (1; 0) and has slope function
3
given by x 2x + 1.
Solution Let the curve be given by y = f (x). Since the curve passes through the point (1; 0), it follows that
0
f (1) = 0. From the given slope function, we have f (x) = x3 2x + 1. Taking x0 = 1 in the Fundamental
Theorem of Calculus (Version 3), we have
f (x) = Z 1 x f 0(t) dt + f (1) = Z 1 x 2t + 1) dt + 0
(t3
4 x 4 1
= "t 2 # = x x
2 ! 1 + 1!
4 t +t 1 4 +x 4
= x4 2
x +x 1 :
4 4
6.4. Application of Integration 177
 Therefore, an equation for the curve is: y = x4 2
x +x
1 .
4 4

Alternative solution The function f can also be found using indefinite integral:
Z 3 2x + 1) dx = x4 2
x +x+c
f (x) = (x
4
3
where the first inequality means that f is an antiderivative for (x 2x + 1) and the second equality means that
4 2
f is the function given by x x + x + c and c is a specific constant (which is determined by f ).
4
Putting x = 1, we get 1
0 = f (1) = 1 + 1 + c;
4
that is, c = 1 . Therefore, we have f (x) = x4 2 1 .
x +x
4 4 4
Example Find the cost function if the marginal cost is 3 + 40x 5x2 and the fixed cost is 45.

Explanation Fixed cost is the cost when x = 0.

Solution
(Method 1) Let the cost function be C. By the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus (Version 3), we have
x
0
C(x) = C (t) dt + C(0)
0
Z x
(3 + 40t 5t2) dt + 45
0 3#
"
= 3t + 20t2 3t 0 + 45
5 x

2 5 3 + 45:
= 3x + 20x x

3
(Method 2) Let the cost function be C. Then we have

Z 2 2 5
C(x) = (3 + 40x 5x ) dx = 3x + 20x
3
3 x + c;

for some constant c. Putting x = 0, we get 45 = C(0) = c and so

2 3
C(x) = 3x + 20x 5 x + 45:
3

The following result is a simple consequence of the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus

(Version 3). It is known as the Net Change Theorem since f (x1) f (x0) is the net change of the
values of f as x changes from x0 to x1.

0
Theorem 6.4.1 Let f be a function such that f is continuous on an open interval (a; b). Then for every pair of
numbers x0; x1 in (a; b), we have Z
x0x1
0
f (t) dt = f (x1) f (x0):
 178 Chapter 6. Integration

2
Example A particle moves along a line so that its velocity at time t is v(t) = t t (measured in meters
per second). Find the displacement of the particle during the time period 1 t 2.
Explanation The question is to find s(2) s(1), where s(t) is the position of the particle at time t. Note
that the derivative of s is v.
Solution
(Method 1) By Theorem 6.4.1, the required displacement is
s(2) s(1) = Z 1 2 s0(t) dt

= Z 2 t) dt
1 (t2
" #
= t3 t2 1

3 2 2

! 2
!
= 3 2 3
8 1 1

= 5 (meter):

6
(Method 2) The displacement function of the particle is given by t
s(t) =
Z
(t2 t) dt =
t
3 2 + c;
3 2

where c is the initial position of the particle. The required displacement is

s(2) s(1) = 8 ! 1 1 ! = 5 (meter):

2+c +c
3 3 2 6

Exercise 6.4
For each of the following, find the area of the region bounded by the given curve, the x-axis, and
the given vertical line(s).
(a) y = x3, x = 3
(b) y = x2 4x, x = 1, x = 2
(c) y = jx + 1j + 2, x = 2, x = 3
(d) p x = 1 Hint: move the region appropriately.
y = x + 3,
2. For each of the following, find the area of the (combined) region bounded by the given curves (or lines).
(a) p and y = x
y= x
(b) y = x2 4x 8 and y = 2x x2
(c) y = x and y = x (x 2)2
(d) y = x2 4x + 4, y = 10 2 and y = 16
x
3. Suppose f is a function such that f 0(x) = x2 + 1 and f (1) = 2. Find f (x).
4. Suppose f is a function such that f 00(x) = (x + 1)(x 2), f (0) = 1 and f (1) = 0. Find f (x).
5. Water flows from the bottom of a storage tank at a rate of r(t) = 150 5t liters per minute, where
0 t 30. Find the amount of water that flows from the tank during the first 15 minutes.
Chapter 7

Trigonometric Functions

7.1 Angles
Idea of Definition An angle is formed by rotating a ray about its endpoint.
The initial position of the ray is called the initial
side. The endpoint of the ray is called the vertex.
The final position is called the terminal side.
An angle is said to be in standard position if its vertex is at the origin and its initial side is along the
positive x-axis.

Note An angle in standard position is uniquely determined by the direction and magnitude of
rotation. So we can use numbers to represent angles.
The direction of rotation may be counterclockwise or clockwise which will be considered to be
positive or negative respectively.
Magnitudes of rotation are traditionally measured in degrees where one revolution is defined
to be 360 degrees, written 360 .

Figures 7.1(a), (b) and (c) show three angles in standard position: Although the angles have the
same terminal sides, their measures are di erent.

60
300 420

Figure 7.1(a) Figure 7.1(b) Figure 7.1(c)

Another unit for measuring angles is the radian. To define radian, we consider unit circles.
180 Chapter 7. Trigonometric Functions

Terminology A circle with radius 1 is called a unit circle. The circle 1

with radius 1 and center at the origin is called the unit circle. length = 1
1 rad.
1
Definition The angle determined by an arc of length 1 along the
circum-ference of a unit circle is said to be of measure one radian.

Figure 7.2

Since the circumference of a unit circle has length 2 , there are 2 radians in one revolution.
Therefore, we have 360 = 2 radians. The conversion between degrees and radians is given by
d =d radians

180
Thus, we have 90 = 2 (radian) and 60 = 3 (radian) for example.

Remark In calculus, it is more convenient to consider angles in radians and the unit radian is

usually omitted. Exercise 7.1

1. Convert the following degree measures to radians:

(a) 270 (b) 210
(c) 315 (d) 750
2. Convert the following radian measures to degrees:
(a) (b) 3
6 4
(c) 5 (d) 7
2

7.2 Trigonometric Functions

Notation Consider an angle in standard position. Let P be the point of intersection of the terminal
side and the unit circle. We define

sin = y-coordinate of P; (7.2.1)

1
(7.2.2)
cos = x-coordinate of P:

Remark Instead of considering the unit circle, we can also use

a
circle of radius r (centered at the origin) and define cos = r and 1

b P
sin = r , where a and b are the x- and y-coordinates of P
respectively. It is easily seen (using similar triangles) that these
ratios are independent of the choice of r.
Figure 7.3

Definition The rules given (7.2.1) and (7.2.2) define two functions
from R into R, called the sine and cosine functions respectively.
Using the sine and cosine functions, we define four more trigonometric functions, called the tangent (de-noted

by tan), cotangent (denoted by cot), secant (denoted by sec) and cosecant (denoted by csc) functions as
7.2. Trigonometric Functions 181

follows: sin x
tan x = provided that cos x , 0;
cos x
cot x = cos x
provided that sin x , 0;
sin x
sec x = 1
provided that cos x , 0;
cos x
csc x = 1
provided that sin x , 0:
sin x
k
Note Since sin x = 0 if and only if x = k for some integer k and cos x = 0 if and only if x = 2 for
some odd integer k, it follows that
dom (tan) = dom (sec) = R n n ; 3 ;::: o;
2 2
dom (cot) = dom (csc) = R n n ; 2 ;::: o:

Remark Below we will discuss some results for the sine, cosine and tangent functions. The secant
function will only be used in an identity and a formula for di erentiating the tangent function. The
cotangent and cosecant functions will not be used in this course.

Properties
(1) The sine and cosine functions are periodic with period 2 , that is,

sin(x + 2 ) = sin x for all x 2 R;

cos(x + 2 ) = cos x for all x 2 R:

(2) The tangent function is periodic with period , that is,

tan(x + ) = tan x for all x 2 dom (tan):

(3) The sine function and the tangent function are odd functions and the cosine function is an
even function, that is,
sin( x) = sin x for all x 2 R;
cos( x) = cos x for all x 2 R;
tan( x) = tan x for all x 2 dom (tan):
From (3), we see that the graphs of the sine function and tangent function are symmetric about the origin and the
graph of the cosine function is symmetric about the y-axis. See Figures 7.4(a), (b) and (c).
1
y = sin x
-4p -2p 2p 4p

-1

Figure 7.4(a)
182 Chapter 7. Trigonometric Functions

1
y = cos x
-4p -2p 2p 4p

-1

p p
-
2
2
Figure 7.4(b) y = tan x

Remark The graph of the cosine function can be

obtain from that of the sine function by moving it 2
units to the left. This is because
Figure 7.4(c)
cos x = sin x + 2 for all x 2 R:

CAST Rule The signs of sine, cosine and tangent in each quadrant can be memorized using the following rule:

C
where C stands for cosine, A for all, S for sine and T for tangent—for example, C in the 4th
quadrant means that if x is an angle in the fourth quadrant, then cos x is positive and the other two
values sin x and tan x are negative.

Sine, Cosine and Tangent of some Special Angles

sin 0 = 0 cos 0 = 1 tan 0 = 0

1 p 1
sin = cos = 3 tan =
6 2 6 2 6 p
3
sin = 1 1
4 p2 cos 4 = p2 tan 4 = 1
p 1 tan p
sin = 3 cos = = 3
3 3
2 3 2
sin = 1 cos = 0 tan undefined
2 2 2

The values of the sine, cosine and tangent functions at the special angles can be obtained by
drawing appropriate figures or triangles. For example, we can use Figures 7.5(a), (b) and (c) to find

P(0; 1)

the values of the trigonometric functions for angles with size 2 , 4 and 6 respectively.
1 1 1
1 1 1 1
Pp 2 ; p 2
Pp 2 ;p2

2
4 6 1
1 1
Figure 7.5(a) Figure 7.5(b) Figure 7.5(c)
 7.2. Trigonometric Functions 183
An Important Identity

(Py) sin2 x + cos2 x = 1

1
Explanation The result is called an identity because it is true for all x 2 R. P sin x
2 2
Note that sin x = (sin x) etc. x
Proof Let P(a; b) be the point on the unit circle corresponding to cos x 1

angle x. By definition, we have

sin x = b and cos x = a:

2 2 Figure 7.6
The required result then follows since a + b = 1.

Another Identity
2 2 3
(Py1) 1 + tan x = sec x, x 2 R n 2; 2 ;:::

2 2 Definition of tan
Proof 1 + tan x = 1 + sin x
2
cos x
2 2
cos x + sin x
2
cos x
1

= cos2 x Identity (Py)

1 2
=
cos x
2 Definition of sec
= sec x
More Identities

sin x = cos x cos x = sin x

2 2
sin + x = cos x cos +x = sin x
2 2

sin( x) = sin x cos( x) = cos x

sin( + x) = sin x cos( + x) = cos x

x x
= =
3 3

sin 2 cos x cos 2 sin x

+x = + x = sin x
3 3

sin 2 cos x cos 2

sin(2 x) = sin x cos(2 x) = cos x

The above identities can be derived using appropriate figures. For example,
from Figure 7.7(a), we get

sin 2 x = a = cos x and cos 2 x=

b = sin x:
184 Chapter 7. Trigonometric Functions

from Figure 7.7(b), we get

sin( x) = b = sin x and cos( x) = a= cos x:

1 1
P2(b; a)
x P1(a; b) P2( a; b) x P1(a; b)

2 x x
1 1
Figure 7.7(a) Figure 7.7(b)

Remark The above identities can be memorized in the following way:

f odd multiple of 2 x is g(x)

f even multiple of is f (x)
2 x
where ( f; g) = (sin; cos) or (cos; sin) and the sign can be obtained by the CAST rule.
As illustrations, we describe how to obtaining the identities for

sin( x); cos( x); sin 3 + x and cos 3 + x :

2 2

Note that = 2 2 is an even multiple of 2 . According to the second form (the trigonometric
functions are unchanged),

(1) sin( x) is either sin x or sin x

(2) cos( x) is either cos x or cos x

To determine the correct sign, we assume that x belongs to the 1st quadrant and so ( x)
belongs to the 2nd quadrant. According to the CAST Rule, sin( x) is positive and cos( x) is
negative (and sin x and cos x are positive). Thus we have
(1c) sin( x) = sin x
(2c) cos( x) = cos x

3
Note that 2 is an odd multiple of 2 . According to the first form (the two trigonometric
functions are switched),
3
3
(3) sin + x is either cos x or cos x
2
(4) cos + x is either sin x or sin x
2
3 3
To determine the correct sign, we assume that x belongs to the 1st quadrant and so + x belongs to 2 + x is negative
3 2
and cos 2 + x is positive (and
the 4th quadrant. According to the CAST Rule,
sin sin x and cos x are positive). Thus we have

3
(3c) sin 2 + x = cos x
7.2. Trigonometric Functions 185

3
(4c) cos 2 + x = sin x

3
Remark Since the values of the sine and cosine functions at 2 or or 2 can be found easily, the
above identities can also be derived using the following results, called compound angle formulas.

Compound Angle Formulas Let A and B be real numbers. Then we have

sin(A + B) = sin A cos B + cos A sin B cos(A + B) = cos A cos B sin A sin B
sin(A B) = sin A cos B cos A sin B cos(A B) = cos A cos B + sin A sin B
Remark The formulas for sin(A B) and cos(A B) can be deduced from that for sin(A + B) and cos(A + B)

respectively. This is because sin( x) = sin x and cos( x) = cos x for all x 2 R. Moreover, since sin 2
x=
cos
x and cos
x =
2
x sin
A+B
, the formula for sin(
A+B
) can be deduced from that for cos( ) and vice
versa.
However, the proof for either formula is very tedious and thus is omitted.

1 P
Continuity of sin and cos The sine and cosine functions are Q
a
continuous on R, that is, for every a 2 R, we have x

lim sin x = sin a

x!a 1

lim cos x = cos a

x!a

Reason If x is close to a, then the point Q lying on the unit circle

that corresponds to x is close to the point P that corresponds to a. Figure 7.8

An Important Limit
(sin) lim sin x = 1
x!0 x

Proof First we consider right-side limit. Let x be small positive (0 < x < 2 ). C
Consider the triangles 4OAB and 4OAC and the sector OAB shown in Figure 7.9.

B
area of 4OAB = 1 1 1 sin x = sin x
2 2
area of sector OAB = 1 12 x = x x
A
2 2 O 1
area of 4OAC = 1 1 AC = tan x
2 2
Since 4OAB sector OAB 4OAC, it follows that
Figure 7.9
sin x x tan x
2 <2 < 2 :
sin x
Dividing each term by 2 (which is positive), we get
x 1
1 < sin x < cos x ;
 186 Chapter 7. Trigonometric Functions
which, by taking reciprocal, yields sin x

1>
> cos x: (7.2.3)
x
By the continuity of the cosine function (at 0), we have
lim cos x = cos 0 = 1: (7.2.4)
x!0

Letting x ! 0+, by (7.2.3) and (7.2.4) together with the Sandwich Theorem (which is also valid for
limits at a point and one-sided limits), we get
lim sin x = 1:
x!0+ x
sin x sin( x) =sin x for all x , 0, it follows that lim sin x = 1. Therefore,
Since is an even function, that
is, x x x!0 x
sin x x
we have lim = 1.
x!0 x
1
0.8
Remark
0.6 y = sin x
The result means that if x is small, then sin x is approximately equal to x.
0.4 x
If x is in degrees, the result is di lim sin x = . 0.2
erent: x ! 0 x 180 -10 -5 5 10

-0.2

d sin x. Figure 7.10

The following result will be used in deriving the formula for
dx
A Limit Result
(cos 1) lim cos h 1 = 0
h!0 h
Explanation To get the limit, we try to “cancel” the factor h in the denominator. However, the numerator is not
a polynomial. Instead of making a factor h in the numerator, we try to make a factor sin h and apply (sin).

Proof lim cos h 1 = lim (cos h 1)(cos h + 1) Note: cos h +1 , 0 if h 0

h 0 h h 0 h(cos h + 1)

! !

= lim cos2 h 1
h!0 h(cos h + 1)

= lim 2
sin h
h!0 h(cos h + 1)
Identity (Py)
cos h + 1 #
h!0 " sin ) h
= lim ( h sin h 1

= lim( sin h) lim sin h lim 1

Limit Rule (La5)

h!0 h!0 h h!0 cos h + 1
= ( sin 0) 1 1 Continuity of sin & cos
cos 0 + 1 and Limit Result (sin)
= 0:
7.3. Di erentiation of Trigonometric Functions 187

Exercise 7.2
1. For each of the following, find its value without using calculators.
(a) sin 2 (b) cos 2 (c) tan 2
3 3 3
(d) sin 5 (e) cos 5 (f) tan 5
4 4 4
2. For each of the following limits, find its value.
(a) lim tan x (b) lim sin 2x
x!0 x x!0 x

7.3 Di erentiation of Trigonometric Functions

Derivative of sin The sine function is di erentiable on R and its derivative is the cosine function, that is,
d
dx sin x = cos x; < x < 1:
Proof d sin x = lim sin(x + h) sin x
Definition of Derivative
dx h!0 h
= lim sin x cos h + cos x sin h sin x
Compound Angle Formula
h!0 h
= lim (sin x cos h sin x) + cos x sin h
h!0 h
= lim sin x (cos h 1) + cos x sin h
h!0 h h ! h!0 h !
h!0

= lim sin x cos h 1 + lim cos x sin h

Limit Rule (La4)
cos h 1 sin h
sin x lim + cos x lim
Limit Rule (La5s)
h!0hhh!0

sin x 0 + cos x 1 Limit Results (cos 1) and (sin)

= cos x:

Derivative of cos The cosine function is di erentiable on R and its derivative is the negative of the sine function,
that is,
d
dx cos x = sin x; < x < 1:
Proof Similar to that for the derivative of the sine function, the result can be proved by definition, using the
compound angle formula cos(x + h) = cos x cos h sin x sin h.
Remark Note that cos x = sin x . The result can also be proved using the result for the derivative of the
2
sine function. together with the chain rule which will be discussed in the Chapter 9.

Derivative of tan The tangent function is di erentiable on its domain and its derivative is the square
of the secant function, that is,
d 3
2
dx tan x = sec x; x , 2 ; 2 ;::::
 188 Chapter 7. Trigonometric Functions
Proof For x 2 dom (tan) = R n f ; 3 ; : : :g, we have

2 2
d tan x = d sin x ! Definition of tan

dx dx cos x
cos x d sin x sin x d cos x
= dx dx Quotient Rule
2
cos x
= cos x cos x sin x ( sin x) Derivatives of sin and cos
2
cos x
= 1 Identity (Py)
2
cos x
!2
=
cos x
2 Definition of sec
= (sec x)
Example For each of the following y, find dy
dx .
(1) y = 2 sin x 7 cos x
(2) y = tan x x

y = x cos x
sin x
y= x+1
Solution
(1) dy = d (2 sin x 7 cos x) Substitution
dx dx
d d
= 2 dx sin x 7 dx cos x Term by Term Di erentiation & Constant Multiple Rule
= 2 cos x 7( sin x) Derivative of sin and cos
= 2 cos x + 7 sin x
(2) dy = d (tan x x) Substitution

dx dx
= d tan x dx Term by Term Di erentiation
dx dx
= sec2 x 1 Derivative of tan and Power Rule
= tan2 x Identity (Py1)
(3) dy = d (x2 cos x) Substitution

dx dx
d d
= cos x + cos x dx Product Rule
x2 dx x2
= 2
x ( sin x) + cos x 2x Derivative of sin and Power Rule
= 2x cos x x2 sin x
7.3. Di erentiation of Trigonometric Functions 189

dy !
(4) sin x
dx x + 1 Substitution
dx
(x + 1) d sin x sin x d (x + 1)
= dx dx
2 Quotient Rule
(x + 1)
= (x + 1) cos x sin x (1 + 0)
Derivative of sin and
2
(x + 1) Derivative of Polynomial
= (x + 1) cos x sin x
2
(x + 1)

Exercise 7.3
1. For each of the following y, find dy .
dx
(a) y = 5 cos x 2x (b) y = 1 2 tan x
(c) y = sin x x2 (d) y = x2 sin x
(e) y = cos2 x (f) y = 1
cos x
(g) y = sin x cos x (h) y = cos x
x3 + 1
(i) y = (x + cos x)2 (j) y = (sin x + cos x)2
n
Let y = sin x.
dy
Find d x for n = 2; 3 and 4.
dy
Guess for formula for d x for general n (positive integer).

Let y = sin nx and let z = cos nx.

dy d z
Find d x and d x for n = 2. Hint: use compound angle formulas.
dy d z
Find d x and d x for n = 3. Hint: use compound angle formulas and the results

Guess for formula for d x and

dy in (a). dz

Let f (x) = sin(ax + b) and let g(x) = cos(ax + b) where a and b are constants.
0 0
Use definition to find f (x) and g (x).
00 00
Use the results in (a) to find f (x) and g (x)
(n) (n)
Guess for formula for f (x) and g (x) for general n (positive integer).
190 Chapter 7. Trigonometric Functions
Chapter 8

Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

8.1 Exponential Functions

Definition Let 0 < b , 1. We define expb to be the function from R into R given by
x x 2 R:
expb(x) = b ;

The function expb is called the exponential function with base b.

