CHAPTER TWO

LITERITURE REVIEW

Scotch bonnet (capsicum chinense).

Capsicum is a widely cultivated vegetable and spice crop belonging to the nightshade family

(Solanaceae). It thrives in tropical and subtropical climates worldwide, primarily grown for

its succulent berries and seeds. The term Capsicum is derived from the Greek word kapsimo,

meaning "to bite" or "to swallow." Historical evidence suggests that Capsicumpods have been

part of the human diet since as early as 7500 BC in the Western [Link]

frequently consume this botanical spice in various forms, including raw, dried, and cooked. It

is also a key ingredient in making pastes, pickles, and sauces. The names and types

of Capsicum berries vary across regions, but the most common variety is known as "pepper"

or "chili pepper." This variety exhibits significant diversity in color, shape, size, appearance,

flavor, and pungency. The characteristic color variations in Capsicum fruits result from the

presence of pigments such as chlorophyll (green), anthocyanins (violet/purple), α-carotene, β-

carotene, zeaxanthin, lutein, and β-cryptoxanthin (yellow/orange) (Gómez-García & Ochoa-

Alejo, 2014).

Since the beginning of history, natural medicine has been of great interest and attention to

humankind. A heap of empirical research indicates that spices have undoubtedly made our

lives more interesting and may also make them longer. Capsicum is a extensively regarded

indispensable spice all over the globe for its umpteen culinary and medicinal facets. It has

been used for more than 7000 years in Mexico and is believed to have originated in tropical

Central America (Dhamodharan et al., 2022). Capsicum is a stimulant, digestive, rubefacient,

stomachic, sialagogue, alterative, antispasmodic, febrifuge, depurative, analgesic, anti-ulcer,

mosquito repellent (La jiao, 2020).

With almost 50,000 different types of pepper, the Capsicum genus is one of earth's most

widely consumed and grown plants. The chemical composition within the genus exhibits a

large deal of variation because of its broad diversification. Since pepper has a chemical

composition rich in capsaicinoids, carotenoids, flavonoids, and volatile chemicals, which is

attributed to the fruit's ability to get rid of insipidity, produce smells, and combat oxidative

diseases, its main applications are in the culinary and pharmaceutical industries (Antonioet

al., 2018). Vegetables, including Capsicum, play a crucial role in human nutrition,

ensuring food security and nourishment due to their rich content of vitamins,

minerals, phytochemicals, and dietary fiber (Natesh et al., 2017). These nutrients

are essential for promoting overall health (Ulger et al., 2018). Provitamin A,

vitamins E and C, carotenoids, and phenolic substances such

as capsaicinoids, luteolin, and quercetin are all found in pepper. All of these

chemicals have antioxidant properties, and perform other biological functions.

Pepper is the most widely used spice in the world, and it is prized for its spiciness

and ability to enrich the flavour of a variety of dishes. In addition, Pepper is an

important commercial commodity that is used as vegetables, spices, and in some

value-added processed foods (Batihaet al., 2020). Phytochemicals and vitamins

such as vitamin A, vitamin C (ascorbic acid), iron, vitamin B, carotenoids, niacin,

riboflavin, dietary fibre, flavonoids, and magnesium are abundant in Scotch bonnet

peppers (Guil-Guerrero et al.,2020). The nutritional composition and the number

of metabolites differ between pepper types found significant differences in the

The number of proximate, minerals, fatty acids, and amino acids discovered in

different types varied greatly. Further, the nutritional compositions of a variety of

peppers vary depending on their developmental stages, growing locales, and

agricultural practices even within the same variety. For genetic improvement of

metabolic features, especially health-related chemicals, a comparative investigation

of metabolite compositions has been undertaken in a broad collection of peppers.

However, there is little information about the amino acids and vitamin B1, B2, and

B6 components of Capsicum chinense (both green and Red) grown in Ado-Ekiti,

Nigeria. The purpose of this study is to determine the amino acid and the B

vitamins contents of the seed and flesh of green and red scotch bonnet pepper

(Guil-Guerrero et al.,2020).

