CHAPTER - 6

LIFE PROCESSES
LIFE PROCESS
The maintenance of living organisms must go on even at the conditions, when they are not
physically active. Even when we sit idle and during sleeping, this maintenance job through
cells functioning has to go on. The life process includes the activities performed by the
different organs to maintain the body.

Some of the life processes in the living beings are described below:

Nutrition
The process of obtaining energy through consumption of food is called as nutrition.

Respiration
The process of acquiring oxygen through breathing and make it available to cells for the
process of breaking down of organic substances into simpler compounds is called as
respiration.

Transportation
Transportation is the process by which the food and oxygen is carried from one organ
to other organs in the body.

Excretion
It is the process by which the metabolic waste by-products are removed from the
different organs and released out from the body.

INTEXT OUESTIONS PAGE NO. 95

Question 1: Why is diffusion insufficient to meet the oxygen requirements of

multicellular organisms like humans?
Answer : Multicellular organisms such as humans possess complex body designs. They have
specialised cells and tissues for performing various necessary functions of the body such as
intake of food and oxygen. Unlike unicellular organisms, multicellular cells are not in direct
contact with the outside environment. Therefore, diffusion cannot meet their oxygen
requirements.

Question 2: What criteria do we use to decide whether something is alive?

Answer : Any visible movement such as walking, breathing, or growing is generally used to
decide whether something is alive or not. However, a living organism can also have
movements, which are not visible to the naked eye. Therefore, the presence of life processes is
a fundamental criterion that can be used to decide whether something is alive or not.

Question 3: What are outside raw materials used for by an organism?

Answer : An organism uses outside raw materials mostly in the form of food and oxygen. The
raw materials required by an organism can be quite varied depending on the complexity of the
organism and its environment.
Question 4: What processes would you consider essential for maintaining life?
Answer : Life processes such as nutrition, respiration, transportation, excretion, etc. are
essential for maintaining life.
NUTRITION

The process by which an organism takes food and utilizes it is called nutrition.

NEED OF NUTRITION
Organisms need energy to perform various activities. The energy is supplied by the nutrients.
Organisms need various raw materials for growth and repair. These raw materials are provided
by nutrients.

NUTRIENTS
Materials which provide nutrition to organisms are called nutrients. Carbohydrates, proteins
and fats are the main nutrients and are called macronutrients. Minerals and vitamins are
required in small amounts and hence are called micronutrients.

TYPES OF NUTRITION:
Autotrophic Nutrition: The mode of nutrition in which an organism prepares its own
food is called autotrophic nutrition. Green plants and blue-green algae follow the
autotrophic mode of nutrition.
Heterotrophic Nutrition: The mode of nutrition in which an organism takes food from
another organism is called heterotrophic nutrition. Organisms; other than green plants
and blue-green algae follow heterotrophic mode of nutrition.

AUTOTROPHIC NUTRITION
Autotrophic organisms are able to produce organic matter from simple inorganic materials.
They consequently create their own food—but require a source of energy to do this.
Photoautotrophs harvest energy from light to produce organic matter.
Chemoautotrophs use energy from Inorganic reactions in the environment to drive the
creation of organic matter.
Types Of Nutrition

AUTOTROPHS
HETEROTROPHS

(autos : self ; trophos : feed)

Use simple inorganic substances
and either light energy
(photosynthesis) or chemical
energy (chemosynthesis) to

HETEROTROPHIC NUTRITION
Heterotrophic nutritrion is typical of animals. These organisms eat organic matter in other
organisms—either alive (as hunters) or dead (as scavengers).
Saprotrophic organisms are the decay organisms. They digest dead materials using enzymes
that they secrete externally. Fungi and many bacteria are saprotrophes. Parasites (biotrophs)
feed on living organisms without killing them.

Heterotrophic nutrition can be further divided into two types, viz. saprophytic nutrition and
holozoic nutrition.
Saprophytic Nutrition: In saprophytic nutrition; the organism secretes the digestive
juices on the food. The food is digested while it is still to be ingested. The digested
food is then ingested by the organism. All the decomposers follow saprophytic
nutrition. Some insects; like houseflies; also follow this mode of nutrition.
 o Holozoic Nutrition: In holozoic nutrition; the digestion happens inside the body of the
organism, i.e. after the food is ingested. Most of the animals follow this mode of
nutrition.
organisms

holozoic parasitic
(most animals, (some bacteria,
carnivorous plants, fungi, protists,
some protists) animals,
plants)

PLANT NUTRITION
Green plants prepare their own food. They make food in the presence of sunlight. Sunlight
provides energy, carbon dioxide and water are the raw materials and chloroplast is the site
where food is made.
 Inflorescence

Host Stem

Roots

PHOTOSYNTHESIS: The process by which green plants prepare food is called

photosynthesis. During this process; the solar energy is converted into chemical energy and
carbohydrates are formed. Green leaves are the main sites of photosynthesis. The green portion
of the plant contains a pigment chloroplast; which contains chlorophyll. The whole process of
photosynthesis can be shown by following equation:

food
parts
iodine

the roots enters through the

stomataof the leaves.
STEPS OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS:
Sunlight activates chlorophyll; which leads to splitting of water molecule.
 The hydrogen; released by splitting of water molecule is utilized for reduction of
carbon dioxide to produce carbohydrates. Oxygen is the byproduct of
photosynthesis.
Carbohydrate is subsequently converted into starch and is stored In leaves and other
storage parts.
The splitting of water molecules is part of the light reaction.
Other steps are part of the dark reaction during photosynthesis.