Remark
4
x p3
If x is a rational number, such as x = 3 4
, then b = b 3 = b4.
p x
If x is an irrational number such as x = 2, to define b we use approximations: more
precisely we use limits.
p
2
Example To assign a value to 3 :
Note that p
2 = 1:414213562373095
14 p
1:4
We may use 3 =3 10
to give an approximate value for 3 2. For better ap- n 3an
1:41 1:414
proximations, we may use 3 ,3 and so on. Denote 1 4.655536722
2 4.706965002
a1 = 1:4; a2 = 1:41; a3 = 1:414; a4 = 1:4142; a5 = 1:41421; : : :
3 4.727695035
It can be shown that the sequence 4 4.728733930
5 4.728785881
6 4.728801466
a a a a
3 1 ;3 2 ;3 3 ;3 4 ;::: 7 4.728804064
p 8 4.728804376
2
is convergent and 3 is defined to be the limit of the sequence. 9 4.728804386
:
:
:

FAQ Instead of the above sequence (an), can we take other sequences (bn) of rational numbers
p b p2
converging to 2 and use lim 3 n to define 3 ?
n!1
p
Answer You can take any sequence (bn) converging to 2. It can be shown (but di cult!) that lim 3
b
n
n!1
always exists and is independent of the choice of (bn).
192 Chapter 8. Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

FAQ In the definition of exponential functions, why do we exclude b = 1?

Answer When b = 1, the function 1x = 1 is trivial: a constant function. It does not enjoy the injective
property possessed by expb where b , 1. When we define logarithmic functions, we need exponential functions
be injective.
x 1
We need b > 0 because we want exp (x) = b to be defined for all real numbers x. If b is zero, b is
1 b

undefined; if b is negative, b 2 is undefined.

Rules for Exponent Let a and b be positive real numbers di erent from 1. Then for every x 2 R and
every y 2 R, we have
x
a
x y
(1) axay = ax+y (2) y
=a
a
(3) (ax)y = axy (4) (ab)x = axbx
x x
(5) a a (6) a1 = a
= x
b b
1
(7) a0 = 1 (8) a x = x
a
Proof The results follow from the corresponding rules for that with rational exponents (see an FAQ on page 36).

Continuity of Exponential Functions By definition, the domain of every exponential function is R. It can be
x x
shown that exponential functions are continuous on R, that is, if x is close to x0, then b is close to b 0 .
x
Range of Exponential Functions Since expb(x) = b is always positive, it follows that the ranges of
the exponential functions are contained in (0; 1). In fact, we have

range (expb) = (0; 1):

x x
Proof For b > 1, since lim b = 1 and lim b = 0, it follows that the exponential function expb can attain
x!1 x!
arbitrarily large values as well as arbitrarily small positive values. Hence by the Intermediate Value Theorem,
it can attain any positive value. Therefore, the range of expb is (0; 1).
For 0 < b < 1, the range of expb is also (0; 1). This is because expb(x) = exp 1 ( x) by Rule for Expo-
b
nents (8).

Graph of Exponential Functions In general, the graph of an exponential function has one of two
general shapes depending on the value of the base b.
(b > 1) (0 < b < 1)
Remark y=b
x
y=b
x

x 1 x
The graph of y = b and that of y =
are symmetric about the y-axis. This is be-
b

1x
cause b x = b .
As x increases, the graph goes up if b > 1
and goes down if 0 < 1 < b. Figure 8.1(a) Figure 8.1(b)
8.1. Exponential Functions 193

t
Consider the expression s .
If we let s = b (> 0) be a fixed positive real number and let t = x varies in R, then we get a function
x
x 7!b , which is the exponential function expb if b , 1 or the constant function 1 if b = 1.
r
If we let t = r be a fixed real number and let s = x varies in (0; 1), we get a power function x 7!x .
r
Continuity of Power Functions It can be shown that for every real number r, the power function x is
contin-uous on (0; 1).
Recall that a function f is said to be injective if the following condition is satisfied:
( ) If x1; x2 2 dom ( f ) and x1 , x2, then f (x1) , f (x2).

Condition ( ) is equivalent to the following condition:

( ) If x1; x2 2 dom ( f ) and f (x1) = f (x2), then x1 = x2.

If dom ( f ) is a subset of R and the codomain of f is R, then f is injective means that the graph of f
intersects every horizontal line in at most one point.

Injectivity of expb The exponential functions expb (0 < b , 1) are injective.

s t
Proof Let s; t 2 R and s , t. Without loss of generality, we may assume that s < t. Then we have b < b if
s t
b > 1 and b > b if 0 < b < 1. In any case, we have expb(s) , expb(t). Thus, the exponential functions expb
(0 < b , 1) are injective.
x
Remark The graph of y = b intersects the horizontal line y = c in exactly one point if c > 0 and in
no point if c 0.

Exponential Equations To solve simple equations involving exponentials, we use the fact that
exponential functions are injective.

Example For each of the following equations, find its solution set.
1
32x 1 =
35 x
2
8x = 4x+4

Explanation To use the injective property of the exponential functions, we have to express both sides of
the equation in the form bsomething. For (1), we can take b = 3 and for (2), we can take b = 2.
Solution
2x 1 = 1
(1) 3
5 x
3
32x 1 = 3 (5 x) Rewrite right-side
= 3x 5
32x 1
2x 1 = x 5 Injectivity of exp3
x = 4

The solution set is f 4g.

194 Chapter 8. Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

(2) 2
=
8x 4x+4
23 x2 = 22 x+4
Rewrite both sides
2
2 3x = 2 2(x+4)
2
3x = 2(x + 4) Injectivity of exp2
2
3x 2x 8 = 0
(x 2)(3x + 4) = 0
The solution set is 2; 4 .
3

lim 1 +1 ! x
exists. The following table and figure illustrate this fact (the

The number e It can be shown that x!1 x

proof of the fact is beyond the scope of this course). This limit will be denoted by e, that is,
1 !x
e = lim 1 + :
x!1 x
1 x
x 1 + 1=x x y=1+ x
2.59374 2.718
2.70481 2.716

1000 2.71692 2.714

10000 2.71815
10000 20000 30000 40000
20000 2.71821
30000 2.71824
40000 2.71825
Figure 8.2

Remark It can be shown that e is an irrational number (the proof is not easy!). The following gives
the value of e correct to 50 decimal places:

2:71828182845904523536028747135266249775724709369996 : : :

Notation and Terminology We write exp (omitting the base) to denote the exponential function with base e.
When we say the exponential function, we mean the function exp.
x
Remark As usual, we also write e to denote the exponential function with base e.

Below we discuss two situations in which the number e appears.

Interests Compounded Continuously When money is invested at a given annual rate, the interest
earned depends on how frequently interest is compounded.
Consider a principal of P dollars invested for t years at an annual rate of r. If interest is compounded k times a
r
year, then the rate per conversion period is k and there are kt periods. The compounded amount A(t) at

r kt
A(t) = P 1 + k
the end of t years is given by
:
8.1. Exponential Functions 195

If k ! 1, the number of conversion periods increases indefinitely and the length of each period
approaches 0. In this case, we say that interest is compounded continuously. The compounded
amount Ac(t) at the end of t years is
A (t) = lim P 1 + r kt
c k!1 k
k Limit Rule (L5s)
= P lim 1 + r r rt
k!1 k k rt and rewrite exponent
2 k!1 3
x
= P

6
lim
k
1 7
rt
k

" x!1 x! # r
= P 4 lim 1 + 5 Put x =

Note that the limit inside the brackets is the number e. Therefore we have the following formula:
rt
Ac(t) = Pe :

Radioactive Decay Suppose that the initial amount (at t = 0) of a radioactive substance is A0. Then
the amount A(t) of the substance at time t is given by
t
A(t) = A0e ;

where is a (positive) constant, called the decay constant of the substance.

Remark For example, the decay constant of carbon 14 is about 0:00012.
To find the amount at a certain time t, we can just plug in
the value of t. If we want to find the time so that the amount
is reduced to A1, we need to solve the following equation
for t A0
t
A1 = A0e :
This will be discussed in the next section. 1

(2) The half-life of a radioactive element is the length of time 2 A0

required for a given quantity of the element to decay

to one-half of its original mass. For example, the
t
half-life of carbon 14 is about 5730 years. half
Figure 8.3

Exercise 8.1
1. For each of the following, sketch the graphs of the given equations on the same coordinate plane.
(a) y = 2x, y = 2:5x, y = 3x
(b) y = 2x, y = ( 1 )x
2
(c) y = 2x, y = 2x + 1, y = 2x 2
(d) y = 2x, y = 2x+1, y = 2x 2
2. For each of the function f , find its domain and range.
(a) f (x) = 3x + 1 (b) f (x) = 1
3x + 1
1
(c) f (x) =
3x 1
 196 Chapter 8. Exponential and Logarithmic Functions
3. For each of the following equations, find its solution set.

(a) 2 (b)
22x = 2x 3 ex+2 = 1
(c) (d) 2 x x
x e = 2xe
ex+2 = 0
8.2 Logarithmic Functions
For each b > 0 with b , 1, the exponential function expb is injective and its range is (0; 1). Thus it
has an inverse whose domain is (0; 1).
Definition Let 0 < b , 1. We define logb to be the inverse of the exponential function expb. The
function logb is called the logarithmic function with base b.

Remark logb is the function from (0; 1) into R such that the following two conditions are satisfied:
x
(Log1) logb(b ) = x for all x 2 R;
log y
(Log2) b b = y for all y 2 (0; 1).
By the definition of inverse, we have the following:
x
x = logb y means y=b : (8.2.1)

Example For each of the following, convert it to an equivalent logarithmic form.

2
5 =25
0
10 =1

Solution Using (8.2.1), we obtain

log5 25 = 2
log10 1 = 0

Example For each of the following, convert it to an equivalent exponential form.

log10 1000 = 3
1
log2 16 = 4

Solution Using (8.2.1), we obtain

3
10 = 1000
4 1
2 =16

Continuity of logb It can be shown that logarithmic functions are continuous on (0; 1).

Graphs of Logarithmic Functions For every b > 0 with b , 1, since the logarithmic function logb is the
inverse of the exponential function expb, it follows that the graph of logb and that of expb are
symmetric about the line x = y.
8.2. Logarithmic Functions 197

(b > 1) y=b
x
y=b
x (0 < b < 1)

y = logb x y = logb x

Figure 8.4(a) Figure 8.4(b)

Terminology and Notation Logarithms with the base 10 are called common logarithms. They were frequently
used for computational purposes before the calculator age. The subscript 10 is usually omitted:

log x means log10 x:

In calculus, logarithms with base e, called natural logarithms, are more important. We use the
notation “ln” for such logarithms:
ln x means loge x:

Caution Many students write ln as In (which, of course, is not correct). To avoid this, some authors
write ‘n for natural logarithm. Note that the letter “l” comes from the word “logarithm” and the letter
“n” comes from “natural”.
Remark In many advanced books, common logarithm is never used and the symbol “log” stands
for natural logarithm.

Properties of Logarithms
logb 1 = 0
logb b = 1
logb(mn) = logb m + logb n (logarithm of product is sum of logarithms)
(4) log 1 = log m
bm b
(5) log b m = log m log b n (logarithm of quotient is di erence of logarithms)
n b
r
logb m = r logb m
r
logb b = r
blogb m = m
(9) logb m = loga m (change of base formula)
loga b
where m; n; a; b are positive real numbers with a and b di erent from 1 and r can be a
real number. Proof
0
(1) Since b = 1, it follows from (8.2.1) that logb 1 = 0.
198 Chapter 8. Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

1
Since b = b, it follows from (8.2.1) that logb b = 1.
x y
Denote x = logb m and y = logb n. By (8.2.1), we have b = m, b = n which implies that

mn = bxby
Rule of Exponent (1):
= bx+y
Again by (8.2.1), we have logb(mn) = x + y from which we get the required equality.
1 = 1 Property (3)
(4) Note that logb m + logb logb m
m m
= logb 1
= 0 Property (1):

Apply Properties (3) and (4).

y
Denote y = logb m. By (8.2.1), we have b = m which implies that

mr = (by)r
= bry Rule of Exponent (3):

The result follows from the definition of logarithmic functions. See (Log1). Alternatively, we may
apply Properties (6) and (2).
The result follows from the definition of logarithmic functions. See (Log2).
x
Denote x = logb m. By (8.2.1), we have b = m. Take the logarithm to the base a of both sides, we get

log x
b = log m:
a a
By Property (6), we have x log a b = log m, which implies that x = loga m . The required equality then
a
loga b
follows.

Caution In general, log (m + n) , log m log n See Property (3) for the correct form.
b b b

logb(m n) , logb m logb n See Property (5) for the correct form.
Example For each of the following, find its values (without using calculators).
(1) log 54 log6 9
6
(2) 3 ln 4
e4 ln 3
Solution
(1) log 6 54 log 6 9 = log 54 Property (5)
6 9
= log 6
6
= 1 Property (2)
8.2. Logarithmic Functions 199
3
ln 4
4
(2) e4 ln 3 3 ln 4 = eln 3 Property (6)
= ln 64
eln 81 Property (5)
81
=
eln 64

81
= 64 Property (8)

Exponential and Logarithmic Equations To solve simple equations involving logarithms and
exponentials, we may use the following methods:
Apply (8.2.1) to change logarithmic form to its equivalent exponential form or vice versa.
Use the fact that logarithmic functions and exponential functions are injective (examples of
simple equa-tions involving are given in the last section).
Remark The inverse function of every injective function is injective. In particular, logarithmic
functions are injective.

Example For each of the following equations, find its solution set.
(1) log2 x = 3

ln(2x + 1) = 4
logx 49 = 2
3x
e = 14

Solution
(1) log2 x = 3
3 = x by (8.2.1)
2
1 = x
8
The solution set is 1 .
8

ln(2x + 1) = 4
4
e = 2x + 1 by (8.2.1)
e4 1 = 2x
The solution set is e4 1 .
2

(3) logx 49 = 2
2 = 49 and x>0 by (8.2.1) and condition of base
x
= 7 and x > 0
The solution set is f7g.
3x
e = 14
ln 14 = 3x and x > 0 by (8.2.1)
14
ln

The solution set is 3 .

200 Chapter 8. Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

Example Solve the equation log2 x = 5 log2(x + 4).

Explanation To apply (8.2.1), we have to rewrite the equation in the form logb m = n. Note that in
the expres-sions log2 x and log2(x + 4), it is assumed that x > 0 and x + 4 > 0 respectively.
Alternatively, we may use the fact that logarithmic functions are injective. In order to apply this,
we have to express both sides of the equation in the form logb(something).
Solution 1 log x = 5 log (x + 4)
2 2

log2 x + log2(x + 4) = 5
log x (x + 4) = 5 and x > 0 and x + 4 > 0
2 Property (3) & Domain of log2
x (x + 4) = and x > 0 by (8.2.1)
25
2 32 = 0 and x > 0
x + 4x
(x + 8)(x 4) = 0 and x > 0

The solution set is f4g.

= log 2 25 log (x + 4)
Solution 2 log2 x Property (6)
2
= log 25
log2 x 2 Property (5)
x+4
= 25 and x > 0
x Injectivity of log2 & Domain of log2
x+4
x (x + 4) = 32 and x > 0
2 = 0 and x > 0
x + 4x 32
(x + 8)(x 4)
= 0 and x>0

The solution set is f4g.

Half-Life To find the half-life of a radioactive element, we have to solve

1 t
2 A0 = A0e :

Taking ln on both sides, or equivalently, using (8.2.1), we get

ln 1 = t
2
ln 2 = t Property (4)
t = ln 2 :

This gives the relation between the half-life thalf and the decay constant .

Exercise 8.2
1. For each of the following, convert it to an equivalent logarithmic form.
(a) 92=81 (b) p (c) 1
=2
1
2= 4 2
2. For each of the following, convert it to an equivalent exponential form.
(a) log 2 8 = 3 (b) log 27 = 3 (c) ln 1 = 0
9
2
8.3. Di erentiation of Exp and Log Functions 201

3. Simplify the following:

3 ln 4 2 ln 2 2 log 8 + 1 log 9
2 3 2
(a) 3 (b)
ln 8 log 6 + log 2
2
4. For each of the following equations, sketch its graph.
(a) y = log x (b) y = log x 3
(c) y = ln x (d) y = log 1 x
2 3
(e) y = log x (f) y = 2 log x
(g) y = log(2x 1)
5. For each of the following functions, find its domain and range.
(a) x (b) x
f (x) = e + 1 f (x) = e 2
(c) 2 (d) f (x) = 2 ln x
f (x) = ln x
(e) f (x) = ln(2x 1) 2(f)
4)
f (x) = ln(x
6. For each of the following equations, find its solution set.
(a) log 16 x = 1 (b) log x 4 =2
2 5
(c) 9x 1 = 3x+1 (d) x ln x = ln x2
(e) 2 log(x 1) = log(x2 5) (f) log(x 3) = log(7x 9) 1
7. For each of the following, find x correct to 3 significant figures.
(a) 10x = 123:4 (b) ex = 5678
(c) log x = 13:57 (d) ln x = 0:0187
(e) 1:03754x = 2 (f) log 5 = 2:34
x
8. How long will it take money to double if it is invested at 2:275% interest compounded
(a) annually; (b) quarterly; (c) monthly; (d) continuously
Give your answer in years correct to two decimal places.

8.3 Di erentiation of the Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

Derivative of ln The natural logarithmic function is di erentiable on (0; 1) and its derivative is the
reciprocal function, that is,
d ln x = 1 ; x > 0:
dx x
Proof d ln x = lim ln(x + h) ln(x) Definition of Derivative

dx h!0 h
ln +h
x

= lim x Log Property (5)

h!0 h
= lim 1 ln 1 + h
h!0 "h x !#
h!0
"x h ln 1 x !#
1 x
= lim +h continued on next page
202 Chapter 8. Exponential and Logarithmic Functions
dx 2 x! x 3
x h!0
d 1
1
6 h hh h 7
ln x = lim ln 1+ Limit Rule (La5s) & Log Property (6)
4 3 5
2 !
ln
x x
t x

h!0
1 6 1 7
= 4lim 1 + x 5 Continuity of ln
= lim 1 + Put t =
" t!1 t !# h
x ln
= 1 ln e Definition of e
x
= 1 Log Property (2)
x

dy
Example For each of the following y, find d x.
y = 2 + 3 ln x
y = sin x ln x
2
y = cos x + ln x
y = x ln 2x

Solution
(1) dy = d (2 + 3 ln x)
dx dx
d d
= d 2 + d 3 ln x Term by Term Di erentiation
x
dx
= 0 + 3 ln x Derivative of Constant & Constant Multiple Rule
dx
= 3 Derivative of ln
x
dy
(2) d
dx d x (sin x ln x)
d d sin x Product Rule
sin x d x ln x + ln x
dx
sin x Derivatives of ln & sin
x + ln x cos x

dy d
(3) 2
d x (cos x + ln x )
dx
d d 2
d x cos x + d x ln x Term by Term Di erentiation
d
sin x + d x (2 ln x) Derivative of cos & Log Property (6)

d
sin x + 2 d x ln x Constant Multiple Rule

2 Derivatives of ln
sin x + x
8.3. Di erentiation of Exp and Log Functions 203
(4) dy = d (x ln 2x)

dx dx d d
= x
dx (ln 2x) + ln 2x dx x Product Rule
= x d (ln 2 + ln x) + ln 2x Log Property (3) & Power Rule
dx
1
= x 0 + + ln 2x Derivatives of Constant & ln
x
= 1 + ln 2x

Di erentiation of Logarithmic functions with other bases To di erentiate other logarithmic functions
logb x where b , e, we can use change of base formula:
log m = ln m :
b ln b
3
Example Find the derivative of y = log2(5x ).
dy = d log (5x3)
Solution 2
dx = dx ln !
2
d dx

3 Change of Base Formula

ln 5x
= 1 d (ln 5 + 3 ln x)
Constant Multiple Rule and Log Properties (3) & (6)
ln 2 dx
= ln 2 dx ln 5 + dx (3 ln x)!
1 d d Term by Term Di erentiation
1 d !
Derivative of Constant & Constant Multiple Rule
= 0 + 3dx ln x
ln 2
= 1 3 1 Derivative of ln
ln 2 x
= 3
x ln 2

To find a formula for the derivative of the exponential function exp, we use the fact that the
functions ln and exp are inverses of each other and we need the following:

Inverse Function Rule dx = 1

dy dy
dx
Explanation More precisely, we have the following result called the Inverse Function Theorem.
Let f be a function defined on an open interval (a; b). Suppose that f is di erentiable on (a; b)
and f 0(x) , 0 for all x 2 (a; b). Then on (a; b), the function f is injective, the image of (a; b) under f is
an open interval, denoted by (c; d). Moreover, the inverse function f 1 is di erentiable on (c; d) and
f 1 0
( ) = f 0( ) for all 2 (c; d); where = f 1( ):

1
 204 Chapter 8. Exponential and Logarithmic Functions
If we denote y = f (x), then x = f 1(y) gives the inverse function and we have dy = f 0(x) and dx = f
1 0(y).

dx dy
The Inverse Function Rule is a compact way to express the relation between the derivatives of f
1
and f . Below, we show how to derive the rule:
dy = lim y Definition of Derivative
dx x!0 x

= lim 1 Note: y , 0
x!0 x
1 y
= Continuity of Reciprocal Function
lim x
x!0 y
= 1 Continuity of f
lim x
y!0 y
= 1 Definition of Derivative
dx
dy

Derivative of exp The exponential function is di erentiable on R and its derivative is the function
itself, that is,
d
x x < x < 1:
d e =e ;
x
x
Proof Put y = e . Then we have x = ln y. From these we get,

d ex = dy Substitution
dx dx
= 1 Inverse Function Rule
dx
dy
= 1 Substitution
d ln y
dy
= 1 Derivative of ln
1
y
= y
= ex Substitution

dy
Example For each of the following y, find d x.
x 3
(1) y = 2e
x
5 x
y=x e
ex
y= sin x
8.3. Di erentiation of Exp and Log Functions 205

Solution d 3!
dy
(1) 2ex
dx dxx
= d (2ex) d (3x 1) Term by Term Di erentiation
dx dx
d d
= 2 x 3 1 Constant Multiple Rule
dx e dx x
= 2 ex 3 ( 1) x 2 Derivative of exp & Power Rule

x 2
2e + 3x

dy d
(2) x5ex dx
dx d d
= ex 5 5 Product Rule
dx x + x dx ex
= ex 5x4 + x5 ex Power Rule & Derivative of exp
(x5 + 5x4) ex
= d !
(3) dx d x sin x
dy x
e
sin x d e
x d sin x
ex
dx dx
= 2 Quotient Rule
sin x
= sin x ex ex cos x Derivatives of exp & sin
2
sin x
x
= e (sin x cos x)
2
sin x

Di erentiation of Exponential functions with Bases di erent from e To di erentiate other exponential
x something
functions expb where b , e, we can express b in the form e . Alternatively, we can use a
technique called logarithmic di erentiation. Both methods depends on the Chain Rule (see Chapter 9).

