Brain Behaviour

UNIT 2 CONSCIOUSNESS AND NEURO Relationship, Consiousness

and Mind Brain
CHEMICAL PROCESS AND HIGHER Relationship

CEREBRAL FUNCTIONS

Structure
2.0 Introduction
2.1 Objectives
2.2 Consciousness
2.2.1 Definition of Consciousness
2.2.2 Types of Consciousness
2.2.3 Functions of Consciousness
2.2.4 Neurochemistry of Consciousness
2.2.5 Sleep
2.3 Neurochemical Process
2.3.1 Acetylcholine
2.3.2 Noradrenaline
2.3.3 Serotonin
2.3.4 Dopamine
2.3.5 Histamine
2.3.6 Adenosine
2.3.7 Neurotensin
2.4 Neurons
2.4.1 Neurotransmission
2.4.2 Neurotransmitters
2.4.3 Biogenic Amines
2.4.4 Amino Acids
2.4.5 Peptide
2.5 Neurochemical Process and Higher Cerebral Functions
2.5.1 Attention
2.5.2 Neurochemistry of Attention
2.5.3 Memory
2.5.4 Long term Potentiation (LTP)
2.6 Let Us Sum Up
2.7 Unit End Questions
2.8 Suggested Readings
2.9 Answers to Self Assessment Questions

2.0 INTRODUCTION
This unit deals with consciousness, neurochemical process and higher mental
functions. We start with Consciousness, define consciousness, types of consciousness
and functions of consciousness. Then we take up the neurochemistry of
consciousness, followed by sleep and its effect on the consciousness. Then we
deal with the neurochemical processes in which we consider acetylcholine,
noradrenalin, serotonin etc. This is followed by a discussion on neurons and
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Neurobiology and how these connect to each other through synapse. We then present the
Behaviour
neurotransmitters, biogenic amines, amino acides and peptides. Then we discuss
the neurochemical process and higher cerebral functions which takes into account
attention, neurochemistry of attention, memory and long term potentiation.

2.1 OBJECTIVES
After completing this unit, you will be able to:
• Define Consciousness;
• Elucidate the types of consciousness;
• Explain the functions of consciousness;
• Analyse the Neurochemical processes;
• Explain the structure and functions of neurons;
• Describe the role of neurotransmitters, biogenic amines and peptides;
• Relate neurochemical process with higher cerebral functions; and
• Neurochemical process and higher cerebral functions such as attention,
memory etc.

2.2 CONSCIOUSNESS
The importance of the brain in our everyday lives can never be underestimated.
The brain has physical properties that are in a constant state of flux. The brain
never rests totally but is always teeming with electrochemical activity. All
cognitive functions such as consciousness, attention, memory, thinking, the use
of language and many more are reflection of the modulated pattern of chemical
activity among specialised cells i.e. neuron , that are mostly concentrated in the
brain’s cerebral cortex. We owe our entire cognitive universe to the functioning
of these neurons which transmits information in the form of electrical waves.

2.2.1 Definition of Consciousness

Consciousness is a phenomenon that is shared by nearly all people. It cannot be
directly seen or touched. Yet it is real enough to most people. It is the fundamental
state that denotes the being as alive and gives the body the necessary information
about the world outside it and about the body itself. It covers cognitive functions
such as attention, sensory experiences, memory and states such as being awake
or dreaming.
Several definitions of Consciousness have been proposed by different authors:
Consciousness consists of all the sensations, perceptions, memories and feelings
you are aware of at any instance (Farthing, 1992).
Consciousness is the awareness of environmental and cognitive events such as
sights and sounds of the world as well as of one’s memories, thoughts, feelings
and bodily sensations. By this definition consciousness has two sides:
Consciousness includes a realisation of environmental stimuli. For example one
might become mindful of an old tune, a headache, or visual recognition of an old
friend.
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Consciousness also includes once cognisance of mental events – thoughts that Consciousness and Neuro
Chemical Process and
results from memories Higher Cerebral Functions

Consciousness is a psychological construct – a concept i.e. devised to help us

understand our observations or behaviours. The construct of consciousness has
several meanings.
Consciousness as sensory awareness: our sense organs (Eyes, ears, nose etc.)
enable us become aware of the environment.
Consciousness as inner state: We are conscious of thoughts, images, emotions
and memories within ourselves though they may not have physical occurrence
of these aspects.
Consciousness as the waking state: consciousness is also referred to as the waking
state as opposed for example to sleep.
All the above definitions highlight that Consciousness overall constitutes
subjective experience i.e. awareness, the ability to experience feelings and
wakefulness means having a sense of selfhood.
Consciousness can be defined as the immediate knowledge or perception of the
presence of any object, state, or sensation. It is the feeling, persuasion, or
expectation, especially inward sense of guilt or innocence. It actually refers to
the state of being conscious. It is the knowledge of one’s own existence, condition,
sensations, mental operations, acts, etc.