HOW DO RAW MATERIALS FOR PHOTOSYNTHESIS BECOME AVAILABLE

TO THE PLANT?
Water comes from soil; through the xylem tissue in roots and stems. Carbon
dioxide comes in the leaves through stomata.
SIGNIFICANCE OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS:
Photosynthesis is the main way through which the solar energy is made available for
different living beings.
Green plants are the main producers of food in the ecosystem. All other organisms
directly or indirectly depend on green plants for food.
The process of photosynthesis also helps in maintaining the balance of carbon dioxide
and oxygen in the air.

molecules

ANIMAL NUTRITION
Heterotrophic Nutrition: When an organism takes food from another organism, it is called
heterotrophic nutrition. Different heterotrophic organisms follow different methods to take and
utilize food. Based on this, heterotrophic nutrition can be divided into two types:
Saprophytic Nutrition: In saprophytic nutrition, the digestion of food takes place before
ingestion of food. This type of nutrition is usually seen in fungi and some other
microorganisms. The organism secretes digestive enzymes on the food and then ingests
the simple substances. Saprophytes feed on dead materials and thus help in
decomposition dead remains of plants and animals.

Holozoic Nutrition: In holozoic nutrition, the digestion of food follows after the ingestion
of food. Thus, digestion takes place inside the body of the organism. Holozoic nutrition
happens in five steps, viz. ingestion, digestion, absorption, assimilation and egestion.

HETEROTROPHIC
Holozoic Nutrition Saprophytism Parasitism

• The organism feed by • Saprophytes. • Obtains nutrients ingesting solid • Feed on dead
and from living organic matter which decaying matter. organisms is then digested and •
Include bacteria • The parasite absorbed into their and fungi which obtains nutrients
bodies. digest the food by living on or in
 • Eg. human, animals externally before the body of the and insectivorous the nutrients are
host. plants absorbed. • Eg. fleas, lice and tapeworms
STEPS OF HOLOZOIC NUTRITION
• Ingestion: The process of taking in the food is called ingestion.
• Digestion: The process of breaking complex food substances into simple molecules is
called digestion. Simple molecules; thus obtained; can be absorbed by the body.
• Absorption: The process of absorption of digested food is called absorption.
• Assimilation: The process of utilization of digested food; for energy and for growth and
repair is called assimilation.
• Egestion: The process of removing undigested food from the body is called egestion.

NUTRITION IN AMOEBA:

Amoeba is a unicellular animal which follows holozoic mode of nutrition. The cell membrane
of amoeba keeps on protruding into pseudopodia. Amoeba surrounds a food particle with
pseudopodia and makes a food vacuole. The food vacuole contains the food particle and
water. Digestive enzymes are secreted in the food vacuole and digestion takes place. After
that, digested food is absorbed from the food vacuole. Finally, the food vacuole moves near
the cell membrane and undigested food is expelled out.

NUTRITION IN HUMAN BEINGS

Human beings are complex animals; which have a complex digestive system. The human
digestive system is composed of an alimentary canal and some accessory glands. The
alimentary canal is divided into several parts, viz. oesophagus, stomach, small intestine, large
intestine, rectum and anus. Salivary gland, liver and pancreas are the accessory glands which
lie outside the alimentary canal.
STRUCTURE OF THE HUMAN DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

Mouth or Buccal Cavity: The mouth has teeth and tongue. Salivary glands are also present in
the mouth. The tongue has gustatory receptors which perceive the sense of taste. Tongue
helps in turning over the food, so that saliva can be properly mixed in it.
Teeth help in breaking down the food into smaller particles so that swallowing of food
becomes easier. There are four types of teeth in human beings. The incisor teeth are used for
cutting the food. The canine teeth are used for tearing the food and for cracking hard
substances. The premolars are used for coarse grinding of food. The molars are used for fine
grinding of food.
Salivary glands secrete saliva. Saliva makes the food slippery which makes it easy to swallow
the food. Saliva also contains the enzyme salivary amylase or ptyalin. Salivary amylase digests
starch and converts it Into sucrose.
pharynx

System oral cavity

salivary tongue glands

stomach pancreas pancreatic duct common bile duct transverse

colon small intestine ascending colon descending colon cecum
sigmoid colon rectum anal canal
Stomach: Stomach is a bag-like organ. Highly muscular walls of the stomach help in churning
the food. The walls of stomach secrete hydrochloric acid. Hydrochloric acid kills the germs
which may be present in food. Moreover, it makes the medium inside stomach as acidic. The
acidic medium is necessary for gastric enzymes to work. The enzyme pepsin; secreted in
stomach; does partial digestion of protein. The mucus; secreted by the walls of the stomach
saves the inner lining of stomach from getting damaged from hydrochloric acid.