To close this chapter, we use the inverse function rule to find the derivative of the arctangent function. The result
will be used in the discussion of integration of rational functions. The inverse function rule can also be
used to find the derivatives of the functions sin 1 and cos 1 and are left as exercises.
1
Derivative of tan The arctangent function is di erentiable on R and we have

d 1
1
tan x = ; < x < 1:
dx 2
1+x
Explanation Although the tangent function is not injective, it becomes injective when we restrict the domain
,
to ( 2 ;2 . Note that the range is R. The inverse of the function tan : ( 2 ;2 ! R is called the arctangent
function denoted by arctan or tan 1. Thus tan 1 is the function from R into ( ; such that
2 2
1 1
:
tan(tan x) = x for all x 2 R and tan (tan x) = x for all x 2 ( 2 ; 2
206 Chapter 8. Exponential and Logarithmic Functions
1
Proof Put y = tan x. Then we have x = tan y. From these we get

d 1
tan x = dy Substitution
dx dx
= 1 Inverse Function Rule
dx
dy
= 1 Substitution
d tan y
dy
= 1 Derivative of tan
2
sec y
= 1 Identity (Py1)
1 + tan2 y
= 1 Substitution
1 + x2

Exercise 8.3
1. For each of the following y, find ddyx .
3 x (b) y = ln x
y = 2x 4e 5 1
x
(c) y = e + ln x 2 2 p
y = x + ln x x
x p
(e) y = e + x 1(f)y=ln
x y = cos x ln x
y = e sin x
y = (x2 + 1)ex 2
y = (x + 1) ln x
(k) y = ex y=
ln x
sin x
cos x
x3 + 3x2 + 6x 2
(m) y= x3 + 3x2 + 6x 2 (n) y=
ex ln x
0
2. For each of the following f , find f (a) for the given a.
(a) f (x) = ex tan x, a = 0
(b) f (x) = ln x , a = 1
x2 + 1
2
3. For each of the following f , find d y .
x2
(a) y = x2 + x 1
ex
1
(b) y = 1 ln x
x
4. Use the inverse function rule to prove the following:
(a) d sin 1 x = p 1 , 1<x<1
dx 2
1 x
(b) d cos 1 x = p 1 , 1<x<1
d 1 x2
x
Note: The functions sin 1 and cos 1 are the inverses of the injective functions sin : ; ! [ 1;1]
2 2
and cos : [0; ] ! [ 1; 1] respectively.
Chapter 9

More Di erentiation

9.1 Chain rule

Up to this stage, we know how to di erentiate “simple” functions like the following:
5
f (x) = x +
x1
1 f (x) =
x+1
f (x) = sin x
x
f (x) = e + 2 tan x
f (x) = ln x ex
cos x x2 + 1
using simple rules for di erentiation and formulas derived in the last few chapters. But for more
“complicated” functions, like the following:
2
f (x) = sin(x )
x2+1
f (x) = e
f (x) = ln(1 + 2x)
we need the chain rule. It is one of the most important rules for finding derivatives, used for di
erentiating composite functions.

Chain Rule dy =dy du

dx du dx
Explanation More precisely, we have the following result for di erentiation of composition of functions.

Let f be a function that is di erentiable on an open interval (a; b). Let g be a function that is di erentiable
on an open interval containing the image of (a; b) under f . Then the composition g f is di erentiable on (a; b).
Moreover, we have
0 0 0 for all 2 (a; b): dy dy
(g f ) ( ) = g f ( ) f ( )

0 0
If we denote u = f (x) and denote y = g(u), then y = g f (x) is a function of x. Note that (g f ) =dx , g =du
0 du
and f = . The Chain Rule is a compact way to express the relation between the derivatives of g f , g and
dx
f . Below we show how to derive the rule (with an additional assumption):
208 Chapter 9. More Di erentiation

dy = lim y
dx x!0 x !
x!0 u x ,
= lim y u
Assume u 0
y u
= lim lim Limit Rule (L.5)

u
x!0 x!0 x
= lim y lim u Continuity of f
u!0 u x!0 x

d y d u
d u d x

d 2 3
Example Find d x (x + 5)
without using chain rule;
using chain rule.

Solution
(1) d (x2 + 5)3 = d (x6 + 15x4 + 75x2 + 125) Rewrite the function
dx dx
= 6x5 + 15 4x3 + 75 2x + 0 Term by Term Di erentiation,
= 6x5 + 60x3 + 150x Constant Multiple Rule & Power Rule

2 3 2 3
(2) Put u = x 5 and put y = u . Then we have y = (x + 5) . From these we get
d (x2 + 5)3 = dy Substitution
dx dx
dy du Chain Rule
=
du dx
d d
= 3 2 Substitution
du u dx (x + 5)
= 3u2 (2x + 0) Power Rule and Term by Term Di erentiation

= 3(x2 + 5)2 2x Substitution

2 2
6x (x + 5)

Remark
It is straightforward to check that the above two results are the same.
1
2 + 5) 3 , we can’t apply the first method but can still apply the second
If we change the function to (x
method which makes use of the chain rule together with the power rule.

We can combine the chain rule with any formula to get a more general formula. In the table below, the gen-eral
form gives the derivative of g f where g is a power function, the sine function etc. and f is a di erentiable function
such that g f is defined (for example, in order that ln[ f (x)] be defined, we have to assume that f is
9.1. Chain rule 209

positive). These formulas will be referred as the Chain Rule & Power Rule, Chain Rule & Derivative of sin
1
etc. For the Power Rule, we have seen that it is true if r is an integer or a rational number in the form n + 2
where n is an integer. In fact, it is true for all real numbers r. We will prove this result (called the General
Power Rule) later using logarithmic di erentiation which is based on the Chain Rule & Derivative of ln.

Simple Form General Form

d r r 1 d r r 1 d
dx x = rx dx [ f (x)] = r[ f (x)] dx f (x)
d d d
dx sin x = cos x dx sin[ f (x)] = cos[ f (x)] dx f (x)
d d d
dx cos x = sin x dx cos[ f (x)] = sin[ f (x)] dx f (x)
d d d
2 2
dx tan x = sec x dx tan[ f (x)] = sec [ f (x)] dx f (x)
d d d
x x
dx e = e dx e f (x) = e f (x) dx f (x)
d 1 d 1 d
dx ln x = x d ln[ f (x)] = f (x) dx f (x)
x

Proof We give the proof for the 1st, 2nd and 6th formulas. The proofs of the rest are left as exercises.
(1) Put u = f (x) and put y = ur. Then we have y = [ f (x)]r. From these we get
d [ f (x)]r = dy Substitution
dx dx
= dy du Chain Rule
du dx
d du
= r Substitution
du u dx
= rur 1 du Power Rule
dx
r[ f (x)]
r 1 d
=
d f (x) Substitution
x
(2) Put u = f (x) and put y = sin u. Then we have y = sin[ f (x)]. From these we get

d sin[ f (x)] = dy Substitution

dx dx
dy du Chain Rule
=
du dx
d du
=
du sin u dx Substitution
= cos u du Derivative of sin
dx
d
= cos[ f (x)]
dx f (x) Substitution
210 Chapter 9. More Di erentiation

(6) Put u = f (x) and put y = ln u. Then we have y = ln[ f (x)]. From these we get
d ln[ f (x)] = dy
Substitution
dx dx
= dy du
Chain Rule
du dx
d du
= ln u Substitution
du dx
= 1 du
Derivative of ln
u dx
= 1 d f (x)
Substitution
f (x) dx
dy
Example For each of the following y, find d x.
2
y = sin(x + 1)
x2+2
y=e
2
(3) y = ln(x 3)
2 2
y = ex +tan x

y = ln[sin2(2x + 3)]
(6) y = 1
2 4
(x + 3)
(7) y = ex+1 ln(x2 + 1)
Solution
(1) dy = d sin(x2 + 1)
dx dx
2 d 2
cos(x + 1) d x (x + 1)Chain Rule & Derivative of sin
2
= 2x cos(x + 1) Term by Term
Di erentiation and Power Rule
dy d 2
= ex +2
dxdx
2
d
= ex +2 2 Chain Rule & Derivative of exp
dx (x + 2)
= 2
Term by Term Di erentiation and Power Rule
2x ex +2
(3) dy = d ln(x2 3)
dx dx
1 d
= 2 Chain Rule & Derivative of ln
x2 3 dx (x 3)
= 2x Term by Term Di erentiation and Power Rule
2
x 3
9.1. Chain rule = e (2x + sec x 2x)
(4) dy = d 2 2
ex +tan x
dx dx
2 2
d
= +tan x 2 2
ex dx (x + tan x )
2
= 2
+tan x d x2 + d tan x2
ex
dx dx
2 2 2
= 2
+tan x 2x + sec x d x2
ex
dx
2
x2+tan x 2 2
 211

Term by Term Di erentiation

Power Rule and Chain Rule & Derivative of tan

Chain Rule & Derivative of exp
Power Rule
2 2
2x (1 + sec2 x2) ex +tan x

dy d
(5) dx = 2
dx ln[sin (2x + 3)]
1 d
= 2 Chain Rule & Derivative of ln
sin (2x + 3) dx sin (2x + 3)
2
1 d
2 2
= 2 Rewrite sin u as (sin u)
sin (2x + 3) dx [sin(2x + 3)]
2
1 d
= 2 sin(2x + 3) Chain Rule & Power Rule
2
sin (2x + 3) dx sin(2x + 3)
= 1 2 sin(2x + 3) cos(2x + 3) d (2x + 3)
2 Chain Rule & Derivative of sin
sin (2x + 3) dx
= 4 cos(2x + 3)
Term by Term Di
sin(2x + 3) erentiation and Power Rule

Remark In the above solution, we apply the chain rule thrice. Alternatively, we may use a property of
logarithm and apply the chain rule twice.

Alternative solution
dy d
= ln[sin2(2x + 3)]
dx dx
d 2 Rewrite the function Log
d x ln[sin(2x + 3)]
d Property (6) Constant
d x 2 ln[sin(2x + 3)]
d Multiple Rule Chain Rule &
2 d x ln[sin(2x + 3)]
1 d Derivative of ln
= 2
sin(2x + 3) dx sin(2x + 3)
= 2 cos(2x + 3) d (2x + 3) Chain Rule & Derivative of sin
sin(2x + 3) dx
4 cos(2x + 3) Term by Term Di
sin(2x + 3) erentiation and Power Rule
212 Chapter 9. More Di erentiation

(6) dy = d 1
dx 2 4
dx (x + 3)
d 2 4 Rewrite the function
d x (x + 3)
2 5 d 2 Chain Rule & Power Rule
( 4) (x + 3) d x (x + 3) 4
2x
(x2 + 3)5 Term by Term Di erentiation and Power Rule
x
(x2 + 3)5

Remark If we apply the quotient rule in the first step, we still have to apply the chain rule in a later step.

dy d
(7) ex+1 ln(x2 + 1) dx
dx d d x+1
x+1 2 2
e d x ln(x + 1) + ln(x + 1) d x e
Product Rule
x+1 1 2
d (x + 1) + ln(x + 1) e 2 x+1 d (x + 1)
= e
2 Chain Rule & Derivative of ln and
x + 1 dx dx
2x ex+1 2 Chain Rule & Derivative of exp
+ ex+1 ln(x2 + 1) x
+1 Term by Term Di erentiation
and Power Rule

Remark Instead of using the General Form given in the table on page 209, some authors use the
chain rule directly by writing down the expression for u. Below we redo (1) and (2) in the last
example using such notations.
dy
(1) d 2
dx d x sin(x + 1)
d d
= 2 2 2
Chain Rule (replace u by x + 1)
d(x + 1) sin(x + 1) dx (x + 1)
2

2 Term by Term Di erentiation, Power

2x cos(x + 1)
Rule & Derivative of sin

(2)
dy d x2+2
dx
d xe
2
d d
= 2 +2 2 2
d(x + 2) ex dx (x + 2) Chain Rule (replace u by x + 2)
= 2x ex2+2 Term by Term Di erentiation, Power Rule
& Derivative of exp

Logarithmic Di erentiation Suppose that y is a di erentiable function of x and that y is always positive.
Then the composition ln y is a di erentiable function of x. Moreover, by the Chain Rule & Derivative of ln, we
have 1 dy
d
:
dx ln y = y dx (9.1.1)
 9.1. Chain rule 213
d dy

Using properties of logarithms, we may be able to find dx ln y. In this case, we can then find dx using (9.1.1.

Below we will apply logarithmic di erentiation to proof the General Power Rule and do an
example to illustrate how to find the derivatives of exponential functions with bases di erent from e.

r
General Power Rule Let r be a real number. Then the power function x is di erentiable on (0; 1).
Moreover, we have
d r r 1
d x x = rx ;

x > 0:
r
Explanation We can use logarithmic di erentiation because ln x = r ln x can be di erentiated
r
easily. Proof Put y = x . Taking natural logarithm and using Log Property (6), we get

ln y = r ln x:

Di erentiating both sides with respect to x, we get

d d
d x ln y = d x r ln x

1 dy = r 1 Chain Rule & Derivative of ln,

y dx x Constant Multiple Rule and Derivative of ln
dy = y r
dx x
= xr r
Substitution
x
= rxr 1

f (x)

d x2+cos x
Example Find d x 5 .

0
Explanation The given function is in the form b where b , e and f is a di erentiable function such that f
can be found easily. Its derivative can be found by the following two methods:

(Method 1) Express b f (x) in the form eg(x) and then apply Chain Rule & Derivative of exp.
f (x)
(Method 2) Use logarithmic di erentiation: note that ln b = f (x) ln b can be di erentiated easily.

u ln 5u u ln 5
Solution 1 Note that 5 = e =e by Log Properties (8) and (6). Therefore, we have
= (2x x +cos x
d x2+cos x d (x2+cos x) ln 5 sin x) 5 2 ln 5
dx 5 = dx e
2
d
= +cos x) ln 5 2
dx (x + cos x) ln 5
e
(x
= +cos x) ln 5 ln 5 (2x sin x)
2
e(x
Rewrite the function Constant Multiple Rule, Term by Term Di
erentiation, Power Rule and Derivative of cos
Chain Rule & Derivative of exp Rewrite the function

Solution 2
 214 Chapter 9. More Di erentiation
(Step 1) 2
Put y = 5x +cos x.
(Step 2) Taking natural logarithm, we get
2
ln y = (x + cos x) ln 5:
(Step 3) Di erentiating both sides with respect to x, we get
d ln y = d (x2 + cos x) ln 5

dx dx Chain Rule & Derivative of ln,

1 dy
y dx
= ln 5 (2x sin x) Constant Multiple Rule, Term by Term Di erentiation,
dy Power Rule and Derivative of cos
= y (2x sin x) ln 5
dx x2+cos x
= (2x sin x) 5 ln 5 Substitution

Exercise 9.1

[Link] dy for the following:

dx p
(a) y = (2x + 5x )
3 2 6
(b) y= 9 + 4x
p 2
(c) y= 4x + 5 (d) y = cos 5x
3
4
(e) y = sin(6x 7) (f) y = sin x
(g) 5
y = cos (6x 7) (h) y = 4x sin 3x
(i) 3 (j) y = tan x
y = tan(8x + 1)
x+2
(k) y = 2e 3x + 4x 5 (l) y = x e x2
(m) y = x2 (n) y = ln 8x
x
e 2
(o) y = ln(5 2x) (p) y = ln(1 x )
(q) p (r) y = 3x ln x
y = ln 2x + 11
(s) y = ln(ln x) (t) x
y = e 2 ln x
(u) (v) x
y = etan x y = tan(e )
(w) 5x (x)
y = sin(e ) y = esin 5x
(y) 2 (z) 2
y = cos[ln(4x + 9)] y = ln[cos(4x + 9)]
[Link] logarithmic di erentiation to find dy for the following:
dx
(a) 2 (b) y = xx
y = 2x +1
5
(c) cos x (d) y = (2x + 1)(3x + 4)
y = (sin x)
(x2 + 7)8
3. Ecologists estimate that when the population of a certain city is x thousand persons, the
average level L of carbon monoxide in the air above the city will be L ppm (parts per million),
2
where L = 10+0:4x+0:001x . The population of the city is estimated to be x = 345 + 22t +
2
0:5t thousand persons t years from the present.
(a) Find the rate of change of carbon monoxide with respect to the population of the city.
(b) Find the time rate of change of the population when t = 3.
(c) How fast (with respect to time) is the carbon monoxide level changing at time t = 3?
9.2. Implicit Di erentiation 215

0 0
Suppose that f and g are di erentiable functions such that f (1) = 2, f (1) = 3, f (5) = 4, g(1) = 5,
0 0 d
g (1) = 6, g (2) = 7 and g(5) = 8. Find d x f (g(x)) x=1.

9.2 Implicit Di erentiation

Implicit di erentiation is a technique for di erentiating functions that are not given in the usual form y = f (x).
We use the following example (Solution 2) to illustrate the general procedure.

Example Find the slope of the line tangent to the circle

2 2 (9.2.1)
x +y =4
at the point p p .
2; 2
Explanation are two methods to find the slope.

There
(1) The first method is to rewrite the equation of the circle (in fact, semi-circle) in the form y = f (x). The
0
slope at the given point is f p p
2
2 . From (9.2.1), solving y in terms of x, we get y = 4 x . But this
doesn’t give a function since
certain value of x (say x = 1) gives two values of y. Note that the point

p p p .
2; 2 lies on the upper semi-circle. To consider the required slope, we take y = 4
x
2

The second method is to di erentiate both sides of Equation (9.2.1) with respect to x. For the left-side, to
d 2
find d x y we can use the Chain Rule & Power Rule by treating y = f (x) as a function of x.
Solution 1 From (9.2.1) and noting that the point p p p .
2; 2 lies on the upper circle, we get y = 2
4 x
Di erentiating, we get
dy = d (4 2
x ) 21
dx dx
2 1 2
1 d
x ) x )
= 2 (4 2
dx (4 Chain Rule & Power Rule
= 1 ( 2x) Term by Term Di erentiation,
2 (4 1 and Power Rule
x2) 2
= p x :
4 x2
The slope of the tangent at p is p
2; p 2 dy = 2 = 1:
p p
x=
dx 2 2

Solution 2 Di erentiate both sides of (9.2.1) with respect to x, we get

d (x2 + y2) = d (4)
dx dx
d x2 + d y2 = 0 Term by Term Di erentiation
dx dx and Derivative of Constant
2x + 2ydy = 0 Power Rule and
dx Chain Rule & Power Rule
216 Chapter 9. More Di erentiation

Solving for dy , we get

dx dy x
= :
p p , the slope of the tangent is dx y
At ;
2 2 dy p

p p p
dx ( 2; 2 ) = 2 = 1:

In general, although an equation of the form

F(x; y) = 0 (9.2.2)

usually defines y as a function of x implicitly, it may be di cult to express y in terms of x explicitly. By

treating
y as a function of x, the left-side of (9.2.2) becomes a function of x. To find dy , we may di erentiate both
dy dx
sides of (9.2.2) with respect to x and then solve for (in terms of x and y). This method is called implicit
di erentiation. dx

Example Use implicit di erentiation to find dy given that x3 + 4xy2 7 = y3.

dx
2
Explanation To apply implicit di erentiation, we assume that y is a function of x. Thus, 4xy is a
3 2
function of x and y is a function of x. Moreover, 4xy can be treated as a product of functions of x.
Solution Di erentiate both sides of the given equation with respect to x, we get
d (x3 + 4xy2 7) = d (y3)
dx dx
d x + d (4xy2) d 7 = 3y2 dy
3
Term by Term Di erentiation
d dx dx dx and Chain Rule & Power Rule
x
2
3x + d 2 2 d Power Rule and Product Rule
2 dy
4x dx (y ) + dx (4x) 0 = 3y dx
y Chain Rule & Power Rule,
dy dy Constant Multiple Rule and Power Rule
2 !
3x + 4x 2y dx + y2 4 = 3y2 dx
2 dy 2
2 dy
Solving for 3x + 8xy dx + 4y = 3y dx :
dy , we get

dx Collect similar terms

2 2 2
3x + 4y = 3y dy 8xy dy
dx dx Extract common factor
dy
2 2 = 2 8xy)
3x + 4y dx (3y
2 2
dy 3x + 4y
= 2
:
dx 3y 8xy
dy 2 d 2 dy
Caution d x (3y 8xy) and d x (3y 8xy) are di erent. The first expression is the product of d x
2 2
and 3y 8xy whereas the second one is the derivative of 3y 8xy.
9.2. Implicit Di erentiation 217
Example Find dy given that y ln x = x ey 1.

dx
dy
Explanation The question is to use implicit di erentiation to find d x (it is di cult or even impossible
to solve y as a function of x explicitly).
Solution Di erentiating both sides of the given equation with respect to x, we get
d y ln x = d 1
x ey
dx dx !
y y
x
y d ln x + ln x dy = x de +e d d 1 Term by Term Di erentiation
dx dx dx dx dx
1 dy y dy y Derivatives of ln & exp
y x + ln x dx = x e +e
and Power Rule.
dx
Solving for dy , we get
dx
dy 2 y Multiply by x and
y dy
x ln x dx x e = xe y collect similar terms
dx
dy xe)
2 y
xe
y

dx (x ln x = y Extract common factor

y
dy xe y
= 2 y
:
x ln x x e dx
Example Find the slope of the curve with equation
2
x sin y + cos y = 1
at the point (1; 0).
Explanation dy dy x; y =
(1; 0). The required slope is dx (1;0). We use implicit di erentiation to find dx and then substitute ( )

Solution Di erentiating both sides of the given equation with respect to x, we get
d x sin y + cos y2 = d 1
dx dx
d (x sin y) + d cos y2 = 0 Term by Term Di erentiation
dx dx and Derivative of Constant
x d sin y + sin y d ! 2 d = 0 Product Rule and
sin y )
x +( y2
(y) dx dx dx Chain Rule & Derivative of cos
x cos y + sin y 1 ! sin y2 2y dx
dx
= 0 Derivative of sin, Power Rule and
dy dy
Solving for dy , we get Chain Rule & Power Rule.

dx
sin y = 2y sin y2 dy x cos y dy
Collect similar terms
dx dx
dy
sin y = dx (2y sin y2 x cos y) Extract common factor
dy = sin y :
dx 2
2y sin y x cos y
218 Chapter 9. More Di erentiation

(1;0)

d r
dt=3

The slope of the curve at (1; 0) is

dy sin 0
= 0:
(1;0) = 0 cos 0
dx

Remark Alternatively, we can substitute (x; y) (1; 0) into (y) to get

+ sin 0 dx (1;0) = 0 dx (1;0)

dy dy

which yields dy = 0.
dx
Related Rates In implicit di erentiation, we di erentiate an equation involving x and y, with y treated as a

function of x. However, in some applications where x and y are related by an equation, they are functions of
a third variable, for example, time t. If we di erentiate such an equation with respect to t, we get a relationship
d y d x
between the rates of change d t and d t . These derivatives are called related rates.