2.2.2 Types of Consciousness

There are two types of consciousness, (i) Individual consciousness (ii) Collective
or Universal consciousness. Let us take up the individual consciousness. Every
individual human being needs consciousness for a happy life. Clear consciousness
forms as a power of consciousness and it can do everything.

The physical brain is not a source of experience as some current neuroscientists

now mistakenly believe. While areas of the brain are associated with different
consciousness functions, many neuroscientists do admit that they cannot locate
emotions, mind, and soul in the brain. They cannot also fully explain the human
psyche with neuroanatomy. The physical brain is a relay station, translating
emotional, mental, and spiritual events and information into neuro electrochemical
events and information.

Neurochemicals and associated brain processes are simply channel selectors for
various states of consciousness. All states of consciousness exist independent of
the physical body. This relay station works in both directions, that is spiritual,
mental, or emotional states trigger neuro electrochemical events in the brain
(physical consciousness) and neurochemical stimulation, for example through
drugs etc., open access to specific states of emotion, thought, or spiritual
awareness. Contemporary physics has proven very clearly that solid physical
matter is an illusion and that all is energy only. Therefore, to say that the solid
physical brain is the mind, is a mistake. While the brain appears to be solid, it is
not. Actually it is the energy appearing solid, but is not solid. It is energy, only.
The mind is also energy, an energy that interacts with the energy that creates the
appearance of a brain.
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Neurobiology and The physical body is composed of the energy states of solids, liquids, and gases
Behaviour
and is dependent upon the etheric body for its vitality, life, organisation, and
many processes that result in health.

2.2.3 Functions of Consciousness

Consciousness allows individuals to be aware of his/her surrounding, thereby
defining the context and removing ambiguities. There are quite a few functions
of consciousness and these are given below:
1) Simplification and Selection of information: There is much “editing” that
goes on in the mind—from the first cuts as the senses to those of perception,
memory, and thinking—but still there is far too much information available
at once, so there needs to be a choice in what the organism does at any
moment. It is in consciousness that the choice is made.
2) Guiding and overseeing actions: Consciousness connects brain and body
states with external occurrences. In order to function in a complex
environment, actions must be planned, guided and organised: We must know
when and where to walk; when to speak and what to say; when to eat, drink,
eliminate, and sleep. These actions must be coordinated with events in the
outside world. At any moment the content of consciousness is what we are
prepared to act on next.
3) Setting priorities for action: It is not enough for our actions to be
coordinated with events in the outside world; they must reflect our internal
needs. Pain can flood consciousness in the same way that an emergency
fills the front page of a newspaper. The priority system gives certain events,
those affecting survival, fast access or a controlling influence on
consciousness. Survival and safety come first; while hunger will not intrude
as dramatically as does pain, the need will be felt if left unattended.
4) Detecting and resolving discrepancies: Since the information selected to
enter consciousness is usually about changes in the external and internal
worlds, when there is a discrepancy between our stored knowledge about
the world and an event, it is more likely to come to consciousness. For
instance, a woman in a bikini would probably not attract too much attention
on the beach, but if she wore the same outfit to a formal dinner it would
certainly be noticed. Discrepancies may arise internally as well. For instance,
you are usually not conscious of your breathing. However, when you have a
cold your breathing may enter your consciousness, and this may tell you to
slow down or to see a doctor. Consciousness involves actions to reduce the
discrepancy, as when you straighten out a crooked painting on the wall
because it does not fit with the other paintings.
Other functions include the following:
5) Adaptation and learning function: Adaptation to novel experiences
requires more conscious involvement, for successful learning and problem
solving.
6) Reflective and Self Monitoring Function: Through conscious inner speech
and imagery one can reflect upon and to some extent control one self’s
conscious and unconscious functioning.
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7) Error Detection and Editing Function: Consciousness helps us avoid Consciousness and Neuro
Chemical Process and
acting solely through habit. It allows us to make novel responses to familiar Higher Cerebral Functions
situations and to use prior knowledge to respond appropriately to novel
situations.
8) Decision-making: Consciousness helps us to make rational decisions instead
of relying on emotional responses.