Those commercially cultivated include Capsicum frutescens, C. annum and

C. chinense. Guil-Guerreroet al. (2020) reported that the treatment of soil with 4 and 6%

spent oil conveniently inhibited germination of Capsicum annum. They discovered that mean

height of leaf area of C. annum in soil treated with 3% spent oil gave very low values. Soils

contaminated by spent oil inhibited the growth of Capsicum sp. The pepper plant is of great

significance . It is used in soups and stew and eaten raw in salads. The fruit of most species

of Capsicum sp contains capsaicin which is a lipophilic chemical that can make burning

sensation in the mouth of unaccustomed eaters. Capsaicin is used in modern medicine as a

circulatory stimulant and pain reliever. Aerosol extract of capsaicin usually known as pepper

spray are used by the police as non-lethal means of incapacitating a person(Guil-Guerrero et

al.,2020).
The species is comprised of about 40 varieties, varying in shape, color and heat levels. Heat

levels range from 0 to 577,000 Scoville units within C. chinense Scotch Bonnet derived its

name from the shape of the fruit. It is also known for its distinct flavor and its pungency,

which places it in the upper range of known heat levels of hot peppers (Wahyuniet al., 2011).

Scientific classification: According to Bentham and Hooker’s

Classification system

Kingdom Plantae

Sub kingdom Phanerogams

Division Angiosperms

Class Dicotyledonae

Sub class Gamopetalae

Series Bicarpellatae

Order Polemoniales

Family Solanaceae

Genus Capsicum

Species annuum

ORIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION

Pepper is believed to be the first spice ever used by humans. Although ancient records and

fossilized foods dating back as far as 6,000 years exist, there is no explicit and consistent
origin for the crop. Some propose that pepper is native to South and Central America, while

others, like Ayorinde (2011), suggest locations such as Bolivia. The Chile Pepper Institute

(CPI) places the origin of chili peppers in Brazil, specifically in the nuclear area. Mohammed

et al. (2016) argue that the crop was domesticated as Capsicum frutescens in the northern half

of South America and later spread to Central America, the Caribbean, Asia, and Africa.

The literature indicates that birds were key agents in the spread of wild chili peppers. Some

scholars believe that chili peppers reached Spain and the Eastern Hemisphere through

Christopher Columbus’ expedition in search of new spices (Mohammed et al., 2016). Today,

chili peppers are cultivated and consumed in nearly every country worldwide (Mohammed et

al., 2016).

Composition

Hot peppers are composed of approximately 83% water, 3% protein, 7% fiber, 6%

carbohydrates, and 0.6% fat. They are excellent sources of several vitamins, particularly

vitamin C, vitamin A, and most of the B vitamins, especially vitamin B6. The highest levels

of these nutrients are typically found in ripe peppers. Additionally, hot peppers contain

significant amounts of potassium, magnesium, and iron (Wahyuni et al., 2011).One of the key

bioactive compounds in hot peppers is capsaicin (methyl-N-vanillyl-nonenamide), a

lipophilic chemical responsible for the burning sensation, or spiciness, experienced when

consumed. While most mammals find capsaicin unpleasant, birds are unaffected by its

effects. The presence of capsaicin in hot peppers serves as a defense mechanism, deterring

insects and mammals from eating the fruit, while the bright colors of the peppers attract birds

that help disperse the seeds.

Biochemical composition
The fruits of Capsicum annuum and Capsicum chinense are rich in capsaicinoids,

carotenoids, flavonoids, vitamins, and minerals. Over the past 50 years, studies have

contributed to identifying the types and percentages of the main chemical constituents in

these plants. The composition and concentration of these compounds can vary based on

genotype, as well as environmental factors such as fruit ripening and cultivation methods.

From a genetic standpoint, the presence or absence of capsaicinoids in the fruit placenta is

determined by the alternative occurrence of three recessive alleles: pun1, pun12, and pun13,

which govern the absence of these compounds. Capsaicinoids, along with other

phytochemicals, are thought to play a role in the plant's natural defense mechanisms against

biotic and abiotic stresses.

Additionally, the proximity of other phytochemical substances in these fruits is beneficial

both to the plant and to human health. For instance, the antioxidant properties of polyphenols

—such as flavonoids and cinnamic acid derivatives—may offer gastric protection in both

human and animal diets. Capsaicin (also known as 8-methyl-N-vanillyl-6-nonenamide,

C₁₆H₂₇NO₃) and dihydrocapsaicin account for approximately 90% of the spice (Kim et al.,

2009).