Example The radius of a circle is increasing at the rate of 3 cm per second. Find the rate of change
of the area inside the circle when the radius is 5 cm.
 d r
Explanation Both the area A and the radius r of the circle are functions of time t. It is give that d t =
d A
3. The question is to find d t when r = 5.
Solution The area A and the radius r of the circle are related by
2
= r :
Di erentiating both sides of the equation with respect to time t, we get
dA = d r2
dt dt
dA d r Constant Multiple Rule and
dt 2r d t Chain Rule & Power Rule.
dA
2r 3 Given that
dt
Thus at the instant where r = 5, we have
dA =2 5 3=30 :
dt
2
That is, the area is increasing at the rate of 30 cm per second.
2 2
Example A point is moving along the graph of 4x + y = 8. When the point is at (1; 2), its x-coordinate
is increasing at the rate of 3 units per second. How fast is the y-coordinate changing at that moment?
Explanation The question is to find dy when (x; y) = (1; 2), given thatdx = 3 at that instant.
dt dt
Solution Di erentiating both sides of the equation with respect to time t, we get
d d
2 2
d (4x + y ) = dt 8
t
d 4x2 + d = 0 Term by Term Di erentiation
y2
dt dt and Derivative of Constant
dx dy
4 2x dt + 2y dt = 0 Chain Rule & Power Rule
9.3. More Curve Sketching 219

Solving for dy , we get

dt dx
dy 8x 4x dx
dt
= = :
dt 2y y dt
At the given moment, we have dy 4 1
= 3= 6 :
dt 2
That is, the y-coordinate is decreasing at a rate of 6 units per second.
Exercise 9.2

1. For each of the following equations, find dy .

dx
(a) xy2 x2 + y = 0 (b) 3
x +y
3 6xy = 0
(c) x5 + 4xy3 3y5 = 1 (d) 2
x sin y + y = 1
(e) sin(x + y) = y cos x (f) y 2 2
e =x +y
(g) 3 y2 = x ln y (h) y
x e + y sin x = ln(x + y)
x
2. Foe each of the following curves represented by the given equations, find the slope at the indicated point.
(a) 2y3 + y2 x = 0, (3; 1)
 (b) xy2 3y3 + 8 = 0, (4; 2)
(c) y sin x + 3 cos y = 3 + cos x, ;0
2
(d) ln y = 2y2 x + 1, (3; 1)
(e) ln(x + sin y) = x2 + 2ey 3, (1; 0)
(f) x3 + y2 + x3ey2 = 1, (0; 1)
A point is moving on the graph of xy = 24. When the point is at (4; 6), its x-coordinate is
increasing at 5 units per second. How fast is the y-coordinate changing at that moment?
The radius of a spherical balloon is increasing at the rate of 5 cm per minute. How fast is the
volume changing when the radius is 8 cm?
A 3 m ladder is placed against a wall. Suppose that the foot of the ladder is pulled along the
ground at the rate of 1 m per second. How fast is the top end of the ladder sliding down the
wall at the time when the foot is 2 m from the wall?

9.3 More Curve Sketching

Example Let f (x) = x ln x.
Find and classify the critical number(s) of f .
Find the interval(s) on which f is increasing or decreasing, convex or concave.
Sketch the graph of f .

Solution
(1) & (2) First we note that the domain of f is (0; 1).
220 Chapter 9. More Di erentiation

Di erentiating f , we get 0
f (x)
d
d x (x ln x)
d d
x d x ln x + ln x d x x

1
x x + ln x
1 + ln x:
0
Solving f (x) = 0, 1 + ln x = 0
ln x = 1
1
we get the critical number of f : x1 = e .
(0; e 1) (e 1; 1)
+
f0
1 1
The function f is decreasing on (0; e ) and increasing on (e ; 1).
Thus f has a local minimum at x1 = e 1.
Di erentiating f , we get f (x) = d (1 + ln x)
0 00
dx
1
x:
(0; 1)
+
f 00
The function f is convex on (0; 1).

(3) The graph of f is shown in Figure 9.1.

1
y = x ln x

1 1
€€€€€

Figure 9.1

Example Sketch the graph of f (x) = sin x + cos x for 0 x 2 . On the graph, indicate the local
extremum points and inflection points.
Solution Di erentiating f , we get 0
f (x) = d (sin x + cos x)
dx
= cos x sin x:
9.3. More Curve Sketching 221

0 cos x = sin x
Solving f (x) = 0,
tan x = 1
we get the critical number of f in the interval (0; 2 ): 5 .
x1 = and x2 =
4 4
0 ; 5 5
f0 +4 4; 4 4 +;2

The function f is increasing on 0; , decreasing on ; 5 and increasing on 5 ; 2 .

4 4 4 4
5 5 5
Thus ;f( ) = ; p2 is a local maximum point and ;f( ) = ; p
2 is a local minimum point of
4 4 4 4 4 4
the graph. d
0 00
Di erentiating f , we get f (x) = dx
(cos x sin x)
= sin x cos x:
00
Solving f (x) = 0 in the interval [0; 2 ]
cos x = sin x
1 = tan x

00 3 7
we get the zeros of f in the interval (0; 2 ): x3 = 4 and x4 = 4 .

0; 3 3 ; 7
+
7 ;2
4 4 4 4
f 00
The function f is concave on 0; 3 , convex on 3 ; 7 and concave on 7 ; 2 .
4 4 4 4
3 3 3 7 7 7
Thus 4 ; f ( 4 ) = 4 ; 0 and 4 ; f ( 4 ) = 4; 0 are inflection points of the graph of f .

1 y = sin x + cos x
Π 3Π 5Π 7Π

€4€€€€€

€€€4€€€€€€€€ €€€4€€€€€€€€ €€€4€€€€€€€€

-1

Figure 9.2

Remark
Because the sine and cosine functions are periodic with period 2 , we can use the above
graph to get the whole graph of f .
222 Chapter 9. More Di erentiation

y = sin x + cos x
1
Π 2Π

€4€€€€€

Figure 9.3

Note that
f (x) = sin x + cos x !
= p
2 p2 sin x + p2 cos x
1 1

p
2 cos 4 sin x + sin 4 cos x
p
= 2 sin x + Compound angle formula
4
Thus the graph of f can be obtained from that of the sine function by shifting it units to the left and
4
p
then amplifying it by a factor of 2.

Exercise 9.3
1. For each of the following equations, sketch its graph.
2 x
(a) y = e x (b) y=xe
(c) y = x ln x (d) y = ln x
x
2
(e) y = x 2 sin x (f) y = sin x
p 1
(g) y=x 1
2x (h) y= p

+ 2x2

9.4 More Extremum Problems

Example Among all line segments that stretch from points on the positive x-axis to points on the
positive y-axis and passes through the point (5; 2), find the one that has shortest length.

Explanation The length of the line segment can be expressed as a function of any one of the
following: (1) the x-intercept of the line segment; (2) the slope of the line segment; (3) the angle
between the line segment and the x-axis.
B(0; y) B(0; y)

(5; 2) (5; 2)

A(x; 0) A(x; 0)
Figure 9.4(a)
Figure 9.4(b)

Note that in Figure 9.4(a), we have x > 5 and in Figure 9.4(b), we have 0 < < 2 . Moreover, if m
denotes the slope of the line segment, then we have m < 0.
9.4. More Extremum Problems 223

Solution 1 Let A(x; 0) and B(0; y) be the points of intersection of the line segment with the x- and y-
axes respectively. We want to minimize the length
q
L = x2 + y2:

Since the line segment passes through (5; 2), we get the following relationship between x and y.
y 2 = 2 0
0 5 5 x
y = 10 + 2
5 x
= 2x
x 5
!
2x 2 . s 2
Therefore, we have L = x +
x 5
2
Since L is a minimum when L is a minimum, we consider minimizing
2 2 ; x > 5:
f (x) = x + 4x
(x 2
5)
d

Di erentiating, we get d
2 2 2 2
0 (x 5) d (4x ) 4x dx (x 5)
f (x) = 2x +
x
= 2x + (
5) 8 4 2 2 5)

(x 5)
x 2 x 2 2(x
x
(x 4
5)
= 2x + 8x (x 5) 8x2
(x 5)
3
40x
2x + :
(x 5)3
0 2x = 40x
Solving f (x) = 0,
(x 5)3
(x 3 = 20 since x > 5 implies x , 0
5)
1
x 5 = 20 3
p3
we get the critical number of f in (5; 1): x1 = 5 +
20.
p3 p3
(5; 5 + 20) (5 + 20 ; 1) 0 3
Note that f (x) = 2x (x 5) 40x = 2x [(x 5)3 20] .
(x 3 (x 3
+ 5) 5)
f0
p3 p3
Since f is decreasing on (5; 5 + 20) and increasing on (5 + 20; 1), it follows that f attains its absolute
p3 20 ; 0).
minimum at x1. Therefore, the shortest line segment is the one that has x-intercept equal to (5 +

Solution 2 Let A(x; 0) and B(0; y) be the points of intersection of the line segment with the x- and y-
axes respectively. We want to minimize the length
q
L = x2 + y2:
224 Chapter 9. More Di erentiation

Note that both x and y are functions of the slope m of the line segment:

2 0 = m and y 2
m
5 x 0 5
2 = 5 x y 2 5m
m y
x = 5 2 2 5m
m
2
s 2! r 2 20 4
Therefore, we have L = 5 + (2 5m)2 = 25m 20m + 29 m + 2
m m
2
Since L is a minimum when L is a minimum, we consider minimizing
2 20m + 29 20 + 4 ; m < 0:
f (m) = 25m
m m
2
1
Di erentiating, we get f 0(m) = dm 25m2 20m + 29 20m + 4m 2
d

2 3
= 50m 20 + 20m 8m
0 2 3 = 0
Solving f (m) = 0, 50m 20 + 20m 8m
3
m
25m
4
10m + 10m 4
3 = 0 Multiply both sides by
2
3 = 0 Factor Theorem: L:S : = 0 when m =
(5m 2)(5m + 2)
3 = 0 Since m < 0
5m + 2
= 2 ;
m3 5
3 2
we get the critical number of f : q .
m1 = 5
0 00 2 3
Di erentiating f , we get f (m) = dm 50m 20 + 20m 8m
d
 2
5
Note that 2 + 24 2 3 >0
5 5
00
f (m1) = 50 40

and that m1 is the only critical number of f in the open interval ( ; 0), it follows from the Second Derivative

Test (Special Version) that f attains its global minimum at m1. Therefore, the shortest line segment is the one
3 2
q
5. 1
that has slope equal to 2 5 3 1

=5 5 =5+2 =5+203.
Remark Corresponding to m1, we have x1
q
3 2 2

Solution 3 Let be the angle between the line segment and the x-axis. By considering the two right-
angled triangles shown in Figure 9.4(b), we have
cos = x and 2 ;
L tan = x 5

9.4. More Extremum Problems 225

from which we get

x 5+ 2
L = = tan :
cos cos
We want to minimize L( )= 5 + 2 ; 0< < :

cos sin 2

Di erentiating, we get
dL d 1 1
5 (cos ) + 2 (sin ) d
d
2 d 2 d
= 5 ( 1) (cos ) 1) (sin )
d cos + 2 ( d sin
= 5 ( 1) (cos ) 2 ( sin ) + 2 ( 1) (sin ) 2 cos
=5 sin 2 cos :

2 2
cos sin
Solving dL = 0, 5 sin = 2 cos
2 2
d cos sin
3 = 2 cos3
5 sin
3 = 2 ;
tan
5
3 2
we get the critical number of L in 0; 2 1q .
: 1 = tan 5
2
+ sin cos sin cos

3 2 2
0; tan tan ; 5 cos3 tan3
3 2
1 1 dL 5 sin 3 2 cos
q 5 q 5 2 5
dL
Note that =2 2 = 2 2
.
d
d

13 2
;
Since L is decreasing on 0; tan and increasing on tan 1 3 2 , it follows that L attains its minimum at
q5 q5 2
1
3 2
segment is the one that makes an angle tan x
 2 p3 q -axis.
1. Therefore, the shortest line
=5+ 5 with the
Remark Corresponding to 1, we have x1 = 5 + q
20.
3 2
5

Example A recording company has produced a new CD. Before launching a sales campaign, the
marketing research department wants to determine the length of the campaign that will maximize
total profits. From empirical data, it is estimated that the proportion of a target group of 50000
0:06t
persons buying the CD after t days of TV promotion is given by 1 e . If $20 is received for each
CD sold and the promotion cost is C(t) = 200000 + 12000t.
How many days of TV promotion should be used to maximize the profit?
What is the maximum profit?
What percentage of the target group will have purchased the CD when the maximum profit is reached?

Explanation The number of days is a positive integer. In order to apply di erentiation, we enlarge

the domain to (0; 1).

226 Chapter 9. More Di erentiation
Solution The revenue (in dollars) after t days of promotion is

R(t) = 20 50000 (1
e 0:06t):

Therefore, the profit (in dollars) is

0:06t
P(t) = 1000000(1 e ) 200000 12000t:

We want to maximize P(t) for positive integers t. First, we consider P as a function with domain (0;
1). Di erentiating, we get
0
P (t) = d 1000000(1 e 200000 12000t
0:06t)
dt
= 1000000 ( e 0:06t) d ( 0:06t) 12000
dt
0:06t
60000e 12000:
0
Solving P (t) = 0, 60000e 0:06t = 12000
e 0:06t = 0:2
0:06t = ln 0:2;
ln 0:2
we get the critical number of P in (0; 1): t1 = 0:06 .
0; ln 0:2 ln 0:2 ; 1
0:06
0
P + 0 06

Since P is increasing on 0; ln 0:2 and decreasing on ln 0:2 ; 1 , it follows that on (0; 1), P attains its maximum
t t :
0:06 0:06 profit at t = 26 and t = 27:

at 1. However 1 26 8 is not an integer. Comparing the 2 3

t 26 27
P 277864 278101
we see that

27 days of TV promotion should be used to maximize the profit;

the maximum profit is $278101;
0:06 27
1 e 80% of the target group will have purchased the CD.

Exercise 9.4
x2
Find the area of the largest rectangle that has one side on the x-axis and two vertices on the curve y = e .
Suppose the price-demand equation for a product is determined from empirical data to be p =
0:05q
100e where q is the number of units sold. Find the production level and price that
maximize revenue. What is the maximum revenue?
A lake polluted by bacteria is treated with an antibacterial chemical. After t days, the number N
of bacteria per ml of water is approximated by
N(t) = 20( t ln( t ))+30
12 12
9.4. More Extremum Problems 227

for 1 t 15. During this time

when will the number of bacteria be a minimum? what is the minimum?
when will the number of bacteria be a maximum? what is the maximum?
A company wishes to run an utility cable from a point A on the shore to an installation at point B on the
island. The island is 6 km from the shore where C is the nearest point. Assume that the cable starts at
a point A on the shore and runs along the shoreline, then angles and runs underwater to the island. It
costs $3200 per km to run the cable on land and $4000 per km underwater. Find the point at which the
line should begin to angle in order to yield the minimum cost if
the distance between A and C is 9 km;
the distance between A and C is 7 km.
A light source is to be placed directly above the center of a circular table of radius 1:5 m. The illumination at any
point on the table is directly proportional to the sine of the angle between the table and the line joining the
source and the point and inversely proportional to the square of the distance from the source. Find the
height above the circle at which illumination on the edge of the table is maximized.
1
A long piece of metal one meter wide is to be bent in two places, 3 meter from the two ends, to
form a spillway so that its cross-section is an isosceles trapezoid. Find the angle at which the
bend should be formed in order to obtain maximum possible flow along the spillway.
228 Chapter 9. More Di erentiation
Chapter 10

More Integration

10.1 More Formulas

Using formulas for di erentiation discussed in previous chapters, we get the corresponding
formulas for inte-gration.
Z r+1
r x
Integration Formula 1 x dx = r + 1 + C where 1 , r 2 R

Integration Formula 2 Z sin x dx = cos x + C

Integration Formula 3 Z cos x dx = sin x + C

Integration Formula 4 Z 2
sec x dx = tan x + C

Integration Formula 5 Z 1 1
dx = tan x+C
2
1+x
Integration Formula 6 Z
ex dx = ex + C

Integration Formula 7 Z 1

x dx = ln jxj + C
Explanation For each of the above formulas, the equality is valid on every open interval on which the
integrand is defined. For example, Formula 4 means that on every open interval not containing any real
k 2
number in the form 2 where k is an odd integer, the function tan x is an antiderivative of the function sec x.

The formulas can be proved directly by di erentiating the functions on the right side. Below we
give the proofs for (1), (2) and (7). For (7), since the domain of the function x 1 is R n f0g, we have
to consider two cases: x > 0 and x < 0.
 230 Chapter 10. More Integration
Proof for (1) Let r be a constant di erent from 1. r+1
On every open interval in which the function x is

r
defined (hence the function x is also defined), we have
d xr+1 1 d
= Constant Multiple Rule for Di erentiation
dx r + 1 r + 1 dx xr+1
= 1 (r + 1) xr+1 1 (General) Power Rule for Di erentiation
r+1
=
xr
Proof for (2) On R, we have
d d
dx ( cos x) = ( 1) dx cos x Constant Multiple Rule for Di erentiation
= ( 1) ( sin x) Derivative of cos

= sin x

d d
(Case x > 0) =
dx ln jxj dx ln x Definition of jxj
= 1 Derivative of ln
x
d d

(Case x < 0) =
dx ln jxj dx ln( x) Definition of jxj
d

x dx ( x)Chain Rule & Derivative of ln

= 1 ( 1) Constant Multiple Rule for Di erentiation and
x Power Rule for Di erentiation
1
x

Example Perform the following integration:

Z
2
(x + sin x) dx
!
1
1 x dx
Z
x
(2 cos x + 3e ) dx

Solution Z 2 Z
(1) Z x dx + sin x dx Term by Term Integration
2
(x + sin x) dx =

= x3 cos x + C Integration Formulas (1) & (2)

3
10.1. More Formulas 231
1 1

(2) Z 1 x ! Z 1 dx Z x dx Term by Term Integration

dx =
= x ln jxj + C Integration Formulas (1) & (7)
(3) Z x = Z Z 3ex dx Term by Term Integration
(2 cos x + 3e ) dx 2 cos x dx +

= 2 Z Z Constant Multiple for Integration

cos x dx + 3 ex dx

= 2 sin x + 3ex + C Integration Formulas (3) & (6)

Example Evaluate the following definite integrals:

2
3 sin x dx
(2) Z 0 ! dx
1 2 ex + x
1

Explanation In the first step of the solution, we apply rules and formulas for integration to find a
primitive for the given integrand (on the closed interval determined by the limits of integration)
together with the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus (Version 2).
Solution
Z h i Constant Multiple Rule, Integration Formula (2)
2 2

(1) 0 3 sin x dx = & Fundamental Theorem of Calculus

3 cos x 0

= 3 cos ( 3 cos 0)
2
3

Z 2 1 ! h i 2 Integration Formulas (6) & (7)

dx =
(2) x + ln jxj
1 e +x ex
1 & Fundamental Theorem of Calculus
= (e2 + ln 2) (e + ln 1)
= e2 e + ln 2

Example Find the area of the (combined) region that lies

x 1
x y=e
between the x-axis and the graph of y = e 1 for 1 x 2. -1 2
x
Solution Note that for 1 x 0, the graph of y = e 1 is below the x-
axis and for 0 x 2, the graph is above the x-axis.

Figure 10.1
232 Chapter 10. More Integration

y = F g(x) :

The required area A is

Z 0 2
A = 1 [0 (e x Z x 1) 0] dx
1)] dx + 0 [(e
Z Z x
= x
(1 e ) dx +
1 0 (e 1) dx
0 2
0 x 2 Term by Term Integration,
+e
ex
= x x Integration Formulas (1) & (6)
h i 1 h i0 & Fundamental Theorem of Calculus
= [( 1+0) ( e 1 1)] + [(e
2 2) (1 0)]
 = e2 + e 1 3
Exercise 10.1

1. Perform the following integration:

R 3 sec2 x dx (b) x
(2e + cos x) dx
(a) 2x + 3 R 1 2
2. (c) R x dx (d) R 1 + x dx
Evaluate the following definite integrals:
R0 3 sin x dx (b) R 1 (2ex + sin x) dx
(a) 2 x 1 1
2 2 x
1
(c) R 4 e + x dx (d) R 1 x dx
Find the area of the (combined) region that
lies between the x-axis and the graph of y = sin x for 0 x ;
1 1
lies between the x-axis and the graph of y = x for 2 x e;
x x
(c) lies under the graphs of y = e and e and above the x-axis for 1 x 2 .