2.2.4 Neurochemistry of Consciousness

Conscious experience is probably the most familiar mental process that we know,
yet its workings remain mysterious. Consciousness is not directly accessible for
study. Hence the neurochemistry of consciousness is studied by examining the
neurochemical correlates of well recognised natural states and alterations of
consciousness. These include natural functions such as sleep and dreaming,
attention, memory, etc. Altered states constitutes changes induced by drugs and
by pathological states such as dementia, psychotic states etc.

In the present context neuro chemical process of consciousness will be explained

by examining the neurotransmitters involved in waking state through various
stages of sleep.

2.2.5 Sleep
Sleep involves a global alteration of brain functioning, and occupies one third
of our lives, The transition from waking to sleep is one of the most dramatic
natural alterations in consciousness. Sleep is differentiated from waking state by
reduction in neuronal responsiveness, inattention to sensory stimuli, and loss of
consciousness. These two states differ fundamentally in most physiological
parameters including the activity of a variety of key neurotransmitter systems.

Sleep Structure: Electroencephalogram (EEG) recordings reveal the two most

basic states of sleep - REM (Rapid Eye Movement) sleep and NREM sleep.
NREM comprises of four stages (Stages1 to 4). EEG pattern of wakeful state
and different stages of sleep is explained further.

Active wakefulness: It is accompanied by low amplitude, high frequency beta

waves. In relaxed wakefulness with eyes closed, the brain emits alpha waves.
Alpha waves are low amplitude brain waves of about 8 to 13 cycles per second.

NREM (non-rapid-eye-movement) SLEEP

Stage 1 sleep: As an individual becomes drowsy, and enters stage 1, alpha wave
decreases and theta waves appear. Theta waves with a frequency of about 6 to 8
cycles per second are accompanied by slow rolling eye movements. Stage 1 is
the lightest stage of sleep. After 30 to 40 minutes of stage 1 sleep one undergoes
a rather steep descent into stages 2, 3 and 4.
Stage 2 sleep: In stage 2 sleep is composed of largely theta background, and is
characterised by:
Sleep spindles: regular spindle shaped waves of 13-15 cycles/sec with waxing
and waning amplitude
K-complexes- high voltage spikes present intermittently. Stage 2 occupies about
50% of sleep.
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Neurobiology and Stages 3 and 4, Slow wave sleep (SWS): During deep sleep stages 3 and 4,
Behaviour
brain produces slow delta waves. In stage 3 delta waves have a frequency of 1 to
3 cycles per second.

Stage 4 sleep: The deepest stage of sleep, shows predominant delta activity with
frequency of 0.5 to 2 cycles per second and highest amplitude. Slow wave sleep
usually lasts for 70–90 minutes and takes place during the first hours of sleep.

REM (rapid-eye-movement) SLEEP

After deep stage 4 sleep, comes REM sleep. It derives its name from the rapid
eye movements; observable beneath the closed [Link] sleep is characterised
by rapid, low amplitude brain waves similar to that of light stage 1 sleep. REM
sleep is associated with dream.

2.3 NEUROCHEMICAL PROCESS

Alertness and sleep are dependent on the activity of the brain as a whole, although
different levels of consciousness are determined primarily by areas of the brain
stem. A key anatomical structure in the regulation of waking and sleeping, (and
thus consciousness), is the reticular formation, located in the brain stem. It is a
highly complex interlacing network of fiber bundles.
Neuro chemically, there is a great diversity of neurotransmitters present: serotonin,
mainly from the mid-line raphe nuclei; noradrenaline from the locus coeruleus;
acetylcholine from pedunculopontine nuclei with also peptidergic and
dopaminergic components.
The alterations in the activity of these neurotransmitters either triggers or
accompany the onset of natural sleep and distinguish slow wave or non-REM
from REM sleep thus providing one of the most compelling arguments in favour
of chemical neurotransmission being specifically involved in mechanisms of
conscious awareness.
Pharmacological manipulations of these neurotransmitters provide evidence for
the role of neuro chemical processes in consciousness. In this context it is
important to understand that there are two categories of drugs used to vary the
level of neurotransmitters.

Antagonist (drugs that decreases the level of neurotransmitters)

Agonist (drugs that increases the level of neurotransmitters)

2.3.1 Acetylcholine (Ach)

Cholinergic mechanisms are important in wakefulness and cortical activation.
In general, increased acetylcholine is associated with wakefulness and REM sleep
and decreased level of acetylcholine promotes sleep and non-REM sleep
phenomena.

