CHAPTER TWO
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 ANTIOXIDANT
Antioxidants are a collection of substances that may prevent or delay the oxidation of cellular
components. The antioxidant defense system includes both endogenously produced antioxidants
and dietary antioxidants. The consumption of dietary antioxidants has long been speculated to be
important for the defense against cellular oxidation, inflammation, and other disease-related
processes. ( Haliwell B et al., 2006)
In addition to the well-known dietary antioxidants, such as vitamin C, vitamin E, β-carotene, and
selenium, whole plansts and plant-products contain numerous compounds, called
phytochemicals, with antioxidant properties. ( Gutteridge JMC et al., 2018)
These phytochemicals are potentially important modulators of oxidative stress and have been
linked to health beneficial effects. However, the mechanisms underlying these potential health
beneficial effects are not well understood. ( pizzino G et al., 2017)
Foods containing high levels of phytochemicals with antioxidant properties include berries, fruits,
vegetables, whole grains, and nuts and seeds. ( Halvorsen BL et al., ( 20002).
Antioxidants protects the cells from the damage caused by the unstable free radicals by
interacting with and stabilize them. Examples include beta-carotene, lycopene, vitamins C, E, A
etc. ( Sies H et al., 1997).
Antioxidants are often reducing agents such as thiols, ascorbic acid or polyphenols1. Oxidation
reactions are vital for life but can be damaging sometimes; therefore, plants and animals
maintain intricate systems of multiple types of antioxidants, such as glutathione, vitamin C and
vitamin E as well as enzymes such as catalase, superoxide dismutase and various peroxidases.
( Sivaramakrishna T et al., 2017),
Oxidative stress may be caused by lower antioxidant levels due to inhibition of the antioxidant
enzymes, which may damage or kill cells.
Oxidative stress may lay down a pathway for many human ailments, thus use of antioxidants has
been widely incorporated in pharmacological fields such as management for stroke,
cardiovascular and neurodegenerative diseases. ( Jennifer P et al., 2015). Antioxidants are
commonly used as dietary supplements for maintaining health and prophylactic measure for
diseases such as cancer and coronary heart disease. They can be extensively used as food
preservatives and in cosmetics along with the prevention of the degradation of rubber and
gasoline. It has been stated that free radicals cause oxidation which can be prohibited by a variety
of antioxidants substances. ( parthiban C et al., 2014).
Small quantities of antioxidants like phenol or amine derivatives are added to oils and fats for
their stability. Plastics are formed by free radical action, they also require the antioxidants like
phenols or naphthol. Low density polythene is protected by carbon black which absorbs the
ultraviolet light responsible for radical production. ( Saranya C et al., 2013).
2.1.1 FREE RADICAL
Free radicals are generated by our body by various endogenous system, exposure to different
physiochemical conditions or pathological states . A balance between free radicals and
antioxidants is necessary for proper physiological functions . Free radicals are any molecular
species that contains an unpaired electron in atomic orbital. Free radicals attack important
macromolecules ( nucliec acids, lipids , proteins ) leading to cell damage and homeostatic
disruption . Free radicals are continuously produced in the human cells but this cells are
equipped with an efficient antioxidant system that is composed of both enzymes and other non
enzymatic molecules that can neutralize adverse effect of free radicals.
2.1.2 OXIDATIVE STRESS
Oxidative stress is one of the leading causes of several chronic disorders like diabetes,
cardiovascular diseases, and cancer. It requires immediate natural measures for its prevention.
This can be achieved with natural medicines including spices and their essential oils. ( kirtawade
R et al., 2010).
Oxidative stress, characterized by an imbalance favouring oxidants over antioxidants, is a key
contributor to the development of various common diseases. ( mittler et al., 2017). Counteracting
these oxidants is considered an effective strategy to mitigate the levels of oxidative stress in
organisms. ( Turkan et al ., 2018). Numerous studies have indicated an inverse correlation
between the consumption of vegetables and fruits and the risk of chronic diseases, attributing
these health benefits to the presence of antioxi dant phytochemicals in these foods. ( Sies et al.,
2020).
Phytochemicals, present in a wide range of foods and medicinal plants, play a pivotal role in
preventing and treating chronic diseases induced by oxidative stress by working as antioxidants.
( Foyer et al., 2022). These compounds exhibit potent antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anti-aging,
anticancer, and protective properties against cardiovascular diseases, diabetes mellitus, obesity,
and neurodegenerative conditions. ( Di Meo et al., 2016).
2.1.3 ANTIOXIDANT PROPERTIES OF SPICES
Spices are not only used for enhancing flavor but also possess notable antioxidant properties that
contribute to health benefits. (Lao et al ., 2001). Many spices, such as turmeric, cinnamon, ginger,
and cloves, are rich in bioactive compounds, including polyphenols, flavonoids, and essential oils,
which can neutralize free radicals and reduce oxidative stress in the body (Zhu et al., 2004).