10.2 Substitution Method

Up to this stage, we can do simple integration using formulas and simple rules. For more complicated ones,
R x
like x e 2 dx, we have to use some techniques for integration. In general, di erent forms of the integrand
requires di erent techniques. In this section, we discuss a simple but important technique — the substitution
method. It is the technique in integration that corresponds to the chain rule in di erentiation.

Let y = F(u) be a function of u and let u = g(x) be a function of x. Then y can be considered as a
function of x by taking the composition of F with g:

Suppose that the function g is di erentiable on an open interval I and that the function F is di
erentiable on an open interval containing the image of I under g. Then by the Chain Rule, the
composition function F g is di erentiable on I and we have
dy
F g(x) =
Definition
dxdx
d y d u
d u d x Chain Rule

0 0
F (u) g (x):
10.2. Substitution Method 233
Writing everything in terms of x, we get

d 0 0
F g(x) = F g(x) g (x)
dx
This is the chain rule expressed in an alternative way. Since integration is the reverse process of di erentiation,
we have (on the interval I) Z
0 0
+ C:
F g(x) g (x) dx = F g(x)
0
Denoting F = f , the above integration formula becomes
Z f g(x) g0(x) dx = F g(x) + C (10.2.1)

Z
2 2
Example Find (x + 1) 2x dx.
0
Explanation By choosing f and g suitably, the integrand can be written as f g(x) g (x). To apply
(10.2.1), we can take any antiderivative for f .

2 2
Solution Put f (x) = x and g(x) = x + 1. Then we have
2 2 0 (10.2.2)
f g(x) = (x + 1) and g (x) = 2x:

A primitive F for f is given by 1

F(x) = x3:
3
From these we get Z 0
g(x) g (x) dx
Z 2 2 f By (10.2.2)
(x + 1) 2x dx =
2
By (10.2.1)
= F g(x) + C
= F(x + 1) + C Definition of g

= 1 (x2 +1)3+C Definition of F

3

2 2
Remark InRthe given integral, the integrand is deliberately written as (x + 1) 2x. Usually, the
2 2
integral is written as 2x (x + 1) dx.
In order to use (10.2.1), we have to choose two functions f and g suitably. Below we describe a more
convenient way: change of variable (or substitution) — we only need to choose a suitable function g.
0
In (10.2.1), putting u = g(x) and using du = g (x) dx (see the explanation below), we get
Z Z

f g(x) g0(x) dx = f (u) du

= F(u) + C:

Explanation The notations du and dx are called di erentials. They are related by the fact that if x is
u 0
small, then x is approximately equal to g (x), that is,
0
u g (x) x:
234 Chapter 10. More Integration

0
In the limiting situation, we have du = g (x) dx.
2 d u
Alternative procedure for the above example Put u = x + 1. Then we have d x = 2x from which we
get

du = 2x dx: (10.2.3)
Therefore, we have Z
u2 du
Z 2 2 Substitution and (10.2.3)
(x + 1) 2x dx =

3
u
=
3 +C Integration Formula (1)
= (x2 + 1)3 + C Back substitution
3

FAQ Do we get the same answer if we expand the integrand first?

Answer If we expand the integrand and then integrate term by term, we get
Z Z
2 2 4 2
(x + 1) 2x dx = 2x(x + 2x + 1) dx
Z
5 3
(2x + 4x + 2x) dx

1 6 4 2
3 x + x + x + C:
The result obtained by the substitution method is
1 2 3 6 4 2
(x +1) +C = 1 (x + 3x + 3x + 1) + C
3 3
= 1 x6 + x4 + x2 +1 + C:
3 3
Although these two answers “look di erent”, they represent the same family of functions.

Remark If we change the integration to be

Z p
2
x + 1 2x dx;

we can still use the substitution method but not the method by expansion.

Steps for the Substitution Method

0
Define a new variable u = g(x), where g(x) is chosen in such a way that g (x) “is a factor” of the integrand
and that when written in terms of u, the integrand is simpler than when written in terms of x.
Transform the integral with respect to x into an integral with respect to u by replacing g(x)
0
everywhere by u and g (x) dx by du.
Integrate the resulting function of u.
Substitute back u = g(x) to express the result in terms of x.
10.2. Substitution Method 235
Z ln x dx.
Example Find
x
d u 0 0
Explanation After choosing u = g(x), we have d x = g (x) which yields du = g (x) dx. Usually, the
intermediate step is omitted. In the solution below, in the first equality in the equation array, we just
rewrite the integrand so that substitution can be applied. Usually, this step is done in the head.
Solution Put u = ln x. Then we have du = 1 dx. From these we get
x
Z x Z 1
ln ln x
x dx = x dx
= Z Substitution
u du

u2
=
2+C Integration Formula (1)
= 1 (ln x)2 + C Back substitution
2

Remark Instead of writing down the substitution u explicitly, some authors use the following alternative steps:
Z ln x dx = Z
ln x d(ln x)
x
= (ln x)2 + C:
2
Z
2 x3
Example Find x e dx.

3 0 2
Explanation If we choose g(x) = x . Then we have g (x) = 3x . Although the factor 3 doesn’t appear
1
in the integrand, we can create it by writing 1 = 3 3 .
3 2
Solution Put u = x . Then we have du = 3x dx. From these we get
3 3
Z dx = Z 1 ex 3x2 dx
x 2e x 3
= Z 1 eu du Substitution
3
= 1 eu + C Constant Multiple Rule and
3 Integration Formula (6)
= 1 3
Back substitution
ex + C
3
Z 3) dx.
Example Find sin(2x

Explanation In order to apply the substitution method, the integrands should be a product of two
factors (see (10.2.1). Note that sin(2x 3) can be written as sin(2x 3) 1. Moreover, the derivative of
(2x 3) is 2 which is a multiple of 1.
236 Chapter 10. More Integration
Solution Put u = 2x 3. Then we have du = 2 dx. From these we get

Z Z 1 sin(2x 3) 2 dx
sin(2x 3) dx =
2
Z 1
= 2 sin u du Substitution

= 1 ( cos u) Constant Multiple Rule and

2 Integration Formula (2)
1

= 2 cos(2x 3) + C Back substitution

The following rule can be obtained using the method for the above example.
Z
Linear Change of Variable Rule Suppose that f (x) dx = F(x) + C, < x < . Then for every constants a
and b with a , 0, we have
Z 1 b b

f (ax + b) dx = F(ax + b) + C; a
<x< a
a
0
Proof The given equality means that F (x) = f (x) for all x 2 ( ; ). From this we get
1 1 d
d
! = a dx F(ax + b) Constant Multiple Rule
dx a F(ax + b)
= 1 F0 (ax + b) d (ax + b) Chain Rule
a dx
= 1 F0 (ax + b) a Derivative of Polynomial
a
0
F (ax + b)
f (ax + b)for < ax + b < :

Note that < ax + b < is the same as b <x< b . Hence the required result follows.
a a

In the substitution method, most authors use u to be the new variable. Thus the method is
usually called u-substitution.
A Guide for u-substitution Treat the integrand as a product of two functions of x. Choose u to be an expression
appearing in one of the two functions such that du is the other function or a multiple of the other function. If
dx
R f (u) du using substitution.
such an expression can be found, then the integral can be written as
Remark The examples given in this section are chosen so that suitable u-substitutions can be used. If we change
the integrands slightly, there may not be any suitable u-substitution. For example, we can use u-substitution to find
R x2 R x
xe dx. However, if we change the integral to be x e dx, we can’t use u-substitution. Instead, we can use a
technique called Integration by Parts. It is the technique in integration that corresponds to the Product Rule in di
erentiation. A brief introduction to this technique will be given in a later section.

Integration is di cult. In fact, there are functions that can’t be integrated. For
example, we can’t express ex2 dx using functions that we have discussed.
 10.2. Substitution Method 237

Substitution Method for Definite Integrals

To find definite integrals using u-substitution, one method is to find antiderivatives for the
integrands and then apply the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus. Alternatively, we may change of
the definite integrals to ones in terms of u by changing the limits of integration accordingly:
gb
Z 0 Z
ab f g(x) g (x) dx = ( )f (u) du (10.2.4)
g(a )

where g is a continuous function on [a; b] and f is a function defined and continuous on an open interval I
containing the image of [a; b] under g.

Proof Let F be a function such that F0 = f on I. Note that F g is a primitive for ( f g) g0 on [a; b]. Thus
we have
b f g(x) g0(x) dx = F g(x) ab Fundamental Theorem of Calculus
i
Z
a

h
= F g(b) F g(a)

= h i g(b)
F(u) g(a)

= Z f (u) du Fundamental Theorem of Calculus

g(b)
g(a)

4
Z dx.
Example Evaluate 0 xp 2
x +9

Solution 1 Put u = x2 + 9. Then we have du = 2x dx. From these we get

Z p 1p
Z 2
x x2 + 9 dx = 2 x + 9 2x dx
1Z 1
= u 2 du
2
1 u 32
+C
= 2 3
1 2 3
2
= (x + 9)2 + C:
3
By the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, we have
4 3 4
1
p
Z0 x x2 + 9 dx = " 3 (x2 + 9) 2 #0
= 1 125 1 27
3 3
= 98
3
Solution 2 Put u = x2 + 9. Then we have du = 2x dx.

Note that when x = 4, u = 25 and when x = 0, u = 9.

238 Chapter 10. More Integration

Therefore by (10.2.4), we have Z p 2

Z0 x px2 + 9 dx = 0 2 x + 9 2x dx
4 4 1
1 Z 25 1

= 2 9 3 u 2 du
2 2 2 25
1 6 u 32 79 2
= 1 2

4 3 5
= 125 27 !

2 3 3
= 98
3

Remark Instead of writing down the substitution u explicitly, some authors use the following alternative steps:
Z dx = Z 2
d(x + 9)
04xp 2 04p 2
x +9 x +9 2
3
2
1 2(x + 9) 3 4
2
=
2 3
2
:: 6 70
: 4 5
In the rest of this section, we will apply (10.2.4) to find definite integrals using u-substitution.
Example Evaluate Z 0 1 (x + 1)ex2+2x dx.

2
Solution Put u = x + 2x. Then we have du = (2x + 2) dx.
Note that when x = 1, u = 3 and when x = 0, u = 0.
Therefore we have 1
11
2 2
x +2x
Z0 (x + 1)e +2x dx = Z 0 2ex (2x + 2) dx
Z 31
= 0 eu du
2
1 3
= " #
2 eu 0
= 1 (e 3 1)
2

Example Evaluate 02 sin x cos x dx.

Solution Put u = sin x. Then we have du = cos x dx.

Note that when x = 2 , u = 1 and when x = 0, u = 0.

10.2. Substitution Method 239

R
Therefore we have Z
02 1
sin x cos x dx = 0 u du

= " # 1
u2
2 0

= 1:
2
Remark We can also use the u-substitution u = cos x.

x2
Example Find the area of the (combined) region that lies between the x-axis and the graph of y = xe for
1 x 2.
x2 is below the y = xe
x2
Solution Note that for 1 x 0, the graph of y = xe
x-axis and for 0 x 2, the graph is above the x-axis.
The required area A is
Z Z 2 x2
A= 1(0 xe
x2
) dx + 0 (xe 0) dx: - 1 2
0
2 Figure 10.2
Put u = x . Then we have du = 2x dx.

Note that when x = 1, u = 1; when x = 0, u = 0 and when x = 2, u = 4.

Therefore we have Z1 2
e x ( 2x) dx + Z e x ( 2x) dx
0 2 A =
2 2
01 2 1
= Z 1 2 eu du + Z0 u
2 e du
0 1 4 1
= "2 e u # " u
1 + 2 e #0
0
1 1 4

= 2 2 + 2!
!
e + 2e4
1 1 1 1
= 1 1 1

2e 4
2e
Exercise 10.2
1. Perform the following integration: R
(a) R 2x(x2 + 1)9 dx (b) p dx (c) R x sin x2 dx
x4 5
x +6
(d) R sin x cos2 x dx x x 2 x
(e) 2xe 2 dx (f) e sec (e ) dx
(h) R 1 (i) R x dx
(g) R 3 dx
2
xe x +1 dx x2ex 2
sin 1 R
2 7 R x + 13
x2
x
dx (k) (x + 1)(x + 2x + 3) dx (l) x +x dx
4 2 11
(m) R
R p R (x + 2x + 3)
x 4 x e x ln(x + 1)
(e 1 3x) (e 3) dx R p
(n) x
dx 15 (o) R dx
x x x+ 1
R
(p) d 15 dx (q)
R
(x + 1) dx (r)
R px+1
dx

2x + 7 (x2 1)ex+ 1x
(s) R x(x + 1) (t) R dx
x2
 240 Chapter 10. More Integration

2. Evaluate the following definite integrals:

1 2 5 (b) 1 xex2+1 dx
x(x + 1) dx
(a) R01 2 3 R 1
02
R0 R0
(c) x cos x dx (d) 2x + 3 dx
0 e sin(ln x)
R
(e) x+1 (f) R dx
11 e dx 2 4 1 e2 1 x

(g) R 11 (x 7
1)(x 2x) dx (h) R e8 x ln x x
dx

(i) R x(1 x) dx (j) R p dx

0 0
x+1
Find the area of the region that lies between
2 p
the x-axis and the graph of y = x sin x for 0 x ;
x2
the graphs of y = x and y = xe for 0 x 1.

10.3 Integration of Rational Functions

f( x)
Recall that rational functions are functions that can be written in the form g ( x ) , where f (x) and g(x)
are poly-nomials. If the degree of f (x) is greater than or equal to that of g(x), then by long division, we
can find a polynomial p(x) and a polynomial r(x) with degree less than that of g(x) such that

f (x) = p(x) + r(x) for all x with g(x) , 0:

g(x) g(x)
Since polynomial functions can be integrated easily, to integrate f (x) , it su ces to know how to integrate r(x) .
g(x) g(x)
For the case where the degree of g(x) is 1, the rational function r(x) takes the form A (where a
0)
g(x) ax + b
which can be integrated as follows:
Z A 1
A Z
ax + b dx = ax + b dx Constant Multiple Rule

= A 1 ln jax + bj + C Integration Formula (7) &

a Linear Change of Variable Rule

Below we discuss how to integrate rational functions where the degree of the denominator is 2 and the
degree of the numerator is less than 2. Readers who want to know how to integrate rational functions where
the degree of the denominator is greater than 2 may consult any (one-variable) calculus book.

To integrate rational functions in the form

Ax + B
2
ax + bx + c
2
where A; B; a; b; c are constants and a , 0, we consider the cases where the discriminant b 4ac is
positive, zero or negative:
2
(Case 1) b 4ac > 0
In this case, the denominator can be factorized as
ax2 + bx + c = a(x x1)(x x2)
10.3. Integration of Rational Functions 241
where x1 and x2 are the distinct real numbers. Moreover, there exists constants and such that

Ax + B = + (10.3.1)
2 x x x x
ax + bx + c 1 2
for all x 2 R n fx1; x2g. Note that the right-side can be integrated easily.

n ;
x x1)
where n is a positive integer, are called partial fractions. The sum in (10.3.1) is called the
partial-fraction decomposition of the rational function on the left-side.
Example Find the partial-fraction decomposition of x .
2
x 2x 3
2
Solution Note that x 2x 3 = (x 3)(x + 1). The partial-fraction decomposition of the given rational
function takes the form x
= + : (10.3.2)
2
x 2x 3 x 3 x + 1
Multiplying both sides by (x 3)(x + 1), we get
x = (x + 1) + (x 3): (10.3.3)

To find the constants and , we can use the compare coe cient method or the substitution

method. (Compare Coe cient Method) From (10.3.3), we get

x = ( + )x + ( 3 ):
Comparing the coe cients of the x term and the constant term, we get

1= + and 0 =3

respectively. Solving, we get = 3 and = 1 .

4 4
(Substitution Method) In (10.3.3), putting x = 1 and x = 3, we get
1= 4 and 3=4

3 1
respectively. Thus we have = 4 and = 4.

Explanation and are constants such that (10.3.2) holds for all x 2 R n f 1; 3g which (by
continuity of polynomial functions) implies that (10.3.3) holds for all x 2 R. To find and ,
we substitute x = 3 and x = 1 respectively. In fact, we can substitute any two values of x
to get a system of two linear equations with knowns and .
Therefore, we have the following partial-fraction decomposition:
x 3 1
4 4
2 = + :
x 2x 3 x 3 x+1
 242 Chapter 10. More Integration
Z x+
Example Find
1

x
2 2x 3 dx.
Solution From the result of the preceding example, we get
Z x+ Z 3 1 1 1 !
dx
+4
1

x
2 2x 3 dx = 4 x 3 x+1
3 1 1 1
= 4Z dx + Z
x 3 4 x + 1 dx
3 1
= 4 ln jx 3j + ln jx + 1j + C
4
2
(Case 2) b 4ac = 0

In this case, the denominator can be factorized as

2 2
ax + bx + c = a(x x1)

where x1 is a real number. Moreover, there exists constants and such that
Ax + B = + (10.3.4)
2+
ax bx + c x x
1 (x x1 )
2

for all x 2 R n fx1g. Note that the right-side can be integrated easily.
Terminology The sum in (10.3.4) is called the partial-fraction decomposition of the rational function

on the left-side.
Example Find the partial-fraction decomposition of 2x + 3 .
2 2x + 1
x
2 2
Solution Note that x 2x + 1 = (x 1) . The partial-fraction decomposition of the given rational
function takes the form 2x + 3
= + : (10.3.5)
2 2x + 1 x 1 2
x (x 1)
Multiplying both sides by (x 1)2, we get
2x + 3 = (x 1)+ : (10.3.6)
To find the constants and , we can use any one of the following two methods:

(Compare Coe cient Method) From (10.3.6), we get

2x + 3 = x + ():

Comparing the coe cients of the x term and the constant term, we get

2= and 3=

respectively, which yields = 5.

 10.3. Integration of Rational Functions 243

(Substitution Method) In (10.3.6), putting x = 1 and x = 0, we get

5= and 3= +

respectively, which yields = 2.

Therefore, we have the following partial-fraction decomposition:

2x + 3 = 2 + 5 :

2 x 1 2
x 2x + 1 (x 1)
Z 2x + 3 dx.
Example Find
22x + 1
x
Solution From the result of the preceding example, we get 5
Z x2 2 2x + 1 dx = Z x 2 1 + (x 1)2 !
x+3
x
Z 1 Z
= 2 dx + 5 1 dx

x 1
(x 1)2
Z
= 2 ln jx 1j + 5 (x

= 2 ln jx 1j 5(x 1) 1 + C

2
(Case 3) b 4ac < 0
In this case, the denominator can be written as
2 2 2
ax + bx + c = a (x + s) + t

where s and t are real numbers and t , 0. Before discussing how to find
Z
Ax + B
dx;
ax2 + bx + c
in general, we consider the special cases where A = 0 or where Ax + B is a multiple of the
2
derivative of ax + bx + c.
(Subcase 3a) A = 0
In this case, we have
Z Ax + B Z B
2
ax + bx + c dx = a (x + s) + t
2 2 dx
= BZ 1 dx
2
a t 1x +s 2 +1
t t
1
2 Integration Formula 5 & Linear
= tan 1 x+ +C
a t t

B 1 1 s

1 t t Change of Variable Rule

= B tan 1 x + s + C

at t
244 Chapter 10. More Integration

Ax + B
ax2 + bx + c

Z 1 dx.
Example Find
2
x + 4x + 13
Explanation In the solution below, instead of applying the formula obtained above, we use a
suitable u-substitution. The idea is to choose u so that (x + 2)2 + 9 = (3u)2 + 32 (note that
1 1 1
 = 9 u2 + 1 can be integrated easily).
(3u)2 + 32
Solution Note that x2 + 4x + 5 = (x + 2)2 + 9. Thus we have
1 dx = 2 dx
Z x2 + 4 x + 13 Z (x + 2) + 9
1
= Z 1 3 du Put x + 2 = 3u.

2 2
(3u) + 3
du
Thus dx = 3 du.
= 3 Z u2 + 1

1 1
= 1 1
tan u+C

3 1

= 1 tan x+2 +C
3 3
(Subcase 3b) Ax + B = k(2ax + b) for some constant k

In this case, we have Z dx = Z dx

ax2 + bx + c ax2 + bx + c
Ax + B k(2ax + b)
2
which can be integrated using substitution u = ax + bx + c.