2.3.2 Noradrenaline
Increased level of noradrenalin is implicated in wakefulness. Locus coeruleus
noradrenergic neurons decrease their rate of firing at sleep onset. Drugs that
diminish noradrenergic neurotransmission tend to cause sedation, while the
reverse is the case for drugs that potentiate noradrenergic function.
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2.3.3 Serotonin Consciousness and Neuro
Chemical Process and
Serotonin complements the action of noradrenalin and acetylcholine in promoting Higher Cerebral Functions
wakefulness and cortical responsiveness. Experiments provide evidence that the
level of serotonin during waking is higher in most cortical and subcortical areas
than during sleep.

The seretonergic neurons in the raphe nuclei show the highest firing rate during
waking decrease their firing rate during slow wave sleep.

2.3.4 Dopamine
An increase in dopamine activity produces an increase in wakefulness.
Dopaminergic neurons in the ventral tegmental areas are constantly active
throughout the various stages of sleep, including SWS or non-REM.
D-amphetamine, methylphenidate, high doses of L-dopa and cocaine, which
predominantly enhance dopamine activity, induce arousal and decrease REM
sleep.

2.3.5 Histamine
Histamine is involved in controlling the level of consciousness during waking.
The level of histamine diminishes during sleep and its antagonists induce sleep
and impair daytime vigilance

2.3.6 Adenosine
The adenosine plays a major role in inducing sleep. Injections of adenosine
promote sleep and decrease wakefulness. Conversely, adenosine receptor
antagonists’ caffeine and theophylline are widely used as stimulants to induce
vigilance and promote wakefulness.

During wakefulness adenosine accumulates in the extracellular space of the basal

forebrain. The increase in extracellular adenosine concentration decreases the
activity of the wakefulness-promoting cholinergic neurons in the basal forebrain.
When the activity of the wakefulness-active cells decreases sufficiently sleep is
initiated. During sleep the extracellular adenosine concentrations decrease, and
thus the inhibition of the wakefulness-active cells also decreases allowing the
initiation of a new wakefulness period.

2.3.7 Neurotensin
Although little is known about the role of this peptide during the sleep-wake
cycle, it has recently been shown that neurotensin injections in the basal forebrain
decreases slow wave sleep and increases REM sleep.

Therefore it can be concluded that several neurotransmitters are involved in the

modulation of the sleep-wake cycle. In particular the elevation in adenosine levels
and concomitant reduction in cholinergic, serotonergic, noradrenergic and
histaminergic neurotransmission appear to be specifically related to the sudden
loss or major reduction in conscious awareness that occurs at the onset of sleep.

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Neurobiology and
Behaviour Self Assessment Questions
Match the Following:
1) Neurotensin a) Beta waves
2) Stage 1sleep b) Promotes wakefulness
3) Altered states of consciousness c) Sensations, perceptions,
memories and feelings you are
aware of at any instance
4) Increased level of acetylcholine d) Theta waves
5) Awake e) Dreaming
6) Consciousness f) Increases REM sleep
7) Decreased Histamine g) Pathological states such as
dementia, psychotic states
8) REM sleep h) Induces sleep

2.4 NEURONS
Information is constantly exchanged between the brain and other parts of the
body through both electrical and chemical impulses. Cells called neurons are
responsible for carrying these impulses. A neuron has three main parts. The cell
body directs all the neuron’s activities. Dendrites, short branches that extend out
from the cell body, receive messages from other neurons and pass them on to the
cell body. An axon is a long fibre that transmits messages from the cell body to
the dendrites of other neurons or to other tissues in the body, such as muscles. A
protective covering, called the myelin sheath, covers the axons of many neurons.
Myelin insulates the axons and helps messages from nerve signals travel faster,
farther, and more efficiently.

2.4.1 Neurotransmission
The exchange of information between the axon of one neuron and the dendrites
of another neuron is called neurotransmission. Neurotransmission takes place
26 through the release of chemicals into the space between the axon of the first
neuron and the dendrites of the second neuron. These chemicals are called Consciousness and Neuro
Chemical Process and
neurotransmitters. The space between the axon and the dendrite is called a Higher Cerebral Functions
synapse.

When neurons communicate, an electrical impulse travels down the axon and
causes neurotransmitters to be released from the end of the axon into the synapse.
The neurotransmitters cross the synapse and bind to special molecules, called
receptors, on the dendrite of the second neuron. Receptors are found on the
dendrites and cell bodies of all neurons. The neurotransmitters bind to receptors
in the same way as a key fits into a lock i.e. a specific neurotransmitter binds
only to its corresponding receptor. The receptors convert the information into
chemical or electrical signals which are then transmitted to the cell body and
eventually to the axon. The axon then carries the signal to another neuron or to
body tissues such as muscles.