Varieties of pepper produced in Nigeria

Pepper produced in Nigeria is grouped into two main varieties. These are “sweet pepper”

(capsicum annum) and hot pepper (capsicum frutescens). A number of the hot pepper

varieties are cultivated in Nigeria, some of which include Bird’s eye, Legon 18, M12, Frenso

and Jalapo. These varieties have been categorised as fast growing. Exotic types include

California wonder, world beater, Florida giant, Neopolitan and Cuban. Some local types

found in Asesewa and surrounding communities (the study area)(Kim et al., 2009).
Production and consumption

Chilli pepper is a major vegetable crop with significant market potential. As of 2010, global

production of chilli pepper reached approximately 31 million tons, cultivated on around 1.9

million hectares of land (MIDA, 2010). The global output has increased at an average rate of

about 3.9% per year over the last decade, reflecting a steady rise in demand.

The leading producers of chilli pepper are China (56%), Mexico (8%), Turkey (7%),

Indonesia (5%), Spain (4%), the USA (3%), Nigeria (3%), Egypt (2%), Korea (2%), with

other countries contributing the remaining 10% (FAOSTAT, 2010). Together, China,

Mexico, and Turkey account for more than 70% of global chilli pepper production. Despite

being major producers, evidence indicates that the majority of the chilli pepper produced in

these countries is consumed locally (FAOSTAT, 2010; Kim et al., 2009).

Hot peppers thrive in warm climates and have a relatively long

growing period for optimal production. They can adapt to a wide

range of temperatures and rainfall amounts, and while they are

typically a rainfed crop, they can also be grown under irrigation.

However, waterlogging, even for short periods, can lead to leaf

shedding, and high humidity can encourage fungal growth

(Alegbejo et al., 2006). The ideal growing conditions for hot

peppers include deep, well-drained, medium-textured soil with

ample organic matter and high fertility (e.g., sandy loam).

Peppers can be grown from transplants or direct seeding. In

Uganda, it is recommended to use transplants, with seeds usually

spear grass or banana leaves to protect the seedlings from

excessive sunlight and heavy rains.

To produce seedlings, place seeds in furrows that are 2-3 inches wide. Cover the seeds lightly

and water them regularly. The seedlings will be ready for transplanting in about 4-5 weeks,

when they reach a height of 4-6 inches. Before transplanting, it is important to "harden off"

the seedlings by reducing water and exposing them to sunlight for one week. Transplanting

should be done at the start of the rainy season if irrigation is unavailable.

Farmers generally plant seedlings 3 feet apart within rows and 4 feet apart between rows. The

Agricultural Development Corporation (ADC) recommends two rows per meter-wide bed.

Proper transplanting techniques will ensure optimal growth and yield for the chilli pepper

crop (Alegbejo et al., 2006).

HEALTH BENEFITS

Chili pepper, particularly Capsicum species, has been used in various traditional medicine

systems globally for its therapeutic properties. In Latin America, it has been utilized as a

remedy for dyspepsia, skin rashes, snake bites, rheumatism, and arthritis. The use of chili

pepper spread globally, alongside its production and cultivation.

In Tibetan medicine, the fruit of chili pepper is noted for its medicinal applications, including

the treatment of piles, parasitic protozoa, leprosy, and for accelerating digestive warmth in

the stomach. In Africa, Capsicum species are used as spasmolytic, counter-irritant,

pulmonary sterilant, and antitussive agents.

capsaicinoids, which contribute to the plant's medicinal properties. For instance, Capsicum

annuum has been traditionally used to relieve odontalgia (tooth pain). Chili pepper fruits are

also known to stimulate abdominal activity and improve blood circulation.

Capsicum frutescens has been employed in traditional practices for managing hyperglycemia

and high blood pressure, promoting blood circulation, treating mouth wounds and infected

wounds, reducing blood clots, and enhancing the flow of gastric juices and saliva.

Additionally, chili pepper and its derivatives have been used to treat chronic conditions, such

as diabetes and muscle pain (Bhalabhai et al., 2021).

Medicinal Importance

([Link] (26/5/2011, 5:20am) gave an indication that pepper is

supposed to help with the following ailments:

[Link] pain; heart burn, inadequate stomach juices, indigestion and others

stomach problems.

Stimulates the taste buds which signals the body to produce hydrochloric acid which

helps to break down foods not being digested by stimulating by intestinal pain,

constipation, stiffness, cold, diabetes, dysentery, flu, fluid retention and mental

exhaustion;

Provides mild amount of energy, nicotine craving, and obesity by stimulating the
breakdown of fat cells.

Pepper aids so much in the digestive system, hence its use can correct flatulence and

nausea.