Small Intestine: It is a highly coiled tube-like structure. The small intestine is longer than the
large intestine but its lumen is smaller than that of the large intestine. The small intestine is
divided into three parts, viz. duodenum, jejunum and ileum.

Liver: Liver is the largest organ in the human body. Liver manufactures bile; which gets stored
in gall bladder. From the gall bladder, bile is released as and when required.

Pancreas: Pancreas is situated below the stomach. It secretes pancreatic juice which contains
many digestive enzymes.
Bile and pancreatic juice go to the duodenum through a hepato-pancreatic duct. Bile breaks
down fat into smaller particles. This process is called emulsification of fat. After that, the
 enzyme lipase digests fat into fatty acids and glycerol. Trypsin and chymotrypsin are
enzymes which digest protein into amino acids. Complex carbohydrates are digested into
glucose. The major part of digestion takes place in the duodenum.
No digestion takes place In jejunum. The inner wall in the ileum is projected into numerous
finger-like structures; called villi. Villi increase the surface area inside the ileum so that
optimum absorption can take place. Moreover, Villi also reduce the lumen of the ileum so
that food can stay for longer duration in it; for optimum absorption. Digested food is
absorbed by villi.

Large Intestine: Large intestine is smaller than small intestine. Undigested food goes into the
large intestine. Some water and salt are absorbed by the walls of the large intestine. After that,
the undigested food goes to the rectum; from where it is expelled out through the anus.

Flow chart of human digestive system

Health aspects of the alimentary canal

INTEXT OUESTIONS PAGE NO. 101

Question 1: What are the differences between autotrophic nutrition and heterotrophic
nutrition?
Answer :
Autotrophic nutrition Heterotrophic nutrition
1. Food is synthesised from simple 1. Food is obtained directly or indirectly
inorganic raw materials such as C02 from autotrophs. This food is broken
and water. down with the help of enzymes.
2. Presence of green pigment 2. No pigment is required in this type of
(chloroph Il is necessa nutrition.
 3. Food is generally prepared during 3. Food can be prepared at all times.
day time.
4. All green plants and some bacteria 4. All animals and fungi have this type
have this type of nutrition. of nutrition.
Question 2: Where do plants get each of the raw materials required for photosynthesis?
Answer : The following raw materials are required for photosynthesis: The raw
material C02 enters from the atmosphere through stomata.
Water is absorbed from the soil by the plant roots.
Sunlight, an important component to manufacture food, is absorbed by the
chlorophyll and other green parts of the plants.

Question 3: What is the role of the acid in our stomach?

Answer : Following are the roles of acid in our stomach:
1. The hydrochloric acid present in our stomach dissolves bits of food and creates an acidic
medium. In this acidic medium, enzyme pepsmogen is converted to pepsin, which is a
protein-digesting enzyme.
2. The hydrochloric acid kills the harmful microbes that enter with food and thus prevents
infection of digestive tract.

Question 4: What is the function of digestive enzymes?

Answer : Digestive enzymes such as amylase, lipase, pepsin, trypsin, etc. help in the breaking
down of complex food particles into simple ones. These simple particles can be easily absorbed
by the blood and thus transported to all the cells of the body.

Question 5: How is the small intestine designed to absorb digested food?

Answer : The small intestine has millions of tiny finger-like projections called villi. These Villi
increase the surface area for more efficient food absorption. Within these villi, many blood
vessels are present that absorb the digested food and carry it to the blood stream. From the
blood stream, the absorbed food is delivered to each and every cell
of the body.

Lacteal

Blood vessel

RESPIRATION
The process by which a living being utilizes the food to get energy is called respiration.
Respiration is an oxidation reaction in which carbohydrate is oxidized to produce energy.
Mitochondrion is the site of respiration and the energy released is stored in the form of ATP
(Adenosine triphosphate). ATP is stored in mitochondria and is released as per need.

STEPS OF RESPIRATION:
Breaking down glucose into pyruvate: This step happens in the cytoplasm. Glucose
molecule is broken down Into pyruvic acid. Glucose molecule is composed of 6 carbon
atoms, while pyruvic acid is composed of 3 carbon atoms.
Fate of Pyruvic Acid: Further breaking down of pyruvic acid takes place in
mitochondria and the molecules formed depend on the type of respiration in a particular
organism. Respiration is of two types, VIZ. aerobic respiration and anaerobic
respiration.

TYPES OF RESPIRATION:
Aerobic Respiration: This type of respiration happens in the presence of oxygen.
Pyruvic acid is converted into carbon dioxide. Energy is released and water molecule is
also formed at the end of this process.
Anaerobic Respiration: This type of respiration happens in the absence of oxygen.
Pyruvic acid is either converted into ethyl alcohol or lactic acid. Ethyl alcohol is usually
 formed in case of anaerobic respiration in microbes; like yeast or bacteria. Lactic acid is
formed in some microbes as well as in the muscle cells.

