1.

1
WHAT IS SCIENCE?
Notes by Sky Zhang (aka Skibidi
Zhang)
 Vocab List

Use this at your disposal

 Learning outcomes
Name and describe some
branches and sub branches
of Science: Astronomy,
Biology, Chemistry,
Ecology, Geology, Physics
and Psychology
What is Science?
Science is the process of learning about the
natural world through observation and
experimentation. People who study science
are called scientists. In movies, Science
laboratories are often shown as chaotic
places with scientists randomly mixing
chemicals to see what happens. but this
could not be further from the truth! In the real
world, scientists are organised, methodical
and serious about the work they are doing.
 What is science - Continued
They ask meaningful questions that can
be tested and analysed. They use specific
tools and methods to study and test the
natural world. Scientists make careful
observations and record their findings so
that other scientists can repeat their
investigations. They share their findings
with other scientists and read about
studies performed by others.
REAL Scientist VS MOVIE
Scientist
 Branches of Science
During your time at Reddam, you will study four main branches of
science:
1. Biology
Biology is the study of life and people who study Biology are called
biologists. While studying Biology, you may learn about cells that make
up organisms, body systems in humans and other animals, evolution of
species, genetics, diseases and how to use a microscope.
LAB RULES
1.2
Lab rules
In order to keep everyone
safe and prevent accidents
from occurring, it is
important that everyone is
aware of the rules they must
follow while in the Science
lab. Some examples of rules
that you may need to follow
are
 Handling Chemicals Safely
When using chemicals in experiments, it's important to know
how to handle them properly. Your teacher will explain the
safety steps to follow and may point out any warning labels on
the substances you are using.
Always wear gloves and safety glasses when working with
dangerous chemicals. Some substances, called corrosive
substances, can cause serious harm to your skin and eyes if
they come into contact with them. Acids, like the ones found in
batteries, are examples of corrosive substances.
Many chemicals are flammable, which means they can easily
catch fire. Always keep flammable chemicals, such as
methylated spirits, away from open flames or heat sources.
Some chemicals have a danger label, meaning they can be very
harmful if swallowed, inhaled, or touched without protection.
These substances can cause serious injury or even death. For
example, mercury is a toxic substance that can be absorbed
through the skin, so it’s important to wear gloves when handling
it.
 Important safety equipment and
Personal Protective Equipment
You should know the location and correct use of important safety features in the laboratory. Your teacher will explain
what this equipment can be found and how to use them correctly.

Emergency Fire
spill kit extinguisher
and blanket
Task Name

PPE (Personal
Emergency gas
Task Name
shut off valve
Protective
Equipment

When conducting experiments in the lab, you will be required to

wear personal protective equipment. This includes a lab coat or
apron, safety glasses and enclosed shoes. Long hair should also
be tied back, especially when using the Bunsen Burner.
LAB EQUIPMENT
1.3
 Lab equipment
When carrying out experiments, scientists use a range of You should be familiar with the following
specialised equipment. Each piece of equipment is equipment within the laboratory:
designed to do a specific job. There is equipment for use
with liquids, such as beakers, measuring cylinders, and
test tubes. There is equipment for measuring temperature
Task Name
or heating objects with a strong flame. It is important for
your safety, and the smooth running of your experiment,
that you know the names and correct uses of each piece
of equipment.
Laboratory equipment that is used regularly can be found
in the cupboards under the work benches in the
laboratory or at the sides of the laboratory. Your teacher
Task Name
may also direct you to the cupboard underneath the
wash-up sink or near the front of the lab to find other
pieces you need. Specialty equipment that is not used
very often will be ordered by your teacher.
Lab Equipment (continued)
Drawing scientific diagrams
When scientists draw pieces of laboratory
equipment in their practical reports, they
always draw simple, two-dimensional, cross-
section drawings of the equipment.
The rules for drawing scientific diagrams are:
Be 2-D (two-dimensional)
Be drawn with a sharp, lead pencil
Be large; at least 1/3 of a page
Have straight lines (drawn using a ruler)
Where possible, such as the sides of test
tubes and beakers
Have no shading
Be a cross section view
Have no top, unless the item has a lid
 Bunsen Burner - SETALightT
SAFETY - Wear lab coat, safety goggles, tie hair back (if you are a girl that has loose long hair) and clear bench
of anything that is possibly flammable