Pepper is an aromatic stimulant, good for the urinary organs. It pepper is gargled

with; it relaxes the uvula and paralysis the tongue.

Antioxidant Properties of Peppers

Peppers are rich in antioxidants, which play a crucial role in protecting cells from oxidative

stress and reducing the risk of chronic diseases. These peppers are particularly high in

carotenoids, flavonoids, and phenolic compounds, all of which contribute to their powerful

antioxidant properties (Adepoju et al., 2020).Capsaicin, the bioactive compound responsible

for the heat in peppers, has also been shown to exhibit significant antioxidant activity. It

scavenges free radicals and modulates oxidative pathways, further enhancing the pepper's

ability to combat oxidative damage (Kwak et al., 2018).

In addition to these compounds, Scotch bonnet peppers are a notable source of vitamin C,

which further boosts their antioxidant capacity. Vitamin C neutralizes reactive oxygen

species (ROS) and regenerates other antioxidants like vitamin E, contributing to cellular

protection and overall health (Olatunji & Afolayan, 2019). The combined effects of these

bioactive compounds make Scotch bonnet peppers an important dietary component for

reducing oxidative stress and supporting general health.

Vitamins and minerals

micronutrients are those needed by the body in minute amounts. Macronutrients such as

carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids provide molecules for the structural and metabolic

activities of the human body, while micronutrients (vitamins and minerals) are essential for

the body’s proper functioning. The need for micronutrients depends on the metabolic

activities as well as on the life cycle of an individual. Even in intrauterine life (Gräslundet al.,

2008).

VITAMIN

Vitamins are organic compounds (or related set of molecules) which are essential

micronutrients that organisms including humans require in minute quantities, usually within

micrograms (millionths of a gram) to milligrams (thousandths of a gram), for proper

functioning of their metabolism. Essential nutrients cannot be made or synthesized in the

human body (organism), either at all or in insufficient amounts, and therefore must be

obtained by the diet, just as some beneficial phytochemicals are not synthesized in the body

(Awuchi, et al., 2020). Vitamin C can be synthesized by a few species but not by others; in

the first instance, it is not a vitamin, but is in the second instance. The term vitamin does not

cover the three other groups of the essential nutrients: minerals, essential amino acids, and

essential fatty acids. Most vitamins are not single molecules, rather they are groups of related

molecules known as vitamers. For instance, vitamin E comprises of four tocopherols and four

tocotrienols. Thirteen vitamins required by human metabolic functions are: vitamin A (as all-

trans-retinyl-esters, alltrans-retinol, and all-trans-beta-carotene as well as other provitamin A

carotenoids), thiamine (vitamin B1), riboflavin (vitamin B2), niacin (vitamin B3),

pantothenic acid (vitamin B5), pyridoxine (vitamin B6), biotin (vitamin B7), folic acid or

folate (vitamin B9), cobalamins (vitamin B12), ascorbic acid (vitamin C), calciferols (vitamin
D), tocopherols and tocotrienols (vitamin E), and quinones (vitamin K). Vitamins have

various biochemical functions. Vitamin A functions as regulator of cells and tissue growth

and differentiation. The B vitamins function as enzyme cofactors and coenzymes or their

precursors. Vitamin D provides hormone-like functions, regulating mineral metabolism for

the bones and other organs in the body. Vitamins C and E act as [Link] cells

oxidation by free radicals in the body. Both deficient and excessive intake of vitamins can

potentially result in clinically significant illness, though excessive intake of water soluble

vitamins is unlikely to do so, the food was the only source of vitamins. If intake of vitamins

was lacking or deficient, the result was deficiency of vitamins and consequent deficiency

diseases. At that moment, commercially manufactured tablets of yeast-extract B complex

vitamins and the semisynthetic vitamin C became available. It was followed in 1950s by

mass production and marketing of the supplements of vitamins, including multivitamins, to

prevent the deficiencies of vitamins in the general population. The governments mandated the

addition of vitamins to staple diets such as milk or flour, known as food fortification, to

prevent the deficiencies. The recommendations for folic acid (folate) supplementation during

pregnancy decreased risks of infant neural tube defects. Although reducing the incidence of

deficiencies of vitamins clearly has benefits, the supplementation is believed to be of small

value for healthy individuals who are consuming vitamin-adequate diets (Fortmannet al.,

2013). The word vitamin was first derived from the term vitamin, coined by Polish

biochemist who isolated complex of micronutrients essential to life, which he presumed to be

amines. After this presumption was later determined to be untrue, the "e" was removed from

the name (Combs, 2007). All vitamins were discovered or identified within 1913 and

[Link] are organic compounds that humans need in small amount quantity, most

vitamin need to come from food because the body either does not produce them or produce in
very little amount example of vitamin water soluble

vitaminsB1,B2,B3,B4,B6,B7,B9,B12,Cand fat soluble vitamin (A D E K)(Rosa et al., 2020).