Glucose *Pyruvate Lactic acid +

(3 carbon compound) Energy Ex:
+ Energy Bacteria

Ethanol + C02+
Energy Ex: Yeast

aerobic

C6H1206 + 602 many respiration steps > 6C02 +

6}-120 + 38ATP
glucose oxy gen carbon dioxide water (usable energy)
(stored energy)
anaerobic Lactic

C6H1206glucose fewer steps 2 A c i d s (usable energy)

(stored energy) (in humans)

Pain in Leg Muscles on Running: When someone runs too fast, he may experience a throbbing
pain in the leg muscles. This happens because of anaerobic respiration taking place in the
muscles. During running, the energy demand from the muscle cells increases. This is
compensated by anaerobic respiration and lactic acid is formed in the process. The deposition
of lactic acid causes the pain the leg muscles. The pain subsides after taking rest for some time.

Exchange of Gases: For aerobic respiration; organisms need a continuous supply of oxygen,
and carbon dioxide produced during the process needs to be removed from the body. Different
organisms use different methods for intake of oxygen and expulsion of carbon dioxide.
Diffusion is the method which is utilized by unicellular and some simple organisms for this
purpose. In plants also, diffusion is utilized for exchange of gases. In complex animals,
respiratory system does the job of exchange of gases. Gills are the respiratory organs for fishes.
Fishes take in oxygen; which is dissolved in water; through gills. Since availability of oxygen
is less in the aquatic environment so the breathing rate of aquatic organisms is faster. Insects
have a system of spiracles and tracheae which is used for taking in oxygen.

Terrestrial organisms have developed lungs for exchange of gases. Availability of oxygen is
not a problem in the terrestrial environment so breathing rate is slower compared to what it is in
fishes.

HUMAN RESPIRATORY SYSTEM:

The human respiratory system is composed of a pair of lungs. These are attached to a system of
tubes which open on the outside through the nostrils. Following are the main structures in the
human respiratory system:
Nostrils: There two nostrils which converge to form a nasal passage. The inner lining of the
nostrils is lined by hairs and remains wet due to mucus secretion. The mucus and the hairs help
in filtering the dust particles out from inhaled air. Further, air is warmed up when it enters the
nasal passage.

Pharynx: It is a tube like structure which continues after the nasal passage.

Larynx: This part comes after the pharynx. This is also called the voice box.
Trachea: This is composed of rings of cartilage. Cartilaginous rings prevent the collapse of
trachea in the absence of air.

Bronchi: A pair of bronchi comes out from the trachea; with one bronchus going to each lung.

Bronchioles: A bronchus divides into branches and sub-branches; inside the lung.

Alveoli: These are air-sacs at the end of bronchioles. Alveolus is composed of a very thin
membrane and is the place where blood capillaries open. This is alveolus; where oxygen mixes
with the blood and carbon dioxide exits from the blood. The exchange of gases; in alveoli;
takes place due to pressure differential.
Breathing Mechanism: The breathing mechanism of lungs is controlled by the diaphragm and
the intercostalis muscles. Diaphragm is a membrane which separates the thoracic chamber from
the abdominal cavity. When diaphragm moves down, the lungs expand and air is inhaled.
When diaphragm moves up, the lungs contract and air is exhaled.

INTEXT OUESTIONS PAGE NO. 105

Question 1: What advantage over an aquatic organism does a terrestrial organism have
with regard to obtaining oxygen for respiration?
Answer : Terrestrial organisms take up oxygen from the atmosphere whereas aquatic animals
need to utilize oxygen present in the water. Air contains more 02 as compared to water. Since
the content of 02 in air is high, the terrestrial animals do not have to breathe faster to get more
oxygen. Therefore, unlike aquatic animals, terrestrial animals do not have to show various
adaptations for better gaseous exchange.

Question 2: What are the different ways in which glucose is oxidized to provide energy
in various organisms?
Answer : Glucose is first broken down in the cell cytoplasm into a three carbon molecule called
pyruvate. Pyruvate is further broken down by different ways to provide energy.
 In yeast and human muscle cells, the breakdown of pyruvate occurs in the absence of
oxygen whereas in mitochondria, the breakdown of pyruvate occurs in the presence of
oxygen.
Question 3: How is oxygen and carbon dioxide transported in human beings?
Answer : Haemoglobin transports oxygen molecule to all the body cells for cellular respiration.
The haemoglobin pigment present in the blood gets attached to four 02 molecules that are
obtained from breathing. It thus forms oxyhaemoglobin and the blood becomes oxygenated.
This oxygenated blood is then distributed to all the body cells by the heart. After giving away
02 to the body cells, blood takes away C02 which is the end product of cellular respiration.
Now the blood becomes de-oxygenated.

Since haemoglobin pigment has less affinity for C02, C02 is mainly transported in the dissolved
form. This de-oxygenated blood gives C02 to lung alveoli and takes 02 in return.

Question 4: How are the lungs designed in human beings to maximize the area for
exchange of gases?
Answer : The exchange of gases takes place between the blood of the capillaries that surround
the alveoli and the gases present in the alveoli. Thus, alveoli are the site for exchange of gases.
The lungs get filled up with air during the process of inhalation as ribs are lifted up and
diaphragm is flattened. The air that is rushed inside the lungs fills the numerous alveoli present
in the lungs.