Z x+1 dx.
Example Find
2
2x + 4x + 5
Solution Put u = 2x2 + 4x + 5. Then we have du = (4x + 4) dx = 4(x + 1) dx. From these we get
dx = 4(x + 1) dx
Z 2x2 + 4x + 5 Z 4 2x2 + 4x + 5

x+1 1 1
= 4 Z u du
1 1
= 1 ln juj + C

4
= 1 2
ln(2x + 4x + 5) + C
4

2
Remark In the last step, the absolute value sign is omitted. This is because 2x + 4x + 5
is always positive.

(Case 3 in general) To integrate where b2 4ac < 0, we rewrite the numerator as a sum of two

terms—the first one is a multiple of the derivative of the denominator and the second one is a constant.
Z 2x + 3
Example Find
2 dx.
x + 4x + 13
 10.3. Integration of Rational Functions 245

Solution Note that d (x2 + 4x + 13) = 2x + 4. Writing 2x + 3 = (2x + 4) 1, we have

dx dx = Z dx dx:
Z x2 + 4x + 13 x2 + 4x + 13 Z x2 + 4x + 13

2x + 3 2x + 4 1
2
For the first integral, we put u = x + 4x + 13 which gives du = (2x + 4) dx and so we have

2x + 4 1
Z 2 dx = Z u du
x + 4x + 13
= ln juj + c
= ln(x2 + 4x + 13) + C:

For the second integral, by a previous result, we have

Z 1 1 x+2
2 dx = 3 tan 1 3 + C:
x + 4x + 13
Combining the two results, we get 1
Z dx = ln(x
x2 + 4x + 13
2 + 4x + 13) 3 tan 3 + C:
2x + 3 1 x+2

Remark If Ax + B = k(2ax + b), the method discussed in Subcase 3b works also for the cases
2
where b 4ac is positive or zero.
Z x 1 dx.
Example Find
2 2x 3
x
Solution
(Method 1) Put u = x2 2x 3. Then we have du = (2x 2) dx = 2(x 1) dx. From these we get
1 dx
Z x2 2x 3 dx = Z 2 x2 2x 3
x 1 2(x 1)
= 2 Z u du
1 1
= 1 ln juj + C

2
= 1 ln jx2 2x 3j + C
2
(Method 2) Note that x2 2x 3 = (x 3)(x + 1). The partial-fraction decomposition of the integrand takes the

form x 1
= + :
2x 3 x 3 x+1 x2
Multiplying both sides by (x 3)(x + 1), we get
x 1 = (x + 1) + (x 3):

Putting x = 1 and x = 3, we get

2= 4 and 2=4
246 Chapter 10. More Integration

respectively which yields = = 1 . Therefore we have

2 1 !
Z x
2
2x
1
3 dx = Z 2 x 3 +2 x + 1 dx
x 1 1 1
= 2 ln jx 3j + ln jx + 1j +C
1
2
Remark Since ln x 2x 3 = ln x 3 x + 1 = ln x 3 + ln x 1 , the answers obtained in the above two

j j
j j jj j j j
solutions are the same. j

10.4 Integration by Parts

The technique in integration that corresponds to the product rule in di erentiation is called
integration by parts. In this section, we give a brief discussion on this technique. Readers who want
to know how to apply this technique to more examples may consult (one variable) calculus books.

Let f and g be functions that are di erentiable on an open interval (a; b). By the product rule, we have

d f (x)g(x) = f 0(x)g(x) + f (x)g0(x); a<x<b

dx
which, written in terms of integration, becomes
Z 0 Z f (x)g0(x) dx = f (x)g(x); a < x < b:
f (x)g(x) dx +

If one of the two integrals on the left side is easy to find, then we can find the other one. By symmetry, we may
assume that the first integral is easy to find, then in this case, we can find the second integral by the following:
Z Z
0 0
f (x)g (x) dx = f (x)g(x) f (x)g(x) dx (10.4.1)

Remark For simplicity, in the above formula, the interval under consideration is omitted.

Below, we give an example to illustrate how to apply (10.4.1).

x
Z x ex dx.
Example Find
Explanation note that f xgx x= x

In the calculation below, x R ) () d Re d

0( is easy xto find.
Solution Put f (x) = x and put g(x) = e 0 0
. Then we have f (x) = 1 and g (x) = e . From these we get
Z x ex dx = Z f (x)g0(x) dx Substitution

= f (x)g(x) Z f 0(x)g(x) dx By (10.4.1)

= x ex Z Back substitution
ex dx

= x ex ex + C
10.4. Integration by Parts 247

x x
Remark There are infinitely many way to choose g(x); we can add any constant to e . If we take g(x) = e +
1, then we get
Z Z f (x)g0(x) dx
x ex dx =
= f (x)g(x) Z f 0(x)g(x) dx

x Z
= x (e + 1) x
(e + 1) dx

x x
= x (e + 1) (e + x) + C
= x ex ex + C
0 0
In (10.4.1), by putting u = f (x) and v = g(x) so that du = f (x) dx and dv = g (x) dx, we get

Z Z (10.4.2)
u dv = uv v du

In applying (10.4.2), we have to choose suitable u and dv. From the chosen dv, we have to find
x
v. This is done by integration. For example, suppose that dv = e dx, which means that
dv x
d x=e :
Integrating, we get
x
= e + C:
To apply the formula, we only need to take a suitable v (see the solution and the remark of the
preceding example). Below we redo the example using integration by part, that is, using (10.4.2).
Z
Example Find x ex dx.
Solution Put u = x and dv = ex dx. Then we have du = dx and we can take v = ex. From these we get
Z x ex dx = Z Substitution
u dv
= uv Z Integration by parts
v du
= x ex Z Back substitution
ex dx

= x ex x
e +C

A Guide for Integration by Parts Treat the integrand as a product of two functions. Choose u to be
one of the two functions such that
the other function can be integrated easily—choose dv = (the other function) dx;

R R

the new integral v du is easier to find than the original integral u dv.
Z

Example Find x cos x dx.

Explanation The integrand is a product of two functions. There are two options for u and dv.
248 Chapter 10. More Integration
Put u = x and dv = cos x dx. Then we have du = dx and we can take v = sin x. Note that v du =

Rsin x dx is easy to find (the method works). 1 R

Put u cos x and dv x dx. Then we have du sin x dx and we can take v x . Note that
= = = = 2

R R 1 x2 sin x dx which is even more complicated than the original integral.

v du = 2

Solution Put u = x and dv = cos x dx. Then we have du = dx and we can take v = sin x. From these we get
Z x cos x dx = x sin x Z Integration by parts
sin x dx

= x sin x + cos x + C
Z
Example Find ln x dx.

Explanation The integrand can be written as ln x 1, a product of two functions. To choose u and dv,
there is only one plausible way, namely u = ln x and dv = dx. Readers may try to see what happens
if we choose u = 1 and dv = ln x dx.
Solution Put u = ln x and dv = dx. Then we have du = 1 dx and we can take v = x. From these we get
Z Z x
ln x dx = 1
ln x x x x dx Integration by parts
= x ln x Z 1 dx

= x ln x x + C

10.5 More Applications of Definite Integrals

In economics, we have the concepts of consumers’ surplus and producers’ surplus. These two
concepts are defined in terms of definite integrals.

Consumers’ and Producers’ Surplus

Let p = D(q) and p = S (q) be respectively the demand and supply equations for a certain product. The quantity
q0 at which D(q) = S (q) is called the equilibrium quantity and the corresponding price p0 is called the
equilibrium price.

demand curve
p = D(q) supply curve
p = S (q)
p0

q0

Figure 10.3
10.5. More Applications of Definite Integrals 249

Note that (q0; p0) is the intersection point of the demand curve and the supply curve.
The consumers’ surplus (denoted by CS ) and producers’ surplus (denoted by PS ) under
market equilibrium are defined as follows:
Z Z
q0 q0
CS = [D(q) p0] dq; PS = [p0 S (q)] dq:
0
0

CS

PS

Figure 10.4(a) Figure 10.4(b)

Example Find the consumers’ surplus and producers’ surplus if the demand and supply equations are
p = D(q) = 20 q p = S (q) = 2 + q2
; :
20 5000
Solution First we find the intersection point (q0; p0) of the demand curve p = D(q) and the supply
curve p = S (q). Solving D(q) = S (q) (noting that q > 0)
= 2+ (q > 0)
q
20
2 q
20 5000
= 0 (q > 0)
q + q 18
2

5000 20 = 0 (q > 0)
2
q + 250q 90000
= 0 (q > 0)
(q 200)(q + 450)

we get q0 = 200 and so p0 = D(200) = 10.

The consumers’ surplus is Z
200

CS = 0 [D(q) 10] dq
Z 200 q
= 20 10 dq
0 20
= Z 0 10 20 dq
200 q
= " 10q 40 #0
2 200
q

1000:
250 Chapter 10. More Integration

The producers’ surplus is 200

Z
PS = 0 [10 S (q)] dq !# dq
2 +
= Z0 200 "10 5000
2
q
200
q2
= Z 8 !
0 5000 dq
" # 200
= 8q q3
15000 0

= 3200:
3

Probability
To consider probabilities, the simplest method is to count, that is, to do addition. This works for the
case where the sample space is finite. However, if the sample space is infinite, we can’t count. To
define probabilities, we use definite integration which can be considered as a generalization of addition.
Below we give a very brief introduction to probabilities of events for continuous random variables.

Definition A variable whose values depend on the outcome of a random process is called a random variable.

Example
Suppose a die is rolled and X1 is the number that turns up. Then X1 is a random variable with
values in f1; 2; 3; 4; 5; 6g.
The life (in months) of a certain computer part is a random variable X2 with values in [0; 1).
Note that the values that X1 can take are discrete whereas X2 can take any value in the interval [0;
1). For this we say that X1 is a discrete random variable and X2 a continuous random variable.

Definition Let X be a discrete random variable with values in fx1; x2; : : : ; xng. A probability function of X is a

function f with domain fx1; x2; : : : ; xng such that

0 f (xi) for all i = 1; : : : ; n;
f (x1) + + f (xn) = 1.

Example Suppose a die is rolled and X is the number that turns up. If the die is fair, then the probability
1
of getting any one of the six numbers is 6 . Thus we have the following probability function of X:

f (i) = 1 for 1 i 6:
6
More generally, if the die is not fair, then the probability function g of X is given by

g(i) = wi for 1 i 6;

where 0 < wi < 1 and w1 + + w6 = 1.

10.5. More Applications of Definite Integrals 251

From the probability function g, we can find (for example) the probability of getting an odd number:
X

P(X is odd) = w1 + w3 + w5 = g(i);

i is odd

where (X is odd) denotes the event that the number X that turns up is odd and P(X is odd) denotes
the probability of the event (X is odd).

Probabilities of Events for Discrete Random Variables Suppose that X is a discrete random
variable with values in the set fx1; : : : ; xng and that f is a probability function of X.
An event for X is a subset of fx1; : : : ; xng.
The probability of an event E, denoted by P(E), is the number given by
X
P(E) = f (xi):
xi2E

For continuous random variable, instead of taking sums, we consider integration.

Definition Let X be a continuous random variable with values in [a; 1). A probability function of X is
a function f with domain [a; 1) such that
0 f (x) for all x 2 [a; 1);
Z1
f (x) dx = 1.
a

1
Remark f (x) dx is called an improper integral and is defined by
a
Z Z
a 1 ( )d R!1 a
R
f x x = lim f (x) dx
provided that the limit exists. For example,

R
11
Z dx = lim
R!1
Z1 x 2
R d
x
1 x2
= lim x1
R!1 " 1 #1
= lim R1 ( 1)
R!1

= 1:

Probabilities of Events for Continuous Random Variables Suppose that X is a continuous random
variable with values in the interval [a; 1) and that f is a probability function of X.
An event for X is a “nice” subset of [a; 1), where “nice” means that the integral of f over that
subset “can be found”. In most cases, we consider events that are intervals contained in [a;
1); such events are represented by ( X ), where a < 1.
252 Chapter 10. More Integration

The probability of an event ( < X < ), denoted by P( < X < ), is the number given by
Z
P( < X < ) = f (x) dx:

Remark It doesn’t matter whether we include the endpoints and . For a continuous random variable
X, the probability that X equals a specific value is 0.
Example The life (in months) of a certain computer part has probability function given by

x
1
18 ;x 2 [0; 1):
f (x) = 18 e

1
between 1 year and 1 2 years;
at most 6 months;
more than 2 years.

Explanation In this example, the random variable X is the life of a computer part. Note that X has
values in [0; 1). The given function f is a probability function for X. This can be checked as follows:
Z 1 Z 1
0 f (x) dx = 0 18 e 18 dx
1 x

R x
= lim Z 1 x

18
R!1 0 e dR
18
1 1 x
= lim 4 e 18 5
1
R!1 2 18 18 30
= lim 6 e 18R + 1 7

R!1

= 1:
Solution
(1) The given event is (12 < X < 18). The probability of the event is
x
P(12<X<18) = Z 18 1 e dx
18
12 18
x 18
= h e 18 i 12 2
1

= e +e 3

0:146:

(2) The given event is (X 6). The probability of the event is the same as that of (0 < X < 6).
6 x
P(0<X<6) = Z 1 e dx
0 18
18
= h e 181i 0
x 6
3
= 1 e

0:283:
10.5. More Applications of Definite Integrals 253

(3) The given event is (X > 24), that is, (24 < X < 1). The probability of the event is
e
P(24<X<1) = Z 24 18 18 dx
1 1 x

R x
= lim Z 1 x

e 1
8
d
R!1 24 18
x R
= lim i
R!1 h e 18
24
R!1 4
e R

= lim e 3 18

= e 4
3

0:264:
254 Chapter 10. More Integration
Appendix A

Answers

Exercise 0.1
1. (a) (b) y2z3 (c) y12 (d) y2
x 3
x x8 8x4
Exercise 0.2
2 2 2 2 2
1. (a) 4x + 12x + 9 (b) 9x 6xy + y (c) x 9y
(d) 2
x + 7xy + 12y
2 (e) 4x p +9 (f) x 25
12 x
2. (a) (x 3)(x 4) (b) (x + 3)(x 2) (c) 2
(x + 4)
(d) (3x + 1)(3x + 2) (e) (3x 1)2 (f) 5(x + 1)(x 1)
(g) 3(x 3)2 (h) 2(x 2)(x 4)
3. (a) (x + 2) (b) (x + 4)
(x 4) (x + 2)
(c) 1 (d) 1
2(x + 1)2 x(x + h)
Exercise 0.3 6 b2 abc

1. (a) (b) 2 (c) (d)

5 a b b a
Exercise 0.4 2 5

1. (a) 0; 1 (b) 1; (c) 3;

3 4
p p
(d) 2 (e) no solution (f) 0; 7 37
2
2; 6
14

Exercise 0.5
1. (a) (x 1)(x 3)(x + 4) (b) (x 1)(x 3)(2x + 1)
(c) (x 2 (d) (x 2 4x + 7)
1) (2x + 3) 1)(x
3 p
2. (a) ;1;5 (b) 1; 1 5 (c) 3
2 2
Exercise 0.6 17 6 p

1. (a) x (b) x 3
9 2 p3
(c) x>1 (d) x< 3
2
256 Appendix A. Answers
Exercise 0.7

1. (a) 3x + 2y = 0 (b) 2x y 11 = 0 (c) 3x + y 7 = 0

(d) 2x y + 8 = 0 (e) 3x y+1=0 (f) y + 1 = 0
Exercise 0.8 p p
(b) (d) 5
1. (a) 5 65 (c) 13 5 p
p
2. (a) r= 3 C = (0;2) (b) r=3 C=( 2; 1) (c) r= 3 C=( 1; 1 )
1 2 2 2
3. (a) 2 (b) (c)
p2 p5
Exercise 0.9
1. (a) x-intercepts: ( 6; 0); (2; 0), y-intercept: (0; 12), vertex: ( 2; 16)
(b) p ; 0), y-intercept: (0; 7), vertex: (3; 2)
x-intercepts: (3 2
1 13
no x-intercept, y-intercept: (0; 7), vertex: ( 2; 2)

Exercise 0.10
8 cm 6 cm

Exercise 1.1
(a) f2; 3; 5; 7g
f2; 4; 6; 8; 10g
f2g
f1; 2; 3; 4; 5; 6; 7; 8; 9; 10; 11; 13; 17; 19g
f1; 2; 3; 4; 5; 6; 7; 8; 9; 10; 12; 14; 16; 18g
f2; 3; 4; 5; 6; 7; 8; 10; 11; 12; 13; 14; 16; 17; 18; 19g
f1; 2; 3; 4; 5; 6; 7; 8; 9; 10; 11; 12; 13; 14; 16; 17; 18; 19g
f2g
f2; 4; 6; 8; 10g
f2; 3; 4; 5; 6; 7; 8; 10; 12; 14; 16; 18g
f1; 4; 6; 8; 9; 10g
f12; 14; 15; 16; 18g
2. (a) False (b) False (c) True
Exercise 1.2 p p p

1. (a) f 2 ;
2g (b) f 2g (c) ;
2. (a) [3; 5] (b) [1; 9) (c) (1; 5)
(d) f5g (e) f1g (f) [3; 5) [ (5; 9)
(g) f5g (h) [1; 1) (i) f5g
Exercise 1.3 7 29

1. (a) x (b) x <

5 3
(c) x>2 (d) x 7 or x 5
2 11
3 p p
(e) 1<x<3 (f) x < 41 or x > 3 + 41
4 4
(g) no solution (h) x 3 or x > 4
2

7<x<4
 257

2. (a) x(x + 5)(2x 3) (b) (x 1)(x + 1)(2x + 3)

(c) (x 2)(x2 + x + 1) (d) x(x 5)(x 1)(x + 3)
(e) (x 2)(x + 1)(x 1)2 (f) (x 2
1) (x + x + 2)
2

3. (a) 3 < x < 9 or x > 4 (b) x 3

2 5 3
(c) x < 2 or 1 < x < 3 (d) 3 x or x 2
2
(e) x>3 (f) x 1
(g) x < 4 or 2 < x < 1 or x > 3 (h) 5 x 3
3 2
Exercise 2.1 3 6 a 4

1. (a) (b) (c)

8 65 a2 + 2a + 5
p 5 2 5 a 5 4
a a
(d) (e) (f)
a+4 a4 + 4 a2 + 4 5
2. (a) 1 (b) 2 (c) 3
p
2
p 3 4 2

(d) 1 1 +
a
(e) (a2 + 1)jaj
a a2 + 2
3. (a) 2 2 3a 3b + 4 (b) 1+h
a + 2ab + b
(c) 2a 3 + h
Exercise 2.2 6 p p
Rnf ;
g
1. (a) R (b) R n f 5 g (c) 5 5
(d) R n f 1; 3g (e) ( 3 ; 1) (f) [ 3; 1) n f 1 g
2 2
(g) [ 5; 1) n f 1; 1g (h) ( ; 5)[(2;1)
2 R n f0g
2. (a) [ 5;1) (b) [ 4;1) (c) 1

(d) R n f3g 1 (e) (0; 1) (f) ( ; 5 ][(0;1)

(g) ( ; ][(0;1)
4
3. A(w) = 14w w,
2 dom = (0; 14), range = (0; 49]
Exercise 2.3
p3
2. a = 1, b = 1, c = 6
p3

2 2
1. p 2; 0), ( p 2 ; 0), y-intercept: 0; , (0;
x-intercept: (
3. (a) y-intercept: (0; 5), no x-intercept
4. (a) (2; 1), 2 ; 11 (b) (2; 1), 2 ;5
5 3
3

(c) f(2; 1), (25;1 ( 2; 1), ( 2; 1)g

)
,
p
a= 3

Exercise 2.4
(a) (b)
4
5
2 2 4 6 8 10

1 2 3 4
-5

-10
-2
258 Appendix A. Answers

10
(c) (d)
8
3
2
6
1
4
-2 -1 1 2
2

-1
-2 -1 1 2 3
-2

-2 -1 1 2
(f)
(e) 3
2
-1
1
-2
-3 -2 -1 1 2 3
-3
-1
-2
-4
-3
2
2
(h)
(g)
1 1
-1 1 2 3 4 5 6
-2 -1 1 2

-2
-1
-3
-2 -4
1
2 (j)
(i)
1 0.8
-4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 0.6
0.4
-1 0.2
-2 -1 -0.5 0.5 1
-3
-4
4
(k)
3

0.5 1 1.5 2

5
(a) (b)
1.5 4

1 3

0.5 2

-1.5 -1 -0.5 0.5 1 1.5 1

-2 -1 1 2 3
-0.5
-1
-1
-1.5 -2
-2
6
1
(c) (d)
5 0.75
0.5
4
0.25
3 0.5 1 1.5 2

-0.25
2
-0.5
1 -0.75
-1
-2 -1 1 2
 259

(e) 2 (f) 2
1.5 1
1 -2 -1 1 2 3 4
0.5
-1.5-1-0.5 0.5 1 1.5 -1
-2
-0.5 -3
-1
-4
-1.5
-2 -5

4 3
(g) 3.5
(h 2.5
3 ) 2
2.5
1.5
2
1.5 1
1 0.5
0.5
-1.5-1-0.5 0.5 1 1.5 2
-2-1 1 2

(i) 1.5 1.5

1
1 (j) 0.5
0.5
0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
1 -0.50.5 1 1.5 2
0.5 -0.5
-1
1
1

(k) 0.5

-1.5-1-0.5 0.5 1 1.5 (l) -2-1.5-1-0.5 0.5 1 1.5

0.5
1 -1
1.5
-2
2
2.5
-3
3

p p p p
1 13 1 13 1+ 13 1+ 13
3. ; ; ;
2 6 2 6
(a) 1 second
9
5 meters
5. (a) R = 1600000 + 20000n 500n2, domain = f0; 1; 2; 3; : : : ; 80g
(b) n = 20, $1800000
Exercise 2.5

1. (a) 5 (b) 3 (c) 2

x + 2x + 2
(d) x +2
2 (e) 4
a + 2a + 2
2 (f) a+2
1
2. (a) 2 (b) f (x) = x + 1, g(x) = x
1
f (x) = x + 1, g(x) = x 2
Exercise 2.6

1. (a) Yes (b) No

1
2. (a) f 1(x) =
x+2
(b) f (x) = (x 3) 5
1

3 r
(c) f 1
(x) = ( 128 (d) f
1(x) =
x
2

1)7 x3 + 1
3

Exercise 2.7 p

1. (a) f 33 g 2g (b) f 1; 2g (c) f0g

5 2
(d) R n f2; (e) f2g (f) f5g
(g) ; (h) f4g (i) f1; 2g
 260 Appendix A. Answers
2. (a) P(q) = 8q q2 12

q = 2; 6
(a) 106 ft
51 mph
The sides are 3; 4; 5

Exercise 3.1
Same result, provided that the lengths tend to zero.
(a) Same result even for arbitrary point.
Same result, provided that the lengths tend to zero.