Once a neurotransmitter binds to a receptor, a series of events follow. First, the

message carried by the neurotransmitter is passed on to the receiving neuron.
Second, the neurotransmitter is inactivated. It is either broken down by an enzyme
or reabsorbed by the axon from which it was released. Other molecules, called
transporter molecules, complete this reabsorption process. These molecules are
located in the cell membranes of the axon that releases the neurotransmitters.
They pick up specific neurotransmitters from the synapse and carry them back
across the cell membrane and into the axon, where they are recycled for use at a
later time.

2.4.2 Neurotransmitters
There are different types of neurotransmitters found in brain. Each
neurotransmitter has a specific role to play in the functioning of the brain.
Cognitive functions rely on neurotransmitter processes to coordinate what signals
are sent between the different areas of the brain. As already discussed above
neurotransmitters are chemicals manufactured by nerve cells and are released
whenever a nerve cell is stimulated. Neurotransmitter messages can be generalised
as either excitatory or inhibitory messages. An excitatory neurotransmitter is
one that increases the activity of neurons, and an inhibitory neurotransmitter
decreases the activity of neurons.
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Neurobiology and The three principal neurotransmitters systems found in the brain are:
Behaviour
Biogenic amines
The biogenic amines are the best understood neurotransmitters because they were
the first to be discovered and constitute the neurotransmitter substance in only a
small percentage of neurons. Biogenic amines include dopamine, epinephrine,
norepinephrine, serotonin, acetylcholine, and Histamine

Amino acids
Amino acids were discovered later and are present in 70% of neurons.
Gamaaminobutyric acid (GABA) and Glutamate are examples of aminoacids.

Peptides
The peptide neurotransmitters are intermediate in terms of the percentage of
neurons that contain such neurotransmitter.
Brief description of each neurotransmitter is given below:

2.4.3 Biogenic Amines

Acetylcholine
Acetylcholine is found in many parts of the brain having particularly high
concentrations in the cerebral cortex, limbic system, basal, forebrain,
hypothalamus and thalamus.

Receptors
The two major types of cholinergic receptors are muscarinic and nicotinic.

Dopamine
Dopaminergic neurons occur in two closely connected groups: Ventral tegmental
area (VTA) of the midbrain and Substantia nigra,(in medial region of the
midbrain). While substantia nigra neurons project to the striatum, VTA neurons
serves to most areas of cerebral cortex and limbic system.

Receptors
At least five types of Dopamine receptors, D1 to D5 are known to exist. D1 and
D2 are evenly distributed in the straitum. D2 receptors also occur throughout
the cerebral cortex particularly temporal lobe. D3 receptors are concentrated in
the limbic portion, and in hippocampus.

Norepinephrine and Epinephrine

The major concentration of noradrenergic (and adrenergic) cell bodies is found
in locus ceruleus a nucleus in the reticular formation. The axons of these neurons
project through the medial forebrain to the cerebral cortex, the limbic system the
thalamus and the hypothalamus.

Receptors
The two broad groups of adrenergic and noradrenergic receptors are á-adrenergic
receptors and â-adrenergic receptors. The á-adrenergic receptors are further
subdivided into two types á1, á 2 and â-adrenergic receptors are subdivided into
â1 â2 and â3 . The â1 subtype predominates in the cerebral cortex and â2 in the
28 cerebellum.
Serotonin Consciousness and Neuro
Chemical Process and
The major site of serotonergic cell bodies is in upper pons and the midbrain, Higher Cerebral Functions
specifically the median and dorsal raphe nuclei and to a lesser extent in caudal
locus ceruleus . These neurons serve to the basal ganglia, limbic system and
cerebral cortex.

Receptors
Seven types of serotonin receptors have been recognised: 5-HT1 through 5-HT7
receptors with numerous subtypes, totaling 14 distinct receptors. 5HT1A receptors
are widely distributed, concentrated in limbic areas (e.g., hippocampus and
amygdala), in the cerebral cortex and also in raphé nuclei. Basal ganglia and
hippocampus have 5HT1B receptors, and the 5HT1D receptor subtype is also
evident in basal ganglia. 5HT2 or 5HT2A receptors are concentrated in cerebral
cortex. 5HT3 receptors are present at low densities in cortex with highest densities
in medulla and spinal cord.

Histamine
A fifth member of the monoamine transmitter group is histamine. That release
histamine as their neurotransmitter is located in the hypothalamus and project
to cerebral cortex, limbic system and thalamus.

Receptors
There are three types of histamine receptors. H1 receptors occur throughout the
CNS with particularly high densities in the thalamus and hippocampus H2
receptors are concentrated in the striatum, hippocampus and thalamus and H3
receptors in cortex, hippocampus and amygdala.