Each lung contains 300-350 million alveoli. These numerous alveoli increase the surface area for
gaseous exchange making the process of respiration more efficient.
TRANSPORTATION IN ANIMALS

Circulatory System: The circulatory system is responsible for transport of various substances in
human beings. It is composed of the heart, arteries, veins and blood capillaries. Blood plays the
role of the carrier of substances.

HEART
Heart is a muscular organ; which is composed of cardiac muscles. It is so small that it can fit
inside and adult's fist. The heart is a pumping organ which pumps the blood. The human heart
is composed of four chambers, viz. right auricle, right ventricle, left auricle and left ventricle.
Systole: Contraction of cardiac muscles is called systole.

Diastole: Relaxation of cardiac muscles is called diastole.

Arteries: These are thick-walled blood vessels which carry oxygenated blood from the heart to
different organs. Pulmonary arteries are exceptions because they carry deoxygenated blood
from the heart to lungs; where oxygenation of blood takes place.

Veins: These are thin-walled blood vessels which carry deoxygenated blood from different
organs to the heart. Pulmonary veins are exceptions because they carry oxygenated blood from
lungs to the heart. Valves are present in veins to prevent backflow of blood.

Capillaries: These are the blood vessels which have single-celled walls.

Blood: Blood is a connective tissue which plays the role of the carrier for various substances in
the body. Blood is composed of plasma, blood cells and platelets.

Blood Plasma: Blood plasma is a pale coloured liquid which is mostly composed of water. Blood
plasma forms the matrix of blood.

Blood Cells: There are two types of blood cells, viz. Red Blood Cells (RBCs) and White Blood
cells (WBCs).

Red Blood Corpuscles (RBCs): These are of red colour because of the presence of haemoglobin
which is a pigment. Haemoglobin readily combines with oxygen and carbon dioxide. The
transport of oxygen happens through haemoglobin. Some part of carbon dioxide is also
transported through haemoglobin.

White Blood Corpuscles (WBCs): These are of pale white colour. They play important role in the
immunity.

Platelets: Platelets are responsible for blood coagulation. Blood coagulation is a defense
mechanism which prevents excess loss of blood; in case of an Injury.

Lymph: Lymph is similar to blood but RBCs are absent in lymph. Lymph is formed from the
fluid which leaks from blood capillaries and goes to the intercellular spaces in the tissues. This
fluid is collected through lymph vessels and finally returns to the blood capillaries. Lymph also
plays an important role in the immune system.

Double Circulation: In the human heart, blood passes through the heart twice in one cardiac cycle.
This type of circulation is called double circulation. One complete heart beat in which all 72 times
per minute in a normal adult. In one cardiac cycle, the heart pumps out 70 mL blood and thus
about 4900 mL blood in a minute. Double circulation ensures complete segregation of oxygenated
and deoxygenated blood which is necessary for optimum energy production in warm-blooded
animals.
arteries to head
 to left

superior

inferior vena

pulmonary artery (left branch)

pulmonary artery (right branch) veins

left pulmonary
right pulmonary veins
left atrium

right atrium semi - lunar valve in the

pulmonary artery
left atrio vetricular value right atrio vetricular valve left ventricle

right ventricle

Internal structure of heart

Circulation of Blood through the heart:
Systemic Vein + Sinus Venosus + Right Auricle + Right Ventricle Pulmonary Artery + Lungs
+ Pulmonary Vein Left Auricle + Left Ventricle + Trunchus Arteriosus + Systemic Circulation
Superior Vena
(venous blood
upper

(arterial blood to
head & arms)

Aorta
Inferior Vena (arterial blood
(venous blood to abdomen,
lower body) pelvis,& legs) Pul
monary
TRANSPORTATION IN PLANTS
Plants have specialized vascular tissues for transportation of substances. There are two types of
vascular tissues in plants, viz. xylem and phloem.

Xylem: Xylem is responsible for transportation of water and minerals. It is composed of

trachieds, xylem vessels, xylem parenchyma and xylem fibre. Trachieds and xylem vessels are
the conducting elements. The xylem makes a continuous tube in plants which runs from roots
to stem and right up to the veins of leaves.

Phloem: Phloem is responsible for transportation of food. Phloem is composed of sieve tubes,
companion cells, phloem parenchyma and bast fibres. Sieve tubes are the conducting elements
in phloem.

Ascent of Sap
The upward movement of water and minerals from roots to different plant parts is called
ascent of sap. Many factors are at play in ascent of sap and it takes place in many steps. They
are explained as follows:

Transpiration creates transpiration pull

Adhesion cohesion makes

Root column of water molecules
pushes
to

Osmosis pushes
Capillary action results in rise up
water to
water at the base of stern
root hairs

Root Pressure: The walls of cells of root hairs are very thin. Water; from soil; enters the root
hairs because of osmosis. Root pressure is responsible for movement of water up to the base of
the stem.
Capillary Action: A very fine tube is called capillary. Water; or any liquid; rises in the capillary
because of physical forces and this phenomenon is called capillary action. Water; in stem; rises
up to some height because of capillary action.