EDGE - Place Bunsen burner on a heatproof mat within a safe distance of the edge of the workbench

TUBE - Check the tube has no cracks and plug it into the gas tap firmly (Don’t be scared of putting it on so far
that its stuck. Trust me, it won’t fit that far in). Make sure that the gas tap is off (off position is an ‘L’ shape of
switch)

AIRHOLE - The collar controls the amount of oxygen that is reacted with the gas (Internal Combustion (IC)) to
create a flame (blue, roaring and safety). Make sure that the airhole is fully closed (safety flame) before you do
anything else

LIGHT THE MATCH - Light the match and hold the stick above the barrel/chimney of the burner.

TURN ON THE GAS TAP - Use your free hand to reach over (careful not to be directly over the burner) and switch
the gas flow on. Once the gas flow ignites because of the matchstick, you can now blow it (not too hard) and
smoosh the blackened tip against the heatproof mat. You can goof around a bit by trying to write your name on
the mat.

Now you’ve got a functioning Bunsen Burner at your disposal. BE CAREFUL!!!

 MAKING
MEASUREMENTS
1.4
 Making Measurements
To ensure their data is valid, scientists
will use the most appropriate
equipment for their experiment and
record their observations and
measurements very carefully. It is
also important for scientists to include
units of measurement when recording
quantitative data to make sure the
information is communicated
effectively. Examples of units that
scientists used are shown in the table
next to this text.
 Choosing the right equipment
A simple glass thermometer is an easy way to
measure temperatures between 0 and 100 degrees
Celsius (°C). Most thermometers used in schools will
measure from just below the freezing point of water
(0°C) to just above the boiling point of water (100°C).
There are also digital probes and thermometers that
can be used to give a more precise reading.

A measuring cylinder is a more accurate way to

measure liquids than using a beaker. When water is
placed in a measuring cylinder, the surface of the
water curves downward. This is called a meniscus. To
use a measuring cylinder accurately, the reading for
the volume of water must be taken from the bottom
of the meniscus. In the image below, the correct
reading at the bottom of the meniscus is 38mL and
not at the top where it reads 40mL.
 Choosing the right equipment
continued
To correctly read the volume of water in the To avoid parallax error:
measuring cylinder, you need to get to eye level with Set the measuring cylinder down on your bench
the top of the water. If your eyes are at the incorrect (holding it up can cause the measuring cylinder
level when you read the scale on the measuring to tilt, which will also lead to an incorrect
cylinder, you will get an incorrect reading. This is reading). Bend down so that your eyes are level
called parallax error. with the bottom of the meniscus. Take your
reading from the bottom of the meniscus.
 Measuring Mass
Mass is the amount of matter in an A triple beam balance
object. The mass of an object can be A triple beam balance is used to measure
determined using either an electronic masses precisely. It consists of three
balance or a triple beam balance. beams. The first beam measures in single
grams, the second beam in tens of
Electronic balance grams, and the third beam in hundreds of
grams. By placing an object on the stage
Electronic balances are highly accurate, and adjusting the sliders on the three
quick, and easy to operate. Click on the beams until the beam arm is perfectly
video link below to learn about how to horizontal, an accurate weight of the
correctly use an electronic balance: object can be determined.
VARIABLES
1.5
 Variables
A variable is any factor in an experiment that can change and affect
the outcome of the experiment. When designing investigations in
science, it is important to design a fair test. In a fair test, only one
Task Name
variable is changed at a time. All other variables are controlled, or
kept the same. If this wasn’t the case, it would be impossible to tell
which variable caused the result we are studying.