Vitamin A

Vitamin A was the first fat-soluble vitamin identified in 1913. Beta-carotene is converted to

vitamin A in the liver. It protects the eyes in case of infections and contributes to the vision in

dim light. Vitamin A combines with the protein opsin to form rhodopsin in the retinal rod

cells. When vitamin A levels are inadequate, the lack of rhodopsin makes it difficult to see in

dim light (Gräslundet al., 2008). Vitamin A is also involved in the physiological function of

the epithelia and glands, and in normal cell differentiation.

Vitamin D

The best-known utility of vitamin D is to control the concentration of phosphorus and

calcium in the blood. This anti-rachitic vitamin occurs in a number of forms. Four crystalline

D vitamins are isolated and at least 10 pro-vitamins D are known. For humans, most of the

vitamin D supply comes from animal sources or synthesized following sun exposure

(Gräslundet al., 2008).

Thiamine or vitamin B1

Is water-soluble and acts as coenzyme known thiamine pyrophosphate. Thiamine

pyrophosphate is involved in carbohydrate metabolism. Thiamine pyrophosphate is also

involved in the hexose monophosphate shunt. It is a neuro-protective agent. (Ikeda et al.,

2016).Thiamine is found in nuts, potatoes, meat, beans, and cereals. Its deficiency leads to a

disease known as beriberi. It is often observed in polished rice-eating communities because,

in polished rice, the seed coat, which contains this vitamin, is removed (Ikeda et al., 2016).
Riboflavin (Vitamin B2)

Riboflavin (or lactoflavin) is a yellow crystalline substance. Riboflavin is found in grain,

milk, eggs, liver, oats, and green verdant vegetables. It is involved in tissue respiration. Its

derivatives are FAD (flavin adenine dinucleotide in its oxidized state) and FADH2 (FAD in

its reduced form). FADH2 gives two ATP in the electron transport chain. FAD and FADH2

are involved in oxidation-reduction reactions. One FADH2 is obtained in the TCA cycle

(Barileet al., 2016).

Niacin (Vitamin B3)

It is a water-soluble vitamin essential to the human diet, but can be synthesized in the body

from tryptophan. Its deficiency leads to a condition known as pellagra. It is found in some

cereals, yeast extracts, and meat. In the body, niacin is converted to the NAD (nicotinamide

adenine dinucleotide) coenzyme. These co-enzymes are involved in oxidation-reduction

reactions. They act as coenzymes of the isocitrate dehydrogenase, alpha-ketoglutarate

dehydrogenase and malate dehydrogenase complexes. Niacin has lipid-lowering effects and

can be used in the treatment of diabetes mellitus (Elam et al., 2000).

Vitamin C (Ascorbic Acid)

Is a crystalline solid which is soluble in water. Most animals and plants synthesize ascorbic

acid; however, primates and humans lack gluconolactone oxidase, a key enzyme in the final

step of ascorbate synthesis. Thus, in these species, the daily requirements of vitamin C should

come from the diet. Oranges, lemons, grapefruit, leafy green vegetables and beef liver are the

best sources of vitamin C (Ferraro et al., 2016).

Minerals
In nutrition context, minerals are inorganic elements required as essential nutrients by

organisms/humans to carry out functions necessary for life (Awuchi, 2020; Berdanieret al.,

2013; National Library of Medicine, 2016). However, four major structural elements in

human body by weight (carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, and hydrogen), are normally not included

in the lists of major nutrient minerals (but nitrogen is considered mineral for the plants, as it

is often included in fertilizers). The four elements together compose around 96% of the

weight of human body, and major minerals (called macroelements or macrominerals) and

minor minerals (called trace elements or microelements) make up the remainder. Being

elements, minerals cannot be biochemically synthesized by living organisms/humans. Plants

get their minerals from soil. Most of the minerals in human diets come from eating animals

and plants or from drinking water. Total minerals in food is referred to as ash (Awuchi and

Nwankwere, 2018). As a group, minerals are among the four groups of essential nutrients,

others include vitamins, essential amino acids, and essential fatty acids (US National