Adhesion-cohesion of Water Molecules: Water molecules make a continuous column in the

xylem because of forces of adhesion and cohesion among the molecules.

Transpiration Pull: Loss of water vapour through stomata and lenticels; in plants; is called
transpiration. Transpiration through stomata creates vacuum which creates a suction; called
transpiration pull. The transpiration pull sucks the water column from the xylem tubes and thus
water is able to rise to great heights in even the tallest plants.

Transport of Food: Transport of food in plants happens because of utilization of energy. Thus,
unlike the transport through xylem; it is a form of active transport. Moreover, the flow of
substances through phloem takes place in both directions, i.e. it is a two-way traffic in phloem.

INTEXT OUESTIONS PAGE NO. 110

Question 1: What are the components of the transport system in human beings? What
are the functions of these components?
Answer : The main components of the transport system in human beings are the heart, blood,
and blood vessels.

Heart pumps oxygenated blood throughout the body. It receives deoxygenated blood from the
various body parts and sends this impure blood to the lungs for oxygenation.

Being a fluid connective tissue, blood helps in the transport of oxygen, nutrients, C02, and
nitrogenous wastes.
The blood vessels (arteries, veins, and capillaries) carry blood either away from the heart to
various organs or from various organs back to the heart.

Question 2: Why is it necessary to separate oxygenated and deoxygenated blood in

mammals and birds?
Answer : Warm-blooded animals such as birds and mammals maintain a constant body
temperature by cooling themselves when they are in a hotter environment and by warmmg their
bodies when they are in a cooler environment. Hence, these animals require more oxygen (02)
for more cellular respiration so that they can produce more energy to maintain their body
temperature.

Thus, it is necessary for them to separate oxygenated and de-oxygenated blood, so that their
circulatory system is more efficient and can maintain their constant body temperature.

Question 3: What are the components of the transport system in highly organised plants?
Answer : In highly organised plants, there are two different types of conducting tissues —
xylem and phloem. Xylem conducts water and minerals obtained from the soil (via roots) to the
rest of the plant. Phloem transports food materials from the leaves to different parts of the plant
body.

-
Question 4: How are water and minerals transported in plants?
Answer : The components of xylem tissue (tracheids and vessels) of roots, stems, and leaves
are interconnected to form a continuous system of water-conducting channels that reaches all
parts of the plant. Transpiration creates a suction pressure, as a result of which water is forced
into the xylem cells of the roots. Then there is a steady movement of water from the root xylem
to all the plant parts through the interconnected water-conducting channels.
Water lost

Water moves up xylem

The open ends of xylem vessel cells

form complete pipelike tubes.

Question 5: How is food transported in plants?

Answer : Phloem transports food materials from the leaves to different parts of the plant body.
The transportation of food in phloem is achieved by utilizing energy from ATP. As a result of
this, the osmotic pressure in the tissue Increases causmg water to move into it. This pressure
moves the material in the phloem to the tissues which have less pressure. This is helpful in
moving materials according to the needs of the plant. For example, the food material, such as
sucrose, is transported into the phloem tissue using ATP energy.

Source

Sink

Lateral roots

Companion cell

Sugars in the phloem of this

carrot plant are moving to
sinks.

EXCRETION
Removal of harmful waste from the body is called excretion. Many wastes are produced during
various metabolic activities. These need to be removed in time because their accumulation in
the body can be harmful and even lethal for an organism.

HUMAN EXCRETORY SYSTEM

The human excretory system is composed of a pair of kidneys. A tube; called ureter; comes
out of each kidney and goes to the urinary bladder. Urine is collected in the urinary bladder,
from where it is expelled out through urethra as and when required.
Kidney: Kidney is a bean-shaped organ which lies near the vertebral column in the abdominal
cavity. The kidney is composed of many Adrenal gland filtering units; called nephrons.
Nephron is called the functional unit of
kidney. Inferior Renal artery
vena
Pelvis Renal vein
Nephron: It is composed of a tangled
mess of tubes and a filtering part; called
Kidney
glomerulus. Glomerulus is a network of Medulla
blood capillaries to which renal artery is
attached. The artery which takes blood to Cortex
the glomerulus is called afferent arteriole Dorsal aorta
and the one receiving blood

Urinary
bladder
Urethra
Ureter
from the glomerulus is called efferent arteriole. Glomerulus is enclosed in a capsule like
portion; called Bowman's capsule. The Bowman's capsule extends into a fine tube which is
highly coiled. Tubes from various nephrons converge into collecting duct; which finally
goes to the ureter.

OPrOximaItubule

glomerulus

Bowman's capsule

Arteriole from
renal artery

Arteriole
from O Distal
tubule
 From another nephron
Collecting duct
Filtration in Glomerulus: Filtration happens because of very high pressure inside the
glomerulus. The lumen of efferent arteriole is smaller than that of afferent arteriole. Due to this,
the blood entering the glomerulus experiences very high pressure and due to this, the waste
products are filtered out through the thin membrane of capillaries in the glomerulus. The
filtered blood is sent to the systemic circulation through efferent arteriole and the filtrate goes
to the Bowman's capsule. That is how unne is formed inside the kidneys. Reabsorption of water
and some other filtrates takes place in the tubular part of the nephron. This increases the
concentration of urine. The human urine is mainly composed of water and urea.