These antioxidant effects are linked to various health-promoting outcomes, including anti-
inflammatory, anti-cancer, and heart-protective actions. For instance cloves, cinnamon and
cardamom.
These antioxidants work by neutralizing free radicals that can damage cells and tissues,
potentially reducing the risk of chronic diseases such as cancer, cardiovascular disease, and
neurodegenerative disorders (Chung et al., 2008). Incorporating spices with antioxidant
properties into one's diet may thus contribute to better overall health and well-being. ( Aggarwal
et al., 2007).
2.1.4 MEDICINAL PLANT
Medicinal plants are popular in the whole world specifically in developing countries, not only
because they have a lot of active ingredients, but also because they have a number of
pharmacological properties, such as changing how parts of the immune system work (Olabisi O et
al., 2022). Pathogens like bacteria, protozoa, and viruses need a strong immune response to stop
them from doing harm. Some viral pathogen-caused diseases. like measles. chickenvox. Ebola.
and human immunodeficiency virus, can kill or hurt mammals that don't have enough immunity (
Ogunrinola et al., 2022).
2.1.5 MEDICINAL USES OF SPICES
Herbs and spices from leaves, seeds, bark, roots, rhizomes, or buds of aromatic plants have long
been used for ages in food and medicine. Although herbs and spices are used to enhance flavor,
taste, and color of foods, they also supply basic nutrients, promote health, and prevent from the
risk of development of chronic diseases ( Tapsell LC et al., 2006). Several phytochemicals
comprising carotenoids, phenolic compounds (flavonoids, flavonol, flavanols, anthocyanins,
proanthocynains, and phenolic acids), phytosterols, phytostanols, tocotrienols, organosulfur
compounds, alkaloids, dietary fibers, prebiotics, protein, amino acids, and minerals contribute to
the potential health benefits ( Achinewhu SC et al., 1995).
In general, the spices phytochemicals are safe to humans and recognized as GRAS (Generally
Recognized As Safe) by USFDA (United State Food and Drug Administration) except some cases
with age, and medical conditions. The spices are consumed as fresh, processed, or cooked where
it could undergo physical and chemical transformation from the original sources and could affect
their levels of content and efficacy ( Guldike B et al., 2018). However, one of the major challenges
of most of the spice phytochemicals is poor oral bioavailability. Several strategies such as
nanoparticles, polymers, and liposomes inclusion have been adopted to improve the
bioavailabilities of phytochemicals. Moreover, in most of the cases the health benefits of spices
are attributed to the isolated and/or synergistic biological activities of phytochemicals present in
the spices. ( Bag A et al., 2015).
2.2 BIOACTIVE COMPOUNDS OF SPICES
The bioactive compounds found in spices such as cinnamon, cardamom, and clove exhibit
significant health benefits, primarily due to their diverse phytochemical profiles. These
compounds contribute to various biological activities, including antimicrobial, antioxidant, and
anti-inflammatory effects. The following sections detail the specific bioactive compounds and
their associated health benefits.
the bioactive compounds in these spices are widely recognized for their health benefits, it is
essential to consider potential adverse effects or interactions with medications, which may limit
their use in certain populations.
2.3 CINNAMON
Cinnamon (Cinnamomum verum)
Cinnamon is one of the most commonly used spices worldwide and has a rich history of
medicinal use, particularly for its antioxidant properties. The primary antioxidants in cinnamon
are polyphenols, particularly cinnamaldehyde, which is the compound responsible for its
distinctive aroma and flavor. Studies have demonstrated that cinnamon exhibits significant free
radical scavenging activity, which can help reduce oxidative stress and inflammation in the body
(Ranaware et al., 2020). This makes cinnamon beneficial in preventing chronic diseases such as
diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, and neurodegenerative disorders, where oxidative stress is a
key factor. Furthermore, cinnamon enhances the activity of antioxidant enzymes like superoxide
dismutase (SOD) and catalase, contributing to a more robust internal defense system (Sadeghi et
al., 2018).
In addition to its antioxidant properties, cinnamon has been shown to improve lipid profiles,
decrease blood sugar levels, and support immune function (Ranaware et al., 2020). These
multifaceted effects make it a valuable dietary component for managing oxidative damage and
enhancing overall health.
Bioactive compound
The major phytochemical in cinnamon bark is cinnamaldehyde. Some other bioactive compounds
of essential oils in cinnamon bark are cinnamic acid, coumarin, cinnamyl alcohol, and 2-
methoxycinnamaldehyde (Das G et al., 2022).