Exercise 3.2
1. (a) 0 (b) 7
(c) 3 (d) 1, does not exist
2
(e) 0 (f) Does not exist.
2. (a) (i) $51007.53 (ii) $51009.22
n
(b) $50000 1 + 1
1
50n
(c) Limit exists, approximately $51010.07 (exact value is 50000e 50 ).
3. (a) Limit exists, approximately 2:718 (exact value is e).
(b) Limit exists, approximately 7:389 (exact value is e ).
2

(c) The limit is 1.

4. (a) Limit exists, the value is nonnegative.
Exercise 3.3

1. (a) 0 (b) 15
(c) 0 (d) 1, does not exist
(e) 0 (f) 1
(g) 1, does not exist (h) 1
(i) 1 (j) Does not exist
2. (a) 0 (b) The concentration will drop to 0 in the long run.
(a) 35000
36500
36000
35500
35000
34500

20 40 60 80 100

The population decreases from initial population 37500 to 35000.

4. (a) 0 (b) 1 (c) 0
2
Exercise 3.4

1. (a) 0 (b) 1, does not exist.

(c) , does not exist. (d) Does not exist.
(e) , does not exist. (f) 2
 261

Exercise 3.5
1. (a) 6 (b) 216 (c) 25
49
(d) 1 (e) 1 (f) 4

p2 8 3
(g) 0 (h) 6 (i) 1, does not exist.
7
(j) 0 (k) 1 (l) 3
4
2. (a) 4 (b) 3x
2

(c) 1 (d) 1
2 px
x
2
Exercise 3.6
(a) 1
0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

1 2 3 4 5

2
(a) [0; 1) n f1g
6
(c) Yes, define f (1) = 6.
(a) R f 0g
Does not exist.
No
(a)1 < x < 2 or x > 2
(a) p(1) and p(2) have opposite signs
Closer to one, the solution lies between 1 and 1:5

Exercise 4.1
1. (a) 4x (b) 3x2 3
(c) 3 (d) 2
4x
x3
Exercise 4.2

1. (a) 0 (b) 18x + 3

8 (c) 2x + 5
(d) 2x 1 (e) 28 24x (f) 2 2
6x(x + 5)
(g) 92x
5 (h) x
2 (i) 2
(x + 1)2
1 + 1x
1
(j) 2
2
2. (a) 1 (b) 11 (c) 1
1 8
(d) 8 (e) 18 (f) 6
2
(g) 10
3. (a) 72 (b) y = 1 (c) ( 1; 1); (0; 2); (1; 1)
262 Appendix A. Answers
4. (a) x cos x + sin x (b) cos x sin x

x+1 (x + 1)2
2x (x2 + 1) cos x
(c) 2 (d) x(x + 2) cos x + 2(x + 1) sin x
sin x sin x
5. (c) n 1 d f (x)
n f (x)
dx
6. (a) 2
2(3x + 10x)(x + 5x
3 2 2) (b) 6x(x + 5)
2 2

Exercise 4.3 3 1
x x
1 3
1. (a) 6x 6 (b) 4 (c) 2 2

(d) 6x
4
4x
3 (e) 3
6x(5x + 2) 4 4

2. (a) 50 (b) 22 (c) 18

3. (a) a0, a1 (b) ann(n 1) 1, 0

Exercise 5.1

1. (a) 5 (b) [ 1; 1] p p
[4 ;1) 3 13 3+ 13

(c) ( ; 7], [3; 1) (d) ( ; ], [ ; 1)

2 2
(e) [ 2; 1], [2; 1) (f) ( ; 2], [2; 1)
2. (a) 7 (local maximizer)
2 3
(b) 0 (neither), (local minimizer)
2
(c) 3 (local maximizer), 0 (neither), 3 (local minimizer)
(d) 2 (local maximizer), 0 (local minimizer)
3. (a) none (b) (2; 1)
4. (c) 03; 5 ,
4 (1; 1) 3 (d) (0; 1)

(a) 2 (b)
40 10
5. (a) (b)
20
-1 1 2 3
-2 2 4 6 -10
-20 -20
20 10
(c) (d)
15 5

10
5 -2 -1 1 2
-5
-3 -2 -1 1 2 3

Exercise 5.2

1. (a) minimum: 10, maximum: 82

(b) minimum: 0, maximum: 58
(c) minimum: 4, maximum: 17
16
2. 25, 25
3. x = 6, y = 3

4. 10 units by 10 units
 263

100 m by 150 m
p p
(2 + 2 6 ) in: by (3 + 3 6 ) in:
3
4 s; maximum height = 14 ft:
1 1
4 month; maximum height = 4 meter
9. Maximum profit: $30000, produce 1500 pieces, price for each piece: $200.
Exercise 6.1

1. (a) 0 (b) 6
1
4

Exercise 6.2
1. (a) x2 , yes (b) x, yes (c) x6 , yes
2 6 3

(e) px, (f) 3 x , contained in [0; 1)

2
(d) 2 contained in (0; 1)
2

x + x, yes
2. x5 (a) 1 (b) 242 (c) 243 (d) 1701
5 5 5 5 5

Exercise 6.3
1. (a) x6 + C p
3
3x 8 x + C
2
(d) 1
x3 x2 + 3x + C
(c) 1 8 3 2 + 2x + C
x x 3

8 2 3 3
(e) 4 +C (f) 3 x4 + 17 x3 13 x2 + 2x + C
p 4 3 2
1 3 x
(g) 5 3 (h) x 1 + C
5 x 2x + 9x + C x
2. (a) 81 (b) 0 (c) 30 (d) 42
2 5
(e) 84 (f) 22 p
(g) 18 2 12 (h) 12
5 5
Exercise 6.4 81 11 (c) 37 (d) 16

1. (a) (b)
4 3 2 3
2. (a) 1 (b) 125 (c) 37 (d) 64
6 3 12
1 3 2
3x +x+ 3
4. 1 x4 1 x3 x + 1x+1
2
12 6 12
3375
liters
2

Exercise 7.1
1. (a) 3 (b) 7 (c) 7 (d) 25
2 6 4 6
2. (a) 30 (b) 135 (c) 450 (d) 1260
264 Appendix A. Answers
Exercise 7.2 (b) 1 (c) p 3
p3

1. (a) 2 2

(d) 1 (e) 1 (f) 1

p2 p2
2. (a) 1 (b) 2
Exercise 7.3

1. (a) 5 sin x 2 (b) 2 sec x

2

(c) cos x 2x 2
(d) x cos x + 2x sin x
(e) 2 sin x cos x (f) sin x sec2 x
(g) cos x
2
sin x
2 (h) (x3 + 1) sin x 3x2 cos x
(x3 + 1)2
(i) 2(x + cos x)(1 sin x) (j) 2(cos2 x sin x)
2

2. (a) 2 cos x sin x, 3 cos x sin x, 4 cos x sin x

2 3

(b) n cos x sin x

n1

3. (a) 2 cos 2x, 2 sin 2x

(b) 3 cos 3x, 3 sin 3x
(c) n cos nx, n sin nx
4. (a) a cos(ax + b), a sin(ax + b)
(b) 2
a sin(ax + b),
2
a cos(ax + b)
(c) f
(n) n
(x) = < ( 1) j 21 a cos(ax + b) if n = 4i + j; j = 1; 3;
8 ( 2
1) 2j an sin(ax + b) if n = 4i + j; j = 2; 4:
( 1) an cos(ax + b) if n = 4i + j; j = 2; 4:
:

8 2

g(n)(x) = ( 1) a n sin(ax + b) if n = 4i + j; j = 1; 3;
>

>
>
j+1
j
<

>
Exercise 8.1 :

7 4
1. (a) (b)
6

5 3

4 2

2 1

-2 -1 1 2
-3 -2 -1 1 2 3
5 8
(c) (d)
4 7
6
3 5
2 4

1 3
2
-3 -2 -1 1 2 1

-1 -4 -2 2 4
-2

red= 1st, green=2nd, blue=3rd

 265

2. (a) domain = R, range = (1; 1)

(b) domain = R, range = (0; 1) ; 1)[(0;1)
(c) domain = R n f0g, range = (
3. (a) 1; 3 (b) 2 (c) no solution (d) 0; 2

Exercise 8.2 1

1. (a) log9 81 = 2 (b) 1

log4 2 = 2 log2 2 = 1
3
3
2. (a) 2 =8 (b) 9 2 = 27 0
e =1
3. (a) 2
1
9
(a) (b)
2 4
1.5
3
1
2
0.5
1
20 40 60 80 100
20 40 60 80 100
-0.5 1
-1
2

(c) (d)
4 2
3 1
2 20 40 60 80 100
1 -1
-1 20 40 60 80 100 -2
-3
-2 -4
4
(e)
4
(f)
3 3
2 2
1 1
-100 -50 -1 50 100 20 40 60 80 100

-1
-2 -2

(g)
2
1.5
1
0.5
-0.5 20 40 60 80 100

-1

5. (a) domain = R, range = (1; 1)

(b) domain = R, range = [1; 1)
(c) domain = R f 0g, range = R
(d) domain = (0; 1), range = R
(e) domain = 1 ; , range = R
2 1;
(f) domain = ( 2) [ (2; 1), range = R
6. (a) f4g (b) f32g (c) f3g
(d) f1; 2g (e) f3g (f) f7g
7. (a) 2:09 (b) 8:64 (c) 14
2:69 10
(d) 1:02 (e) 4:71 (f) 1:99
8. (a) 30:81 years (b) 30:55 years (c) 30:50 years (d) 30:47 years
266 Appendix A. Answers

Exercise 8.3
1. (a) 6x2 4ex (b) 1
1 x 2
(c) ex + (d) 2x +
x1 1 x
x
(e) e + p (f)
2 x 2x
(g) ex(sin x + cos x) (h) cos x sin x ln x
x
(i) (x + 1)2ex (j) x + 1 + 2x ln x
x
(k) (sin x + cos x)ex sec2 x (l) sin x x ln x cos x
x sin2 x
(m) (8 x )e
3 x (n) 3x(x + 2x + 2) ln x x3
2
3x2 6x + 2
x(ln x)2
2. (a) 1 (b) 1
2
3. (a) 2 x (b) 1 2
e
2
x x3
Exercise 9.1 2

11 5
1. (a) 12x (2x + 5) (3x + 5) (b)
4x p 9 + 4x
(c) (d) 5 sin 5x
3 p 4x2 + 5
(e) 6 cos(6x 7) (f) 4 sin x cos x
3

(g) 30 cos4(6x 7) sin(6x 7) (h) 12x cos 3x + 4 sin 3x

(i) 24x2 sec2(8x3 + 1) (j) sec2 x tan x
x+2 (x + 2)2
(k) 6e3x + 4 (l) (1 + 2x )e
2 x2

(m) 2x x2 (n) 1
ex x
(o) 2 (p) 2x
5 2x 1 x2
(q) 1 (r) 3 + 3 ln x
2x + 11 2

(s) 1 (t) ex + 2xex ln x

2

x ln x x
(u) (v) x
e sec (e )
2 x
etan x sec2 x
(w) 5e5x cos(e5x) (x) 5e
sin 5x
cos 5x
(y) 8x sin[ln(4x2 + 9)] (z) 8x tan(4x + 9)
2
2
4x + 9
x2+2
(a) 2 x ln 2
x
x (1 + ln x)
cos x 1 2
(c) (sin x) cos x (sin x)cos x+1 ln(sin x)
16x(2x + 1)(3x + 4) + 15(2x + 1)(3x + 4)4 + 2(3x + 4)5
5

(x2 + 7)9(x2 + 7)8(x2 + 7)8

(a) 0:4 + 0:002x ppm/thousand
25 thousand/year
30:8 ppm/year
(a) 24
 267

Exercise 9.2
2 2
(a) 2x y
2 x 2y 2x y
2xy + 1 (d) sin y
4 3
5x + 4y 2y + x cos y
3y2(5y2 4x) (f) 2x
cos(x + y) + y sin x cos x
cos(x + y) ey 2y
y
(g) y(3x2 ln y) 1 (x + y)(e + y cos x) (x + y)
y
(xe + sin x) 1
x + 2y2
2. (a) 1 (b) 1 1
8 5
(d) 1 (e) 1 0
3
Decrease at the rate of 7:5 units per second.
3
Increase at the rate of 1280 cm per minute.
2

5. p5 m=s

Exercise 9.3
0.5
(a) 1 (b)
0.8 0.25
-1 1 2 3 4
0.6
-0.25
0.4 -0.5
-0.75
0.2
-1
-2 -1 1 2 -1.25
-1.5

4
(c) (d)
3.5 0.3
3 0.2
2.5 0.1
2
-0.1 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
1.5
1
0.5 -0.2
1 2 3 4 5 1
(f)
10
(e)
0.8
5
0.6
-10 -5 5 10
0.4

-5 0.2
-10
-6 -4 -2 2 4 6
1
(g) 1
(h)
0.5 0.8

-1 -0.5 0.5 1 0.6

0.4
-0.5 0.2
-1
-4 -2 2 4

Exercise 9.4

1. p
2e 1
2. q = 20, price = 36:79, revenue = 735:76
3. (a) t = 12, N=50
(b) t = 1, N 81
268 Appendix A. Answers

(a) 1 km from A
at A
3
5. 2p2 m
6.
3

Exercise 10.1
1. (a) 3 tan x + C (b) x
2e + sin x + C
(c) 2x + 3 ln jxj + C (d) x 1 + 2 ln jxj + C
x
(a) 1 (b) 2e 2
e
(c) 1 1
ln 4 (d) ln 4 1
e e4
3. (a) 2
 (b) 1 + ln 2

Exercise 10.2
1. (a) 101 (x + 1)
2 10
+ C (b) 2 (x5 + 6) 3 + C
2
15
1 2 1 3
2 cos x + C 3 cos x + C
x x
e 2 +C tan(e ) + C
(g) 1 (h) 1 1
+C
2e
x +1
2
+C 3 ex 3
(i) 1
ln(x + 1) + C
2 (j) cos 1 + C
2 x
(k) 1 (x2 + 2x + 3)8 + C (l) 1 +C
16 40(x4 + 2x2 + 3)10
(m) 1
(e
x 5
3x) + C (n) 2e p x + C
5
1
(o) (ln jx + 1j) + C
2 1
2 2 ln j2x + 7j + C
(q) 1 (x + 1)16 + C 2 p
16
3 (x 2) x + 1 + C
(s) 1 (x + 1)17 1 (x 16 x+
17
+1) +C (t) e 1x + C
16
2. (a) 21 (b) 1 (e2 e) (c) 1 sin 1
4 2 3
(d) 1 (ln 7 ln 3) (e) e 1 (f) 2
2
(h) ln 2 (i) 1
(g) 122
5 72
(j) 40
3
3. (a) 1 (b) 1 (e 2)
2
Appendix B

Supplementary Notes

B.1 Mathematical Induction

Consider the following formula n(n + 1)
1+2+3+ +n= : (B.1.1)
2
Note that (B.1.1) involves n (positive integer). If we denote the equality by P(n), then the statement
“P(n) is true for all positive integers n” means that “P(1) is true, P(2) is true, P(3) is true, and so on”.
One way to proof this is to use mathematical induction.

Principle of Mathematical Induction Let P(n) be a statement involving a positive integer variable n.
Suppose that the following two conditions hold:
(I) P(1) is true;
P(k + 1) is true whenever P(k) is true. Then

P(n) is true for all positive integers n.

The above principle is easy to understand because (I) together with (II) implies that P(2) is true
which in turn together with (II) implies that P(3) is true, and so on. To prove the principle rigorously,
we have to use a property of natural numbers, namely, the well ordering property. This concept is
discussed in more advanced books on sets.

Example Use mathematical induction to show that (B.1.1) is true for all positive integers n.

Proof Denote (B.1.1) by P(n).

(I) When n = 1, we have
L:S: = 1 and R:S: = (1)(2) = 1:
2
Therefore P(1) is true.
(II) Suppose that P(k) is true, that is,
1 + 2 + 3 + + k = k(k + 1) : (B.1.2)
2
 270 Appendix B. Supplementary Notes
Then we have

1 + 2 + 3 + + k + (k + 1) = k(k + 1) + (k + 1) By (B.1.2)
2
= k(k + 1) + 2(k + 1)
2
= (k + 1)(k + 2)
2
= (k + 1)[(k + 1) + 1]
2
that is, P(k + 1) is true.
Thus by the Principle of Mathematical Induction, P(n) is true for all positive integers n.

Example Use mathematical induction to show that the following is true for all positive integers n:
n(n + 1)(2n + 1)
12 + 22 + 32 + + n2 = : (B.1.3)
6
Proof Denote (B.1.3) by P(n).
(I) When n = 1, we have
L:S : = 1 and R:S : = (1)(2)(3) = 1:
6
Therefore P(1) is true.
(II) Suppose that P(k) is true, that is,
k(k + 1)(2k + 1)
12 + 22 + 32 + + k2 = : (B.1.4)
6
Then we have
2 2 2 2 2 2
1 + 2 + 3 + + k + (k + 1) = k(k + 1)(2k + 1) + (k + 1) By (B.1.4)
6
= k(k + 1)(2k + 1) + 6(k + 1)2
6
= (k + 1)[k(2k + 1) + 6(k + 1)]
6
= (k + 1)(2k2 + 7k + 6)
6
= (k + 1)(k + 2)(2k + 3)
6
= (k + 1)[(k + 1) + 1][(2(k + 1) + 1]
6
that is, P(k + 1) is true.
Thus by the Principle of Mathematical Induction, P(n) is true for all positive integers n.

Example Use mathematical induction (together with the product rule) to prove the power rule for
positive integers n:
d xn = nxn 1 (B.1.5)
dx
Proof Denote (B.1.5) by P(n).
B.2. Binomial Theorem 271
(I) P(1) is true since d 0 0
x = 1 = x (by the convention for the function x ).

dx
(II) Suppose that P(k) is true, that is, d
k k 1 :
x = kx (B.1.6)
d
x
Then we have d d
k
dx xk+1 = dx (x x)
d d
= x k k
dx x + x dx x Product Rule
= x kxk 1 + xk 1 By (B.1.6)
= kxk + xk
(k+1) 1
= (k + 1)x
that is, P(k + 1) is true.
Thus by Principle of Mathematical Induction, P(n) is true for all positive integers n.

B.2 Binomial Theorem

n
Before considering the Binomial Theorem, we introduce the notations n! and .k

Consider a collection of three objects a; b and c. There are 6 permutations of the three objects:

abc acb
bac bca
cab cba

Instead of writing down all the permutations, we can find the number of permutations as follows.
Note that there are 3 choices for the first object. Once the first one is fixed, there are two
choices for the second object. Once the first and second objects are fixed, the third one is
determined. Thus the number of permutations is 3 2 1.
In general, given a collection of n objects, the number of permutations of the n objects is

n (n 1) (n 2) 3 2 1:

Notation Let n be a positive integer. We denote n! (read “n factorial”) to be the product of the first n
positive integers, that is,
n! = n(n 1)(n 2) 3 2 1
By convention, 0! is defined to be 1.

Example 5! = 5 4 3 2 = 120.

Let A be the set having 5 elements a, b, c, d and e. The 2-element subsets of A are

fa; bg fa; cg fa; dg fa; eg fb; cg fb; dg fb; eg fc; dg fc; eg and fd; eg:

Instead of writing down all the 2-element subsets, we can find the number of such subsets as follows.
272 Appendix B. Supplementary Notes

First we consider ordered pairs of distinct elements of A:

(a; b); (a; c); : : : (a; e); (b; a); : : : (b; e); (e; a); : : : (e; d):

There are 5 choices for the first element and 4 choices for the second element.
However for sets, fa; bg and fb; ag are equal. So the number of 2-element subsets of A is

542:

In general, given a set A with n elements, the number of k-element subsets of A can be found as follows:

First we consider ordered k-tuples of distinct elements of A:

(x1; : : : ; xk) where xi 2 A and xi , x j if i , j:

There are n choices for the first element, (n 1) choices for

the second element, (n 2) choices for the
third element and so on such that the number of choices for the k-th element is (n k + 1).
Hence the
number of ordered k-tuples of distinct elements of A is

n(n 1)(n 2) (n k + 1):

However for sets, fx1; x2; x3; : : : ; xkg and fx2; x1; x3; : : : ; xkg are equal. In fact, given an ordered k-
tuple fx1; x2; : : : ; xkg of distinct elements of A, the sets formed by taking any permutation of the
elements x1; : : : ; xk are the same. So the number of k-element subsets of A is

n(n 1)(n 2) (n k + 1) k!:

Note that n(n 1)(n 2) (n k + 1)
= n(n 1)(n 2) (n k + 1) (n k)(n k 1) 2 1
k! k! (n k)(n k 1) 2 1
= n!
k! (n k)!
Notation Let n be a natural number (positive integer or zero) and let k be a natural number not greater than n.
We denote n ! n !
=
k k! (n k)!

5 5! 5 4 5 5!
Example ! = = 10 and 2 = 10.
3 = 3! 2! 2 ! = 2! 3!
!
Remark n
k is the number of combinations that k objects can be chosen from a collection of n objects.
Example
!
0 = 0! n! = 1 = n! (n n)! = 1
n n! n n!
n ! n n ! n

= 1! (n 1)! = n = (n = n
! !

1 ! ( 2 1) n 1 1)! (n ! (n 1))! 2 1)
2 ! = 2! (n 2)! = n 2 ! = (n 2)! (n (n 2))! = (
n n n n n n nn
B.2. Binomial Theorem 273
! =n
Note k k!
n n

The following result will be used in the proof of the Binomial Theorem.