Task Name
The Independent Variable
The independent variable is the factor that you will change in an
experiment.
Memory tool: The Independent variable is the thing I change
There should only be ONE independent variable in an experiment -
other variables should be controlled (see below). This ensures that
you have designed a fair test.
When you write your results up, the independent variable should be
written in the left column of a table, and plotted on the X (horizontal)
axis of a graph.
 The Dependent Variable

The dependent variable is the factor you observe or measure in an

experiment.
TaskTheName
dependent variable is affected by changes made to the independent
variable.
Memory tool: The values for the dependent variable depend on the
independent variable.
There will usually be only ONE dependent variable in your experiment.
When you write up your results, the dependent variable is written in the
Task Name
right column/s of a table and plotted on the Y (vertical) axis of a graph.
 Controlled variables
Controlled variables are any factors that you should keep the same for your
experiment. This helps to ensure that any changes you see in the dependent
variable are due to the changes you made to the independent variable and
not something else.
Task Name There can be many controlled variables - everything other than the
independent variable should be kept the same.
Specific language should be used when you identify controlled variables e.g.
rather than writing "the water", you would need to write "the volume of
water", "the temperature of the water", etc.
Task Name
 Example question
You are investigating the effect of the amount of air inside a ball on the height that
the ball will bounce. The variables for this experiment would be as shown below:

Independent variable (what you change):

Dependent variable (what you measure):
Controlled variables (what stays the same):

Something
to help you
OBSERVATIONS AND
INFERENCES
1.6
Observations vs Inferences
An observation is something that is
perceived using at least one of your five
senses: sight, hearing, smell, taste or touch.
During an experiment in science you use as
Task Name many senses as you can safely use to obtain
information. Observations can be
quantitative (presented as numbers) or
qualitative (presented as words).

An inference is a conclusion that is

Task Name developed through evidence, reasoning and
past observations. We make observations to
find a logical explanation about what
happened.
 Conclusion
Watch the video about observations and inferences
PRESENTING DATA -
TABLES
1.7
 Qualitative and Quantative
The data recorded in experiments
can take two forms: qualitative and
quantitative.
Qualitative data is data which uses
words to describe the quality of an
observation. For example, the
temperature is hot.
Quantitative data is data which
uses numbers to state the value of
an observation. For example, the
temperature is 37 degrees celsius.
The video next to this explains this
further:
 Presenting data in tables
When recording observations, it is helpful to organise the data in a Example table:
table. Information presented in this way is often easier to read.

When creating a table, there are some important rules to follow:

The columns and/or rows must have headings

The units of measurement should only be written in these
headings, not throughout the table.
The table should have ruled, straight lines and include a full border.
(If you are hand-drawing your table in One Note, you should use
the ruler tool in the "Draw" menu)
The data for your independent variable (the thing you are
changing) should be in the first column/row, and should be in
sequential order according to this variable (from smallest to
largest, or vice versa)
The table should have a title to show what has been tested.
 Calculating an average
When we have a set of results, we often want to find a single number that represents the whole group.
This number is called the average, or more specifically, the mean.

What is an Average (Mean)?

The average (mean) is a way of finding a typical value in a set of numbers. It is calculated by adding up
all the values and then dividing by how many there are.
For example, if you have several test scores, the mean tells you what your overall performance is, rather
than just looking at your highest or lowest score.

Why Do We Calculate the Average?

It summarises a set of results using one number.
It helps us compare different sets of data.
It gives a fair measure of overall performance.
How to Calculate the Mean (Average):
1. Add up all the numbers in the data set.
2. Divide the total by the number of values in the set.
For example: If your test scores are 8, 6, 9, 7, and 10,
you calculate the mean like this:
So, the average (mean) score is 8.
Averages help us understand data
better and make fair comparisons!
PRESENTING DATA -
GRAPHS
1.10
 Continuous Data Graphs
Graphs are used to make data easier to interpret.
What type of graph should you use?
The type of graph that should be used depends on the
type of data that you are representing. Data can be

Task Name continuous or discrete.