Institutes of Health, Bethesda, 2016). They are called essential nutrients because they cannot

be synthesized in the body and therefore must be taken through foods or, in rare cases,

supplements. The five major minerals (inorganic elements) in human body are calcium,

sodium, magnesium, phosphorus, and potassium (Berdanieret al., 2013). All of the remaining

inorganic elements in human body are known as trace elements. The trace elements with

specific biochemical function in human body are zinc, manganese, molybdenum, iodine,

selenium, sulfur, iron, chlorine, cobalt, and copper (Berdanieret al., 2016). Most chemical

elements consumed by organisms/humans are in form of simple compounds. Plants absorb

dissolved elements from soils, which are subsequently consumed by the omnivores and

herbivores that consume them, and the inorganic elements move up the food chain. The larger

organisms may also ingest soil (known as geophagia) or use the mineral resources, such as

the salt licks, to obtain minerals unavailable through other dietary sources. The bacteria and
fungi play essential role in weathering of primary elements that leads to the nutrients release

for their own nutrition and for nutrition of other species in ecological food chain. An element,

cobalt, is only available for use by animals after been processed into complex molecules

(such as vitamin B12) by bacteria. Minerals (inorganic elements) are used by the animals and

the microorganisms for process mineralizing structures, known as "biomineralization", used

to form bones, exoskeletons, mollusc shells, seashells, and eggshells.

Macro-minerals are nutritionally important minerals such as sodium, calcium, phosphorus,

magnesium and potassium. They are classified as macro because the average adult daily

requirement is greater than 100 mg/day(Rosa et al., 2020).

Calcium

Calcium is very essential in musele contraction, oocyte activation, building strong bones and

teeth, blood clotting, nerve impulse, transmission, regulating heart beat and fluid balance

Within cells. The requirements are grentest during the period of growth such as childhood,

during pregnancy, when breast feeding, Long term of calcium deficiency can lead to

oestoporosis in which the bone deteriorates and there is an increased rise of fractures. Eating

a well-balanced diet can provide all the necessary nutrients and help prevent calcium

deficiency.

IRON

Iron is an essential trace element required for various

physiological processes in the human body. It plays a critical role

in oxygen transport, DNA synthesis, and energy metabolism

red blood cells and myoglobin in muscles, iron facilitates oxygen

delivery to tissues and supports cellular respiration (McDowell,

2003). Iron also contributes to enzymatic reactions involved in

neurotransmitter synthesis and immune function, underscoring its

significance for overall health (Beard, 2001).

Magnesium

Magnesium is obtained from hard water, spices, apricots, bananas, soybeans, nuts, green

leafy vegetables, and whole grains. It aids in the maintenance of bone growth and integrity

and is involved in the regulation of the cardiac cycle and the functioning of muscles and

nerves. Deficiency diseases are hypomagnesemia and neuromuscular irritability. Toxicity

symptoms are hypotension, respiratory failure, and cardiac disturbances.

SODIUM

Sodium is an essential electrolyte and mineral that plays a critical

role in maintaining fluid balance, nerve function, and muscle

contraction (Faraco et al., 2018). It is a key component of

extracellular fluid and helps regulate blood pressure by

influencing water retention and vascular resistance (Kotchen et

al., 2013). The human body tightly controls sodium levels through

the kidneys, which adjust excretion in response to dietary intake

and physiological needs (Guyenet, 2014).

It is obtained from whole and skimmed milk, meat, bananas, raisins and prunes. A proper

plasma potassium level is essential for the normal heart functioning. Potassium ions also take

part in the normal functioning of skeletal muscle fibers. Potassium is needed for many

enzyme reactions. Glycogenesis requires the presence of potassium. Insulin administration

causes a fall in plasma potassium level because the deposition of glycogen brought about by

insulin is also accompanied by the deposition of potassium.

ZINC

Zinc is the second most abundant transition metal ion in the human body. It is an important

element for all animals including human beings. Zinc is found in several foods such as rice,

cereals, meat, liver, oysters, cheeses nuts, in several enzymes and DNA-binding proteins. It

plays a significant physiological role in human beings like mammalian reproduction, gene

transcription, immune function, brain function and pathology (Weiss et al., 2000).

Zinc is a contributory factor in neurological disorders like epilepsy and Alzheimer’s disease

and also it can directly control several enzymatic and cellular functions (Frederickson

et al., 2005).