Cinnamon bark also contain terpenoids such as oxygenated sesquiterpenes, oxygenated
monoterpenes, sesquiterpene hydrocarbon ( Rao PV et al., 2014 ) In addition to essential oils and
terpenoids cinnamon bark consist of guaiacol, benzenepropanal, cis-cinnamaldehyde, bornyl
acetate, acetophenone, geranyl acetate, tetradecanal. Oxygenated monoterpenes are eucalyptol,
linalool, borneol, L-a-terpineol, benzaldehyde, anethole, and eugenol. Some of the sesquiterpene
hydrocarbons are a-cubebene, copaene, B-caryophyllene, a-muurolene, trans-a-bergamotene, a-
humulene, a-amorphene, 1 s-cis-calamenene, calarene, cedrene, and - cadinene ( Jeyaratnam N
et al., 2016).
2.4 CARDAMOM
Cardamom (Elettaria cardamomum)
Cardamom, often referred to as the "queen of spices," is rich in flavonoids, phenolic compounds,
and essential oils, all of which contribute to its potent antioxidant properties. Research indicates
that cardamom’s high concentration of flavonoids, such as quercetin and kaempferol, plays a
critical role in scavenging free radicals and reducing oxidative damage (Sivamaruthi et al., 2020).
These antioxidants are particularly effective in protecting cells from the harmful effects of
reactive oxygen species (ROS), which are implicated in aging and the development of chronic
diseases like cancer and diabetes.
Furthermore, cardamom has demonstrated anti-inflammatory properties that work
synergistically with its antioxidant effects. The combination of these actions suggests that
cardamom may reduce the risk of oxidative stress-induced conditions, including cardiovascular
disease and metabolic syndrome (Sivamaruthi et al., 2020). Studies also point to cardamom’s
potential in enhancing the body’s overall antioxidant defense system by increasing the activity of
glutathione, a key antioxidant in cellular protection (Sadeghi et al., 2018).
Bioactive Compound
Essential oils rich in monoterpenes and phenolic compounds.
Antimicrobial activity against various bacteria
Antioxidant properties that may enhance overall health(Gupta et al., 2023).
2.4.1 CLOVE
Cloves (Syzygium aromaticum)
Cloves are considered one of the richest sources of antioxidants among spices. The primary active
compound in cloves, eugenol, has powerful antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects, which are
responsible for much of its health benefits. Cloves have been shown to have a significant ability
to scavenge free radicals and inhibit lipid peroxidation, making them effective at preventing
oxidative damage to lipids, proteins, and DNA (Gul et al., 2020). The high levels of polyphenols in
cloves contribute to their ability to neutralize oxidative stress and reduce the risk of degenerative
diseases.
Beyond their antioxidant capacity, cloves also support immune function and have antimicrobial
properties, which further enhance their health benefits (Reynaud et al., 2021). Cloves have been
investigated for their potential in preventing cancer and managing conditions related to oxidative
stress, such as diabetes and hypertension. Their high antioxidant activity, along with their ability
to reduce inflammation, makes them a valuable spice for promoting overall health and well-
being.
Bioactive compound
Eugenol, flavonoids, and phenolic compounds.
Health benefit
Strong antibacterial and antifungal properties.
Anti-inflammatory and analgesic effects(Gupta et al., 2023).
2.5 MINERAL COMPOSITION
Mineral compositions refer to the specific arrangement and proportions of various mineral
elements within a material. These compositions can vary significantly based on the source and
intended application, ranging from natural mineral deposits to engineered mixtures for industrial
uses.
Minerals, classified as inorganic nutrients, are indispensable for maintaining specific
physicochemical processes within the body's tissues.
The primary means of acquiring these minerals is by maintaining a well-rounded diet. Diverse
minerals undertake distinct roles within the body, and their deficiency can lead to a range of
illnesses.
Conversely, an overabundance of minerals can disrupt homeostatic equilibrium and result in
adverse toxic effects ( Lee et al., 2022).
Composition of Mineral Elements
A typical mineral element composition may include:
Silicon (58%)
Aluminium (25%)
Iron (0.5%)
Calcium (0.2%)
Magnesium (0.1%)
Potassium (9%)
Sodium (3%)(Jianye, 2019).
These elements are often combined with matrices, such as chinastone, to create non-toxic
compositions suitable for human consumption.
2.5.1 MINERAL COMPOSITION OF SELECTED SPICE
spices in food play an important role in health, partially as a nutrients source.
Mineral nutrients are interrelated and balanced against each other in human physiology. For
instance, calcium, sodium, magnesium and phosphorus are included in the body fluid regulation.
Inadequate mineral intake generally produces deficiency symptoms as anemia, impaired healing
of wounds, severe diarrhea and a chronic renal failure ( Underwood et al., 1999). But, although
spices represent a good source of nutrients, sometimes they might possess toxic compounds or
accumulated heavy metals that originate from the production or processing and storage
conditions.