Continuous data
Continuous data is collected by measuring intervals
along a continuum (line). It is data that can be
measured.
There are an infinite (limitless) number of possible
Task Name values.
The independent variable will have a numerical
value e.g. height, weight, temperature, time, etc.
Continuous data should be displayed using a line
graph, joined with a line or curve of best fit.
 Discrete Data Graphs
Discrete data
Discrete data is data that can be counted. The values are whole,
concrete, specific and fixed numbers.
The independent variable will be qualitative rather than
numerical e.g. species of fish, males or females, etc.
Discrete data may be represented as a column or bar graph.
Task Name
These are commonly used in Biology when looking at the number
of cases of particular diseases.

Discrete data can also be presented using pie charts. It is

possible that you may be asked to read information from one of
Task Name
these in an assessment task, but you would not be required to
draw one.
Pie charts are useful to show proportions of a whole and may be
expressed as
percentages.
 TUPAC
Who dis?

The memory tool TUPAC can be used to help you remember what to include in a line graph:
T = Title
U= Units
P= Points (accurately plotted)
A = Axes (correctly set up and labelled)
C = Curve or line of best fit
The steps below explain the steps you should follow to create a graph, ensuring that each of the components above are included.
Setting up your graph
Use a sharp, lead pencil to complete all graphs (including titles and labelling your axes).
Unless you are told otherwise, you should put your independent variable on the x axis (along the bottom), and your dependent variable on the y axis
(along the side).
Give your graph an informative title that includes both the independent and dependent variables e.g. The effect of temperature on the growth of
mould over time.
Label each axis with the name of the variable and the unit used to measure it in brackets after the name e.g. Time (seconds).
Setting up your scales
Each axis should be marked into units that cover the entire range of your measurements e.g. if your time ranges from 0 to 19 minutes, you may set the
scales up with 0 as your lowest value and 20 as your highest value.
The scale is then broken into equal increments (amounts) which are marked along the grid.
This means that each mark on your scale is worth the same amount.
You should use numbers that are easy to work with and that make it easy to plot points that fall in between the lines. Good numbers to work with
include 1,2,5, 10, 100, etc. while numbers such as 7 or 11 are hard to work with!
The corner of your graph should be clearly labelled. Note that if the value is different on each of the scales then it must be labelled on each scale.
 Plotting your points
Points should be marked with a neat, precise point
such as an X. You should avoid using large, messy
blobs to plot points!
All data that is provided should be included. A point
should only be drawn at (0,0) if this data is provided
Task Name
as a point.
If more than one set of data is to be plotted, the
shape of the points should be changed rather than
using coloured pens or pencils to distinguish them. A
key should then be used to identify the data sets.
Task
For Name
example, if crosses are used to plot the first set
of data, the second data set could be plotted using a
neat dot, with a circle drawn around it so you can
see it! That is,
.
 Drawing your line
If the points on your graph fall in a line, they should
be connected with a neatly ruled straight line. This is
called a line of best fit. A line of best fit does not
have to go through all plotted points but should go
Task
close to asName
many points as possible.
If the points show a clear pattern but form a curve,
they should be joined with a smooth curve drawn
freehand. This curve is called a curve of best fit. This
curve will most likely go through all points.

Task Name
THE SCIENTIFIC
METHOD
1.9
 The scientific method
The scientific method is a way for scientists to study and learn things. It
doesn't matter what the scientist is trying to learn, using the scientific
method can help them come up with an answer. When conducting an
experiment, scientists follow a standard procedure as shown in the
flowchart on the right:

Task Name
The first thing to do with the scientific method is to come up with a
question that you want to test. Next, you need to observe and gather
information in order to come up with a prediction (called a hypothesis), or
a number of predictions, to answer the question. Next, you run
experiments to see if your prediction is right.
A key to good experiments is to only change one thing, or variable, at a
time. This way you can check your results and know what you did that may
have changed the answer. Carefully controlling your experiments is an
Task Name
important part of the scientific method. We call this a "fair test"
Finally, after running all the tests you can think of, you analyse your data.
You can then determine whether your results have supported your
hypothesis. Many scientists would then make a new prediction and carry
out some more experiments.
Writing a scientific report
When you conduct an experiment, a report should be written up using the following format:

Background information: Before designing an experiment, it is good to do some research so that you understand what is
known about your topic before you start, learn about other experiments that may be related to your experiment and make a
prediction about what you think will happen in the experiment.