2.4.4 Amino Acids

GABA (Gamaaminobutyric acid)
GABA is the principal inhibitory transmitter in the brain. The concentration of
GABA is up to 1000 times greater than that of other transmitters like acetylcholine
or dopamine. Neurons containing GABA are relatively small, and widely
distributed, especially in regions—cerebral cortex, striatum, hypothalamus,
septum and thalamus.

Receptors
There are two types of GABA receptors: GABAA and GABAB.

Glutamate
It is the principal excitatory transmitter in the brain and is found throughout the
central nervous system.

Receptors
Glutamate receptors include NMDA (N-methyl-D-aspartate) and AMPA
(amino3hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazole proprionic acid) subtypes which are
concentrated in cortex and striatum, and the kainate subtype.

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Neurobiology and 2.4.5 Peptide
Behaviour
There are as many as 300 peptide neurotransmitters found in the brain. Peptide
is a short protein consisting of fewer than 100 amino acids. Examples of peptides
are somatostatin, neuropeptide Y, galanin, substance P, neurotensin, vasopressin
adenosine etc. Peptide implicated in consciousness is discussed below.

Adenosine
Adenosine has four different receptor subtypes (A1, A2A, A2B and A3).
Adenosine A2A receptors are concentrated in striatum. Adenosine receptor
modulation is one of the most important modulatory mechanisms of altering the
level of consciousness.

Neurotensin
Neurons containing neurotensin (NT) are concentrated in the hypothalamus,
striatum, amygdala. Receptors are localised in basal forebrain cholinergic neurons,
dopaminergic nuclei and hypothalamus.

Self Assessment Questions

1) An excitatory neurotransmitter ......................... the activity of neurons.
2) The space between the axon and the dendrites is called ....................
3) ........................... is the principal inhibitory transmitter in the brain.
4) The three parts of a neuron are ...................., ........................, and
................................................................
5) The two receptors of Acetylcholine neurotransmitter is .......................,
....................................................................
6) The axon of a neuron is covered by ...................................................
7) The two amino acids are ...........................and,....................................

2.5 NEUROCHEMICAL PROCESS AND HIGHER

CEREBRAL FUNCTIONS
As discussed above consciousness is a combination of multiple higher cerebral
functions. The knowledge of the neuro chemical processes involved in these
functions also contributes to the understanding of consciousness. Two of the
most important higher cerebral activities i.e. attention and memory is discussed
below.

2.5.1 Attention
Attention can be defined as “the concentration of mental effort on sensory or
mental events.

There are three types of attention selective attention, sustained attention and
divided attention.

Selective or Focused attention refers to the capacity to perform a task in the

presence of distracting stimuli. The capacity to listen to conversation at a railway
station, identify a friend in crowd.
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Sustained attention requires ‘holding’ attention over relatively long periods of Consciousness and Neuro
Chemical Process and
time. The capacity to study or the capacity to listen to a lecture for an extended Higher Cerebral Functions
length of time is an example of sustained attention.

Divided attention refers to the ability to perform or attend to two or more tasks
simultaneously. The concept of divided attention explains dual tasking, wherein
two tasks require effort and attention. For example a subject may be presented
with stimuli which vary with respect to color and motion and monitor changes
in both the dimensions.

2.5.2 Neurochemistry of Attention

Different neurotransmitters systems are implicated in attention. Cholinergic,
dopaminergic and serotonergic systems play major roles in neurochemical
machinery of attention.

Acetylcholine: More than any other neurotransmitter, acetylcholine has been

implicated in attentional processes. Blockage of Muscarinic receptors by a drug
scopolamine (antagonist) results in impaired performance on a number of task
measuring sustained attention. On the other hand Nicotine (agonist) administration
improves task performance on the measures of sustained attention. Lesions of
the basal forebrain cholinergic system result in impaired attentional function in
rats and monkeys. Therefore it seems that increased level of acetylcholine is
important for sustained attention.

Dopamine: Dopamine plays a pivotal role in aspects of shifting attention.

Administration of D1/D2 receptor antagonist haloperidol impairs the ability to
shift attention from one aspect to another aspect of a task. Thus increased level
of dopamine is required to enhance the ability of shifting attention.

Seretonin: Low level of serotonin is implicated in the improved performance

on tasks assessing focussed attention.