Lemma B.2.1 Let n be a positive integer and let k be a positive integer not greater than n. Then we have
! ! !
k + k 1 = k 1
n n n+
= n! + n!
Proof n! n !
+k
k 1 k! (n k)! (k 1)! (n (k 1))!
= n! + n!
k! (n k)! (k 1)! (n k + 1)!
n! (n k + 1) + n! k
k! (n k + 1)!
= n! (n + 1)
k! (n k + 1)!
= (n + 1)!
k! (n + 1 k)!
+
= n k 1!

Binomial Theorem Let a and b be real numbers. Then for every positive integer n, we have

Xn n !
(a + b)n = k an kbk (B.2.1)
k=0

0
where by convention 0 means 1 if a = 0 or b = 0.
! !
Note k=0 X
k an kbk = 0 anb0 + 1 ! an 1b1 + 2! an 2 2
b + +n 2 ! a2bn 2+n 1! a1bn 1 + n! a0bn
n n n n n n n n
n n1 n(n 1) n2 2 n(n 1) 2 n2 n1 n

= a + na b+ 2 a b + + 2 ab + nab +b
Proof Denote (B.2.1) by P(n).

(I) When n = 1, we have R:S : = k=0 !

1 k a1 kbk = a1b0 + a0b1
L:S: = (a + b) = a + b and X
= a + b:
1 1
Thus L:S : = R:S : and so P(1) is true.

(II) Suppose that P(N) is true, that is X

N N
N ! (B.2.2)
(a + b) = k=0
k aN kbk:
274 Appendix B. Supplementary Notes

Then we have
N+1 N
(a + b) = (a + b) (a + b)
X N!
k a b
N
N k k
= (a + b) By B.2.2
k=0
XN N ! XN N !
k aN k+1bk + k aN kbk+1
k=0k=0
X ! X Replace k by k 1 and
N N N+1 N

= k N k+1 k ! N (k 1) (k 1)+1 shift summation index

k=0 a b + k=1 k 1 a b
" !#
= aN+1 + k=1 X
k! +k 1 aN b + bN+1
k+1 k

N N N
X
1!
aN k+1bk + bN+1
N +
= aN+1 + k=1 By Lemma B.2.1
Nk
!
= X
k=0 Nk1 aN+1 kbk

N+1 +
That is, P(N + 1) is true.

Hence by the Principle of Mathematical Induction, P(n) is true for all positive integers n.

B.3 Mean Value Theorem

Mean Value Theorem Let f be a function that is continuous on [a; b] and di erentiable on (a; b),
where a; b 2 R and a < b. Then there exists 2 (a; b) such that
0
f ( ) = f (b) f (a) :
b a
Explanation The conclusion means that there always exists (at least) a point C = ; f ( ) on the graph of f
, between A = a; f (a) and B = b; f (b) , such that the slope at C equals to the slope of the line AB.

Before giving the proof for the Mean Value Theorem, we prove a special case of the result.

Rolle’s Theorem Let g be a function that is continuous on [a; b] and di erentiable on (a; b), where
a; b 2 R and a < b. Suppose that g(a) = g(b). Then there exists 2 (a; b) such that
g0( ) = 0:
 B.3. Mean Value Theorem 275

Proof We may assume that g(a) = g(b) = 0; otherwise, we can replace g by g1 where g1(x) =
g(x) g(a). (Case 1) g is identically zero on [a; b]
0
In this case, g (x) = 0 for all x 2 (a; b). So any 2 (a; b) satisfies the requirement.
(Case 2) g is not identically zero on [a; b]
By the Extreme Value Theorem, g attains its maximum and minimum in [a; b], that is, there
exists 1 and 2 in [a; b] such that
g( 1) g(x) g( 2) for all x 2 [a; b]:

Since g is not identically zero on [a; b], it follows that at least one of 1, 2 is not an endpoint of
[a; b]. Hence there exists 2 (a; b) such that g has a local maximum or minimum at .
0
Therefore, by Theo-rem 5.1.3, we have g ( ) = 0.

Proof of the Mean Value Theorem Instead of working on f , we construct an auxiliary function g so
that Rolle’s Theorem can be applied to g and the conclusion for g is what we want for f .
Let g : [a; b] ! R be the function defined by
g(x) = f (x) f (a) f (b) f (a) (x a) for x 2 [a; b]:
b a
Note that g is continuous on [a; b] and di erentiable on (a; b) with

g (x) = f 0 (x)
0 f (b) f (a) for x 2 (a; b):
b a
Moreover, we have g(b) = g(a) = 0. Hence by Rolle’s Theorem, there exists 2 (a; b) such that 0, or
g0( ) = equivalently that
0 :
f ( ) = f (b) f (a)
b a

Remark If f is a function that is di erentiable on an open interval I, then for every x1; x2 2 I with x1 <
x2, the function f is continuous on [x1; x2] and di erentiable on (x1; x2) and so we can apply the
Mean Value Theorem to f with a = x1 and b = x2.

Below we apply the Mean Value to prove the following result which is Theorem 5.1.1.

Theorem B.3.1 Let f be a function that is defined and di erentiable on an open interval (a; b).
0
If f (x) > 0 for all x 2 (a; b), then f is increasing on (a; b).
0
If f (x) < 0 for all x 2 (a; b), then f is decreasing on (a; b).
276 Appendix B. Supplementary Notes

0
If f (x) = 0 for all x 2 (a; b), then f is constant on (a; b), that is, f (x1) = f (x2) for all x1; x2 2 (a; b),
or equivalently, there exists a real number c such that f (x) = c for all x 2 (a; b).
Proof We give the proof for (1) and (3). The proof for (2) is similar to that for (1). Alternatively, to
prove (2), we may apply (1) to the function f .
Suppose that f 0(x) > 0 for all x 2 (a; b). Let x1; x2 2 (a; b) where x1 < x2. By the Mean Value
Theorem, there exists 2 (x1; x2) (a; b) such that
0
f ( ) = f (x2) f (x1) :
x2 x1
Therefore, we have
0
f (x2) f (x1) = (x2 x1) f ( ) > 0;
which implies that f (x1) < f (x2).
0
(3) Suppose that f (x) = 0 for all x 2 (a; b). From the proof of (1), we see that for every pair of x1; x2 in
(a; b), there exists 2 (a; b) such that

f (x2) f (x1) = (x2 x1) f 0( ) = 0:

which implies that f (x1) = f (x2). Thus f is a constant function.

B.4 Fundamental Theorem of Calculus

Before giving the proof of the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus (Version 1), we need some preliminary results.

Lemma B.4.1 Let f and g be functions that are continuous on a closed and bounded interval [a; b].
Suppose that f (x) g(x) for all x 2 [a; b]. Then we have
Zb Zb
f (x) dx g(x) dx:
a a

Proof By definition, we have

X
b n b a i
(g f x x = lim (g f )(x ) ; where x = a + (b a) for 0 i n:
Z )( ) d n!1 i=1
i1 n i n
a
The condition on f and g implies that each term in the above sum is non-negative. Hence we have
b
(g f )(x) dx 0:
a

The required inequality then follows from Rules for Definite Integral (Int1) and (Int2).

Corollary B.4.2 Let f be a function that is continuous on a closed and bounded interval [a; b].
Suppose that m and M are real numbers such that m f (x) M for all x 2 [a; b]. Then we have
b
m(b a) f (x) dx M(b a):
a
 B.4. Fundamental Theorem of Calculus 277

Proof By Lemma B.4.1, we have

Zb Zb Zb
m dx f (x) dx M dx:
a a a

The required inequalities then follow from Definite Integral for Constant.

The next result is known as the Mean Value Theorem for Definite Integral.

Theorem B.4.3 Let f be a function that is continuous on a closed and bounded interval [a; b]. Then there
exists 2 [a; b] such that Z b
a f (x) dx = f ( ) (b a):

Proof By the Extreme Value Theorem, there exist x1; x2 2 [a; b] such that
f (x1) f (x) f (x2) for all x 2 [a; b]:

By considering the constant functions f (x1) and f (x2) on the interval [a; b] and applying Corollary
B.4.2, we get
Zb
f (x1) (b a) f (x) dx f (x2) (b a);
a
R (
which yields f (x1)
ab a f (x2):
b f x) dx

By the Intermediate Value Theorem, there exists between x1 and x2 such that
f()= Ra b (a :
b f x) dx
Hence the required result follows.

Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, Version 1 Let f be a function that is continuous on a closed and
bounded interval [a; b]. Let F be the function from [a; b] into R defined by
x
F(x) = f (t) dt for a t b:
a
0
Then F is continuous on [a; b] and di erentiable on (a; b) with F (x) = f (x) for all x 2 (a; b).

Proof We divide the proof into two parts: continuity and di erentiability.
(Continuity) By the Extreme Value Theorem, there exist real numbers m and M such that

m f (x) M for all x 2 [a; b]: (B.4.1)

Let x1; x2 2 [a; b] with x1 < x2. By the construction of F together with Rule for Definite Integral
(Int3), we have
Z Z ! Z
x1 x2 x1

F(x2) F(x1) = f (t) dt + f (t) dt f (t) dt

a x1 a
x2
f (t) dt
x1
 278 Appendix B. Supplementary Notes

which, by (B.4.1) and Corollary B.4.2, yields

m(x2 x1) F(x2) F(x1) M(x2 x1): (B.4.2)

For every 2 (a; b), putting x1 = and x2 = x, by (B.4.2) and the Sandwich Theorem, we see that
lim F(x) F( ) =0;
x! +
that is, lim F(x) = F( ); similarly putting x2 = and x1 = x, we see that
x! +
lim F(x) = F( );
x!
hence we have lim F(x) = F( ), that is, F is continuous at . Similarly, the function F is left-
continuous
x!
at a and right-continuous at b. Therefore F is continuous on [a; b].
(Di erentiability) Let x 2 (a; b). We want to show that
lim F(x + h) F(x) = f (x):
h!0 h
For this, we consider left-side and right-side limits.
For h > 0, by the construction of F together with Rule for Definite Integral (Int3), we have
F(x + h) Z x+h
F(x) = x f (t) dt:

Hence by Theorem B.4.3, there exists h 2 [x; x + h] such that

F(x + h) F(x) = f ( ) (x + h) x = f ( h) h:
h

Note that as h tends to 0 from the right, the number h tends to x (from the right). Therefore, we have
lim F(x + h) F(x) = lim f ( ) = f (x) (B.4.3)
h
h!0+ h h!0+
by the continuity of f .
For h < 0, by the construction of F together with Rule for Definite Integral (Int3), we have
F(x) F(x + h) = Zx+h f (t) dt:
x

Hence by Theorem B.4.3, there exists h 2 [x + h; x] such that

F(x) F(x + h) = f ( h) x (x + h) = f ( h) ( h):

Note that as h tends to 0 from the left, the number h tends to x (from the left). Therefore, we have
lim F(x + h) F(x) = lim f ( ) = f (x) (B.4.4)
h
h!0 h h!0
by the continuity of f .
Combining (B.4.3) and (B.4.4), we get
lim F(x + h) F(x) = f (x)
h!0 h
as required.

Remark Rule for Definite Integral (Int3) can be proved using a property of continuous functions on closed and
bounded interval, namely, uniform continuity. This concept is discussed in more advanced calculus or analysis.
Index

=), 7 bending up, 136

(), 7 binomial theorem, 112, 273
: :, 25, 34 bounded interval, 33
2, 26
<, 26 Cartesian plane, 13
;, 26 cast rule, 182
fg, 26 chain rule, 207
Z, 27 change of base formula, 197
Z+, 27 circle
N, 27 center, 18
Q, 27 equation, 18
R, 27 , radius, 18
29 *, closed and bounded interval, 33
29 , 30 closed interval, 33
\, 30 [, codomain of function, 43
30 n, combination, 272
31 common logarithm, 197
1, 35 common logarithmic function, 58
35 compare coecient method, 9
2
R , 51
complement of set, 29
e, 198
composition of functions, 64
compound angle formulas, 185
absolute maximum, 146 concave function, 137
absolute minimum, 146 constant, 4
absolute value function, 60 constant function, 53
absolute value of number, 60 constant of integration, 168
angle, 179 consumer surplus, 248
degree, 179 continuous
idea of definition, 179 at point, 94
initial side, 179 on closed and bounded interval, 99
radian, 180 on half-open-half closed interval, 98
standard position, 179 on open interval, 96
terminal side, 179 continuous random variable, 250
vertex, 179 convergent, 76
antiderivative, 167 convex function, 137
axes convexity, 136
x-axis, 13 coordinates
y-axis, 13 x-coordinate, 13
axis of symmetry, 19 y-coordinate, 13
cosecant function, 181
base, 1 cosine function, 59, 180
belong to, 24 cotangent function, 181
bending down, 136 critical number, 131
280 INDEX

critical point, 131 exponent, 1

rules for, 1, 36, 192
decreasing function, 128 exponential function, 191
definite integral, 158 base b, 57
for constant function, 160 base of, 191
lower limit of integration, 162 graph of, 192
rules for, 160 the exponential function, 194
upper limit of integration, extreme value theorem, 101
162 degenerate interval, 34 extremum
dependent variable, 43 absolute, 146
derivative, 107 global, 146
higher-order, 123
di erence quotient, 93 factor theorem, 8
di erentiable factorial, 271
at point, 105 first derivative test, 134
on open interval, 106 fractional equation, 69
di erentiable function, 107 function, 43
di erential, 109, 233 (strictly) concave, 137
di erentiation, 109 (strictly) convex, 137
rules for, 110 (strictly) decreasing, 128
discontinuous (strictly) increasing, 128
at point, 94 antiderivative for, 167
discrete random variable, 250 attain (global/absolute) maximum, 146
discriminant of quadratic attain (global/absolute) minimum, 146
equation, 7 distance formula, 17 codomain of, 43
domain of function, 43 composition of, 64
dummy variable, 159 derivative of, 107
domain of, 43
element of set, 23 graph of, 53
empty interval, 34 has relative maximum, 132
empty set, 24 has relative minimum, 132
equality of sets, 25 image of element, 43
equation image of set, 46
exponential, 199 indefinite integral of, 168
fractional, 69 informal definition, 43
graph of, 50 injective, 66
logarithmic, 199 inverse, 67
radical, 69 natural domain of, 45
equation in one unknown, 4 primitive for, 164
linear, 4 range of, 46
quadratic, 6 two variables, 49
solution to, 4 function of two variables, 49
equation in two unknowns, 12 fundamental theorem of calculus, 162
graph of, 13 version 1, 163
linear, 12 version 2, 165
solutions to, 12 version 3, 176
equation of circle, 18
equivalent equations, 4 general linear form for line, 13
even function, 181 general power rule, 213
event global maximum, 146
continuous random variable, 251 global minimum, 146
discrete random variable, 251 graph of equation in two unknowns, 13, 50
INDEX 281

graph of function, 53 u-substitution, 236

graph of inverse function, 69 for rational function, 240
integration by parts, 246
higher-order derivative, 123 linear change of variable, 236
second derivative, 123 partial-fraction decomposition, 241
third derivative, 123 substitution method, 232
horizontal line test, 66 substitution method for definite integral,
237 intercept, 50
identity, 2
x-intercept, 50
identity function, 111
y-intercept, 50
i,5
interest compounded continuously,
image of element, 43
194 intermediate value theorem, 99
image of set, 46
intersection of sets, 28 interval, 33
implication
bounded, 33
one-sided, 69
closed, 33
two-sided, 69
closed and bounded, 33
implicit di erentiation, 215
degenerate, 34
imply, 5
empty, 34
improper integral, 251
open, 33
increasing function, 128
unbounded, 33
indefinite integral, 167
inverse function, 67
constant of integration, 168
graph of, 69
integrand, 168
inverse function rule, 203
independent variable, 43
inverse function theorem, 203
indeterminate form, 91
irrational number, 32
index, 35
inequality leading term rule, 83
polynomial, 37 left-continuous at point, 98
quadratic, 38 left-sided limit, 88
rules for, 11 lie between, 99
inequality in one unknown, 11 limit of function
linear, 11 at infinity, 80
solution to, 11 at negative infinity, 85
infinite limit, 84 at point, 89
infinity, 33 left-sided limit at point, 88
inflection number, 139 one-sided limit at point, 86
inflection point, 139 right-sided limit at point, 87
injective, 66 limit of integration, 162
integer, 32 lower limit, 162
integral sign, 159 upper limit, 162
integrand, 162, 168 limit of sequence, 76
integrate, 168 line, 13
integration, 157 x-intercept, 14
constant function, 168 y-intercept, 14
constant multiple
1
rule, 170 equation for, 15
power rule (n + version), 170
2 general linear form, 13
power rule (negative integer version), parallel, 16
169 power rule (positive integer perpendicular, 16
version), 169 sum rule, 171 point-slope form, 15
term by term integration, slope of, 15
171 integration formulas, 229 slope-intercept form, 16
integration technique
282 INDEX

linear equation in one unknown, equation of, 19

4 linear equation in two vertex of, 19
unknowns, 12 linear function, 53 partial-fraction, 241
local extremizer, 132 partial-fraction decomposition, 241
local extremum point, 132 compare coecient method, 241
local maximizer, 132 substitution method, 241
local maximum point, 132 period, 59
local minimizer, 132 periodic, 59
local minimum point, 132 permutation, 271
logarithm piecewise-defined function, 60
common logarithm, 197 point-slope form for line, 15
natural logarithm, 197 polynomial function, 54
properties of, 197 polynomial inequality, 37
logarithmic di erentiation, 213 power function, 111
logarithmic function, 196 power rule
1
n + version, 120
base of, 196 2
graph of, 196
natural logarithmic function, 197 negative integer version, 118
positive integer version, 111
marginal cost, 153 primitive, 164
marginal revenue, 153 principal qth root, 35
mathematical induction, 269 principle of mathematical induction,
maximal interval 269 principle-square-root function,
on which function is decreasing, 129 55 probability function
on which function is increasing, 129 continuous random variable, 251
maximum, 146 discrete random variable, 250
absolute, 146 probability of event
global, 146 continuous random variable, 252
value, 146 discrete random variable, 251
mean value theorem, 274 producer surplus, 248
mean value theorem for definite integral, 277 product rule, 116
member of set, 23 proof by definition, 27
minimum, 146 Pythagorus theorem, 17
absolute, 146
global, 146 quadratic equation, 6
value, 146 discriminant, 7
minus infinity, 33 factorization method, 6
quadratic formula, 7
natural domain of function, 45 quadratic function, 53
natural logarithm, 197 quadratic inequality, 38
natural number, 25, 32 quotient rule, 117
net change theorem, 177
radian, 180
odd function, 181 radical, 34
one-sided limit, 86 index, 35
open interval, 33 radicand, 35
opposite signs, 100 radical equation, 69
ordered pair, 12 radicand, 35
origin, 13 radioactive decay, 195
decay constant, 195
parabola, 19
half-life, 195
axis of symmetry, 19
random variable
INDEX 283

continuous, 250 inverse function rule, 203

1
power rule (n + version), 120
discrete, 250 2

range of function, 46 power rule (negative integer version), 118

rational function, 54 power rule (positive integer version), 111
rational number, 25 product rule, 116
real number, 32 quotient rule, 117
algebraic operation, 33 sum rule, 114
binary relation, 33 term by term di erentiation,
negative, 33 114 rules for exponent, 1, 36, 192
positive, 33 rules for inequalities, 11
real number line, 33
rectangular coordinate plane, 13 same sign, 11
related rates, 218 sandwich theorem, 84
relative complement, 29 secant function, 181
relative extremizer, 132 second derivative, 123
relative extremum point, 132 second derivative test, 141
relative maximizer, 132 second derivative test (special
relative maximum point, 132 version), 150 sequence, 75
relative maximum value, 132 nth term, 75
relative minimizer, 132 convergent, 76
relative minimum point, 132 limit, 76
relative minimum value, 132 of real numbers, 75
remainder theorem, 8 set, 23
Riemann sum, 158 complement, 29
right-continuous at point, 98 description method, 24
right-sided limit, 87 element of, 23
Rolle’s theorem, 274 empty, 24
root equal, 25
qth root of, 34 idea of definition, 23
principal qth root of, 35 intersection, 28
rules for listing method, 23
limit of function at infinity, 81 member of, 23
limit of function at point, 90 not subset of, 27
limit of sequence, 77 operation, 28
rules for definite integral, 160 relative complement, 29
rules for di erentiation, 110 subset of, 27
chain rule, 207 unequal, 27
constant multiple rule, 113 union, 28
derivative of arctangent function, universal, 29
205 derivative of constant, 110 sine function, 59, 180
derivative of cosine, 187 slope function, 107
derivative of exponential function, 213 slope of a line, 15
derivative of identity function, 111 slope of curve at point, 104
derivative of logarithmic functions, 203 slope-intercept form for line, 16
derivative of natural logarithmic function, solution set to equation, 7
201 derivative of polynomial, 116 solution set to inequality in one
derivative of sine, 187 unknown, 37 solution to
derivative of square root function, equations in two unknowns, 12
119 derivative of tangent, 187 equation in one unknown, 4
derivative of the exponential function, inequality in one unknown, 11
204 general power rule, 213 square-root function, 56
stationary number, 131
284 INDEX

step function, 63
strictly concave function, 137
strictly convex function, 137
strictly decreasing function, 128
strictly increasing function, 128
subset, 27
substitution method, 234
sum of squares formula, 75
symmetric
about x-axis, 51
about y-axis, 51
about line, 51
about origin, 51
about point, 51
symmetric about line
two subsets, 57
symmetry, 51
system of two equations in two unknowns, 20
system of two linear equations in two unknowns, 20
elimination method, 20
substitution method, 21

tangent function, 60, 181

tangent to curve at point, 104
third derivative, 123
trigonometric function, 58
twice di erentiable on open interval, 127
two subsets symmetric about line, 57
two-sided limit, 89

unbounded interval, 33
union of sets, 28
unit circle, 180
the unit circle, 180
universal set, 29

Venn diagram, 30
vertex of parabola, 19