EXCRETION IN PLANTS

Plants have no special organs for removal of wastes. The waste products of respiration and
photosynthesis are used as raw materials for each other. Oxygen gas produced as a by-product
of photosynthesis is used up during respiration and carbon dioxide produced during respiration
is used up during photosynthesis.

Excretion is carried out in the plants in the following ways:

The gaseous wastes, oxygen, carbon dioxide and water vapour are removed through
stomata of leaves and lenticels of stems.
Some waste products collect in the leaves and bark of trees. When the leaves and
bark are shed, the wastes are eliminated.
Some waste products are rendered harmless and then stored in the plant body as solid
bodies. Raphides, tannins, resins, gum, rubber and essential oils are some such wastes.

INTEXT OUESTIONS PAGE NO. 112

Question 1: Describe the structure and functioning of nephrons.

Answer : Nephrons are the basic filtering units of kidneys. Each kidney possesses large number
of nephrons, approximately 1-1.5 million. The main components of the nephron are
glomerulus, Bowman's capsule, and a long renal tubule.
Bowman's capsule
 OProximaltubule

Arteriole
from renal
artery

Arteriole
from glomerulus O Distal tubule
From
another
nephron
Collecting
duct
Functioning of a nephron:
The blood enters the kidney through the renal artery, which branches into many capillaries
associated with glomerulus.

The water and solute are transferred to the nephron at Bowman's capsule.

In the proximal tubule, some substances such as amino acids, glucose, and salts are selectively
reabsorbed and unwanted molecules are added in the urine.

The filtrate then moves down into the loop of Henle, where more water is absorbed.

From here, the filtrate moves upwards into the distal tubule and finally to the collecting duct.
Collecting duct collects urine from many nephrons.

The urine formed in each kidney enters a long tube called ureter. From ureter, it gets
transported to the urinary bladder and then into the urethra.

Question 2: What are the methods used by plants to get rid of excretory products?
 Answer : Plants can get rid of excess of water by transpiration. Waste materials may be
stored in the cell vacuoles or as gum and resin, especially in old xylem. It is also stored in the
leaves that later fall off.

Question 3: How is the amount of urine produced regulated?

Answer : The amount of urine produced depends on the amount of excess water and dissolved
wastes present in the body. Some other factors such as habitat of an organism and hormone
such as Anti-diuretic hormone (ADH) also regulates the amount of urine produced.

EXERCISE OUESTIONS PAGE NO. 113

Question 1: The kidneys in human beings are a part of the system for
(a) nutrition.
(b) respiration.
(c) excretion.
(d) transportation.
Answer : (c) In human beings, the kidneys are a part of the system for excretion.
Question 2: The xylem in plants are responsible for (a)
transport of water.
(b) transport of food.
(c) transport of amino acids.
(d) transport of oxygen.
Answer : (a) In a plant, the xylem is responsible for transport of water.
Question 3: The autotrophic mode of nutrition
requires (a) carbon dioxide and water.
(b) chlorophyll.
(c) sunlight.
(d) all of the above.
Answer : (d) The autotrophic mode of nutrition requires carbon dioxide, water, chlorophyll and
sunlight.
Question 4: The breakdown of pyruvate to give carbon dioxide, water and energy takes
place in (a) cytoplasm.
(b) mitochondria.
(c) chloroplast.
(d) nucleus.
Answer : (b) The breakdown of pyruvate to give carbon dioxide, water and energy takes place
in mitochondria.

Question 5: How are fats digested in our bodies? Where does this process take place?
Answer : Fats are present in the form of large globules in the small intestine. The small
intestine gets the secretions in the form of bile juice and pancreatic juice respectively from the
liver and the pancreas. The bile salts (from the liver) break down the large fat globules into
smaller globules so that the pancreatic enzymes can easily act on them. This is referred to as
emulsification of fats. It takes place in the small intestine.

Question 6: What is the role of saliva in the digestion of food?

Answer : Saliva is secreted by the salivary glands, located under the tongue. It moistens the
food for easy swallowing. It contains a digestive enzyme called salivary amylase, which breaks
down starch into sugar.

Question 7: What are the necessary conditions for autotrophic nutrition and what are its
by-products?
Answer : Autotrophic nutrition takes place through the process of photosynthesis. Carbon
dioxide, water, chlorophyll pigment, and sunlight are the necessary conditions required for
autotrophic nutrition. Carbohydrates (food) and 02 are the by-products of photosynthesis.
LIGHT
6C02 + 12 20 --.......-....-...> C H 0 6 + 602+ 61420
H plant 6 12
six enzymessix
molecules molecules of carbon of oxygen
dioxide
twelvesix moleculesmolecules
of water of water
one molecule of
glucose
(plant biomass)

Question 8: What are the differences between aerobic and anaerobic respiration?
Name some organisms that use the anaerobic mode of respiration. Answer :
Aerobic respiration Anaerobic res iration

1 It occurs in the presence of 02. 1. It occurs in the absence of 02.

.
2. It involves the exchange of 2. Exchange of gases is absent.
gases between the organism and
the outside environment.
3. It occurs in cytoplasm and 3. It occurs only in cytoplasm.
mitochondria.
4. It always releases C02 and H20. 4. End products vary.