2.5.3 Memory
Memory is the retention of information over time.
Stages or Process of Memory: There are three stages of memory
Encoding process: It is the process of receiving sensory input and transforming
it into a form or code, which can be stored.
Storage: It is the process of actually putting coded information into memory.
There are three systems of memory storage
Sensory memory: It holds information from the external world in its original
sensory form for fraction of a second to few seconds. Information is quickly lost
if not transferred into short term or long term memory.
Short-term memory: It is a limited capacity memory system in which
information is retained for only as long as 30 seconds unless strategies are used
to retain it longer.
Long-term memory: It is a relatively permanent type of memory that stores
huge amount of information for a long time. Long-term memory is further divided
into explicit and implicit memory.
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Neurobiology and Explicit memory: This is the conscious recollection of information such as
Behaviour
specific facts or events and at least in humans that can be verbally communicated.
There are two subtypes of explicit memory.
Episodic memory: It is the retention of information about the where and when
of life’s happening.
Semantic Memory: Semantic means meanings. It is a person’s knowledge about
the world. It includes general knowledge, knowledge about meanings of words
famous individuals, important places etc.
Implicit memory: It is related to unconsciously remembering skills and
perceptions rather than consciously remembering facts. Examples include skills
of driving a car or typing. Once learnt the individuals do not have to remember
consciously how to drive a car or type. The subsystems of implicit memory are:
Procedural memory involves memory for skills.
Classical conditioning: It implies automatic learning of associations between
stimuli. A small child may develop fear of dogs if the dog approaches the child
and barks on him repeatedly.
Working Memory: It has often been suggested that memory does not always
work in three stage sequence and the model of memory system comprising of
sensory, short-term and long-term memory is too simplistic.
Therefore another concept has been introduced by Alan Baddeley i.e. Working
Memory.
It is a system that temporarily holds information as people perform cognitive
tasks. It is a kind of mental workbench on which information in manipulated and
assembled to help us comprehend language, make decisions and solve problems.
It is an active memory system.
Retrieval: This is the process of gaining access to stored, coded information
when it is needed.
Neurochemistry of Memory: Memory is the result of certain neural mechanism
and biochemical responses in the brain following sensory input. First the neural
mechanism will be discussed followed with the role of various neurotransmitters.

2.5.4 Long Term Potentiation (LTP)

It is a neural mechanism that plays a role in encoding of new information.
Encoding takes place as a result of changes in the strength of synapses among
neurons in neuronal networks that process and store information. This change
occurs when one or more axons connected to some dendrite bombard it with a
brief but rapid series of stimuli-such as 100 synaptic excitations per second for
1to 4 seconds. The burst of intense stimulation leaves the synapses potentiated
(more responsive to new input of the same type) for minutes, days or weeks.
This phenomenon is termed as long term potentiation. It occurs in many brain
areas and is particularly prominent in hippocampus.

The chemicals involved in LTP are glutamate and its receptors – NMDA and
AMPA. A wide variety of drugs that interfere with LTP also blocks encoding
process whereas drugs that facilitate LTP enhance the process.
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Acetylcholine Consciousness and Neuro
Chemical Process and
Acetylcholine, a well known neurotransmitter, plays a critical synaptic role in Higher Cerebral Functions
the initial formation of memory. Chemical blockage of the acetylcholine receptors
makes it harder to learn and remember even in healthy young people. Evidence
for it comes from pharmacological studies conducted on human subjects wherein
blockage of muscarinic cholinergic receptors by drugs such as scopolamine
impaired the encoding of new memories. Conversely, drugs which activated
nicotinic receptors enhanced the encoding of new information.

Similarly administration of scopolamine into the hippocampus impaired encoding

of spatial memory. It has also been found that administration of drug that increases
the level of acetylcholine in Alzheimer’s disease (characterised of memory
problems) improves memory by inhibiting the action of acetyl cholinesterase, an
enzyme that breaks down acetylcholine and reduces its amount.

Overall it can be said that decreased acetylcholine in the brain cause problems
with memory function.

Serotonin
Increased level of serotonin is implicated in the enhancement of memory. It plays
a significant role in classical conditioning wherein stimuli are paired repeatedly,
by increasing the efficiency of neural transmission at certain synapses. It has
been also found that a chemical lesion in the raphe nuclei containing large
concentration of serotonin leads to memory problem.

Adrenaline and Noradrenaline

Both these neurotransmitter strengthen memory when they are released into the
blood stream following learning. Stressful events stimulate release of stress
hormones from the adrenal glands-adrenaline and steroids-which in turn stimulate
amygdala (a structure in limbic system) to release noradrenaline. These hormones
and neurotransmitters acting together heighten memory for stressful events.

Dopamine
Dopamine is important for working memory and drug that increases the level of
dopamine in the brain or facilities the action of dopamine, enhances working
memory [Link] helps to maintain the ongoing information in
the face of interference by signaling when the information in working memory
should be updated. It is suggested that anatomy of the dopamine system is such
that dopamine-producing cells have a strong connection to the prefrontal cortex–
the brain region that is considered most important for protecting maintained
information from distraction.