Heavy metals beyond the permissible limits could effects the human health and may lead to
illness of a human fetus, preterm labor and mental retardation in children, while adults may
suffer from fatigue, high blood pressure and kidney troubles. The use of heavy metals
contaminated spices in human nutrition could result in accumulation of these elements in human
organs, which further might cause different health problems ( Inam et al., 2013) . For these
reasons, the interest for harmful metals present in food has been increased in the last two
decades( Gilbert et al., 1984).
In the past, scientists made an effort to determine the
presence of macro- and microelements in spices that originated from all parts of the world.
Several scientists have investigated the composition of Indian spices in term of their volatile oils
and vitamins contents (Gopalan et al ., 1999). as well as chemical and toxic constituents. Ila and
Jagam (1980) have also reported about 24 certain elements in six Indian spices (Illa et al., 1980).
Abou-Arab and Abou-Donia (2000) have determined heavy metal contaminants in Egyptian spices
( Abu Arab et al., 2000) . The methods that were previously used were either expensive or did not
allow simultaneous estimation of the concered micro minerals. Inductively coupled plasma with
optical emission spectrometry (ICP-OES) is a well-established method for multi elemental analysis
and determination of isotope ra-tios. This method allows a simultaneous analysis of a wide range
of trace elements in the sample and has been successfully applied in this study( Kumaravel et al.,
2014). The aim of this study was to determine the elemental composition (Ag, Al, B, Ba, Bi, Ca,
Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Fe, In, K, Li, Mg, Mn, Na, Ni, Pb, St, TI and Zn) of selected spices available in local
market by using an inductively coupled plasma with optical emission spectrometry (ICP-OES).
The principal constituents encompassing sodium (Na), calcium (Ca), potassium (K), phosphorus (P), magnesium (Mg), nitrogen (N), in
addition to trace elements including zinc (Zn) and iron (Fe), were quantified following the methodology articulated by Pearson (1976).
Each analytical procedure was conducted in quintuplicate.
Two grams of each desiccated spice sample were pulverized to achieve passage through a 1 mm mesh sieve and subsequently
transferred into a crucible, where they were subjected to ashing in a muffle furnace at a temperature of 500˚C for a duration of 3 hours.
Upon the completion of the ashing process, the crucible was extracted. Following the cooling phase, 10 ml of 2 M hydrochloric acid was
introduced and heated directly until the mixture reached boiling point. The resultant contents of the crucible were then
transferred into a 50 ml volumetric flask and subsequently diluted to a final volume of 50 ml using deionized water. The optical density
of all elements, with the exception of phosphorus, was quantified utilizing an Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer. For the analysis of
phosphorus, 2 ml of Ammonium Molybdate vanadate and 5 ml of 5 M hydrochloric acid were incorporated into 2 ml of the stock
solution. The concentration of phosphorus was ascertained through the quantification of the yellow phospho-vanado-molybdate
complex employing the Cecil Carating Digital Spectrophotometer Series 2 (manufactured in Germany). The concentration of each
element present in the sample was computed as follows: Microgram/ml of sample × dilution × original volume Conc. of each element =
Weight of sample × 10^6 Conc. × 10,000 = concentration expressed in parts per million (PPM) PPM × 100 = mg/100 g mg/100 g × 100 =
microgram/100 g.
Calcium: Spices are not only used for flavor but also contribute to micronutrient intake, including
calcium. The calcium content in various spices can vary, but some common spices offer notable
amounts. For example, cinnamon provides about 26 milligrams of calcium per teaspoon (2.6
grams), while cloves offer around 17 milligrams of calcium per teaspoon (2.1 grams). Cardamom
contains approximately 10 milligrams of calcium per teaspoon ( Micha et al., 2017 ). These values
indicate that while spices are not typically large sources of calcium, they still make a small
contribution to dietary intake, especially when used in larger quantities in meals or beverages.
Magnesium: Spices contribute modest amounts of magnesium to the diet, with several
commonly used spices providing small but notable quantities. For example, cinnamon offers
approximately 2.4 milligrams of magnesium per teaspoon (2.6 grams), while cloves contain
around 4.2 milligrams of magnesium per teaspoon (2.1 grams). Cardamom provides about 3
milligrams of magnesium per teaspoon (2 grams). While these values are small, regular
consumption of such spices can still make a positive contribution to overall magnesium intake,
especially when combined with other magnesium-rich foods like legumes, nuts, and whole grains
(Gropper et al., 2018).
Potassium: Potassium is a vital nutrient that plays a significant role in regulating fluid balance,
nerve function, and muscle contraction. While it is commonly associated with fruits and
vegetables, certain spices also provide considerable amounts of potassium, contributing to daily
potassium intake. Spices like coriander, cumin, clove, cardamom, and cinnamon not only enhance
the flavor of food but also offer various health benefits, including supporting cardiovascular
health. ( jones et al.,2023) .
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