5. It yields 36 ATPs. 5. It yields only 2 ATPs.

Anaerobic respiration occurs in the roots of some waterlogged plants, some parasitic worms,
animal muscles, and some micro-organisms such as yeasts.

Question 9: How are the alveoli designed to maximise the exchange of gases?
Answer : The alveoli are the small balloon-like structures present in the lungs. The walls of the
alveoli consist of extensive network of blood vessels. Each lung contains 300—350 million
alveoli, making it a total of approximately 700 million in both the lungs. The alveolar surface
when spread out covers about 80 m2 area. This large surface area makes the gaseous exchange
more efficient.
 Bronchiole

Capillary

Alveolus

Question 10: What would be the consequences of a deficiency of haemoglobin in our

bodies?
Answer : Haemoglobin is the respiratory pigment that transports oxygen to the body cells for
cellular respiration. Therefore, deficiency of haemoglobin in blood can affect the oxygen
supplying capacity of blood. This can lead to deficiency of oxygen in the body cells. It can also
lead to a disease called anaemia.

Question 11: Describe double circulation in

human beings. Why is it necessary?
Answer : The human heart is divided into four
chambers — the right atrium, the right ventricle,
the left atrium, and the left ventricle. Superior

Flow of blood in the heart:

The heart has superior and inferior vena cava, Pulmonary
which carries de-oxygenated blood from the upper
and lower regions of the body respectively and Pulmonary
Vein
supplies this deoxygenated blood to the right
atrium of the heart.
Mitral

The right atrium then contracts and passes Valve

the de-oxygenated blood to the right ventricle,
through an auriculo-ventricular
PulmonaryValve AorticValve aperture.
Tricuspid
Valve Then the right ventricle contracts and passes the de-
oxygenated blood into the two pulmonary arteries, which pumps it
to the Inferior Vena Cava lungs where the blood becomes
oxygenated.
From the lungs, the pulmonary veins transport the oxygenated blood to the left atrium of the
heart.
Then the left atrium contracts and through the auriculo-ventricular aperture, the oxygenated
blood enters the left ventricle.
 The blood passes to aorta from the left ventricle. The aorta gives rise to many arteries that
distribute the oxygenated blood to all the regions of the body.

High Low
Pressure

Pressure

Lowest Highest
Pressure Pressure

Therefore, the blood goes twice through the heart. This is known as double circulation.

Importance of double circulation:

The separation of oxygenated and de-oxygenated blood allows a more efficient supply of
oxygen to the body cells. This efficient system of oxygen supply is very useful in warmblooded
animals such as human beings.

As we know, warm-blooded animals have to maintain a constant body temperature by cooling

themselves when they are in a hotter environment and by warming their bodies when they
are in a cooler environment. Hence, they require more 02 for more respiration so that they
can produce more energy to maintain their body temperature. Thus, the circulatory system of
humans is more efficient because of the double circulatory heart.
Question 12: What are the differences between the transport of materials in xylem
and phloem? Answer :
Trans ort of materials in lem Trans ort of materials in hloem
1. Xylem tissue helps in the transport of 1. Phloem tissue helps in the
water and minerals. transport of food.
2. Water is transported upwards from 2. Food is transported in both upward
roots to all other plant parts. and downward directions.
3. Transport in xylem occurs with the 3. Transport of food in phloem
help of simple physical forces such requires energy in the form of
as transpiration pull. ATP.
Question 13: Compare the functioning of alveoli in the lungs and nephrons in the
kidneys with respect to their structure and functioning. Answer : AL VEOLI
Structure
(i) Alveoli are tiny balloon-like structures present inside the lungs.
(ii) The walls of the alveoli are one cell thick and it contains an extensive network of blood
capillaries.

Function
(i) The exchange of 02 and C02 takes place between the blood of the capillaries that surround
the alveoli and the gases present in the alveoli. (ii) Alveoli are the site of gaseous exchange.

NEPHRON
Structure
(i) Nephrons are tubular structures present inside the kidneys.
(ii) Nephrons are made of glomerulus, bowman's capsule, and a long renal tube. It also
contains a cluster of thin-walled capillaries.

Proximal
convoluted Distal
tubule Bowman's convoluted
Function
(i) The blood enters the kidneys through the renal artery which branches into many capillaries
in the glomerulus. The water and solute are transferred to the nephron at Bowman's capsule.
Then the filtrate moves through the proximal tubule and then down into the loop of henle.
From henle's loop, filtrate passes into the distal tubule and then to the collecting duct. The
collecting duct collects the urine from many nephrons and passes it to the ureter. During the
flow of filtrate, some substances such as glucose, ammo acids, and water are selectively re-
absorbed.

Bowman's capsule
OProximaltubule
Arteriole from
renal artery
Arteriole
from glomerulus O Distal tubule
From another
nephron
Collecting duct

(ii) Nephrons are the basic filtration unit.