Self Assessment Questions

Put True or False to the following statements:
1) Decreased acetylcholine improves memory functioning. ( )
2) Noradrenalin plays role in emotional memory. ( )
3) Scopolamine is a drug that increases acetylcholine. ( )
4) Increased level of Serotonin enhances focused attention. ( )

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Neurobiology and
Behaviour 5) Nicotinic receptor improves memory. ( )
6) In long-term potentiation axons bombard dendrite with a
brief but rapid series of stimuli. ( )
7) Implicit memory involves unconscious processing. ( )
8) Glutamate is involved in Long term potentiation of synapses. ( )
9) Selective attention requires holding of attention over relatively
long periods of time. ( )
10) Working memory is a permanent storage of information. ( )

2.6 LET US SUM UP

In this unit you have read all about the Cells called neurons that are responsible
for carrying electrochemical impulses. A neuron comprises of a cell body,
dendrites, and axon. The exchange of information between the axon of one neuron
and the dendrites of another neuronon is called neurotransmission and it takes
place through the release of chemicals called neurotransmitters.

Neurotransmitters cross the synapse and bind to special molecules, called

receptors and thereafter they are inactivated.

The three principal neurotransmitters systems found in the brain are biogenic
amines, amino acids and peptides.

Consciousness overall constitutes subjective experience i.e. awareness, the ability

to experience feelings and wakefulness means having a sense of selfhood.

Functions of Consciousness includes defining context, adaptation and learning

function, reflective and self monitoring function, error detection and editing
function, decision-making.

Since consciousness is not directly accessible for study, the neurochemistry of

consciousness is studied by examining the neurochemical correlates of its natural
and altered states.

In the present context neurochemical process of consciousness has been explained

by examining the neurotransmitters involved in waking state through various
stages of sleep.

Neurotransmitters implicated are elevated levels of cholinergic, serotonergic,

noradrenergic, dopaminergic and histaminergic neurotransmission contribute to
waking state and increased adenosine induces sleep.

Since consciousness covers multiple higher cerebral function. The two most
important discussed here are attentional process and memory.

Attention is “the concentration of mental effort on sensory or mental events and

its subtypes are selective attention, sustained attention and divided attention.

Increased level of acetylcholine and dopamine is implicated in sustained attention

and shifting of attention whereas low level of serotonin is implicated in focused
attention.
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Memory is the retention of information over time and comprises of three stages Consciousness and Neuro
Chemical Process and
encoding process, storage and retrieval. Subtypes of memory include sensory Higher Cerebral Functions
memory, short-term memory and long-term memory.

In biochemical process of memory glutamate is implicated in long term

potentiation (LTP), increased levels of acetylcholine and plays a critical synaptic
role in the encoding of memory.

Increased level of serotonin is implicated in classical conditioning. Adrenaline

and Noradrenaline plays role in memory for stressful events whereas increased
level of Dopamine is important for working memory.

2.7 UNIT END QUESTIONS

1) What is a neuron? Explain with the help of a diagram the different parts of
a neuron.
2) What are different types of biogenic amines? Briefly describe the areas in
the brain where the amino acids are mainly found along with the receptors.
3) Define consciousness and its functions.
4) Briefly describe the biochemical mechanism of consciousness.
5) Define attention and its subtypes. Briefly discuss the neurochemicals
implicated in attentional processes.

2.8 SUGGESTED READINGS

Kalat, J.W. (2001). Biological Psychology. Thomson Learning. Canada.

Levinthal, C.F. (1990). Introduction to Physiological Psychology. Pearson

Education. New jersy, U.S.A.

Perry, E., Ashton. H., & Young, A. (2001) Neurochemistry of Consciousness

John Benjamins Publishing Company, Amsterdam, Philadelphia

Santrock, J.W. (2006). Psychology Essentials. Tata McGraw Hill, New Delhi

Solso, R. L. (2001). Cognitive Psychology. Dorling Kindersley Pvt. Ltd. India

2.9 ANSWERS TO SELF ASSESSMENT

QUESTIONS
Fill in the Blanks

1) Increase, 2) Synapse, 3) GABA, 4) Cell body, axon, and dendrites.

5) Muscarinic and Nicotinic, 6) Myelin seath, 7) GABA andGlutamate.

Match the Following: 1f, 2d, 3g, 4b,5a, 6c, 7h, 8e.

True or False

1) F, 2) T, 3) F, 4) F ,5) T, 6) T , 7) T, 8) T, 9) F, 10) F.

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