Aim: The aim of an experiment is a statement of what you are trying to achieve in a experiment. The aim should be specific
and include reference to both the independent and dependent variables in the experiment. An aim starts with the word "To",
followed by a verb e.g. To determine whether adding fertiliser to a plant will make it grow taller.

Hypothesis: A hypothesis is a prediction of what you think your results will be. It is not a wild guess; it should be formulated
after conducting your research, based on all available information and evidence. The hypothesis can start with the word
"That" e.g. That plants will grow taller when fertiliser is added. Some hypotheses may be phrased as follows: "If (the
independent variable is changed) then (the dependent variable will change)". e.g. If fertiliser is added to a plant, then the
plant will grow taller.

Materials: A detailed list of all equipment, chemicals, etc. that are used in the experiment must be included. Bullet points are a
good way to display your materials list.

Method
A step-by-step method detailing what to do in your experiment should be included. It should be detailed enough that another
person could follow these steps and get the same results that you did. Numbered points are the best way to present this. The
variables for your experiment should be clearly identifiable in your method. You need to show how you will:
change your independent variable
measure your dependent variable
control all other variables
Writing a scientific report
(Continued)
Results:
All data that you collect in your experiment should be presented in your results section. This may be presented as:
Results tables
Graph
A description of results (written as sentences)
Discussion

The discussion is the section where you analyse your results and try to explain why you may have got them. It should
include:
A brief summary of your results
A scientific explanation of why these results were obtained. (You can include some more research in this section).
Limitations of your experiment, including an explanation of any unusual results suggestions for future research
In class, you may be given some questions to answer that will form your hypothesis. In a report, you will write this as
a series of paragraphs.

Conclusion:
This should be a few sentences in which you make a statement about the findings of your experiment. It should
answer the aim of your experiment and should state whether or not your hypothesis was supported by these results.

Bibliography:
You should include a full list of all sources you used to conduct your research.

Appendix:
If you have a lot of data, you may present a summary in your results section and the full set of data collected can
go in an appendix at the end.
Video - The Scientific Method:
Steps and Examples
ERRORS
1.10
 Mistakes vs Errors
When we measure or record data, we want our results to be as accurate as possible.
However, sometimes things go wrong. This can happen in two different ways:
through mistakes or errors.

What is the Difference Between a Mistake and an Error?

A mistake happens when someone does something incorrectly, often because they
are not paying attention. For example, if you accidentally write down the wrong
number in a table, that is a mistake. Mistakes can usually be avoided by being more
careful and checking work properly.

An error, on the other hand, is not just a simple accident. Errors happen because of
limits in how we measure things. Even when we try our best, errors can still happen
because no measurement is ever perfect. Scientists work to reduce errors as much
as possible, but they can never completely get rid of them.
 Parallax error
Here are some common types of errors that can occur when taking measurements:
Parallax Error – This happens when you look at a scale from the wrong angle.
For example, if you are measuring liquid in a measuring cylinder and your eyes
are not level with the surface of the liquid, you might read the wrong value
 Reading Error
Reading Error – Some measuring tools have scales that are hard to read
accurately. If the marks are too close together or faint, you might misread the
measurement.
 Instrument Error
Instrument Error – Sometimes, the tool you are using is not perfectly made or
has small faults. For example, a ruler that has been bent or a thermometer that
is not correctly calibrated will cause errors.
 Human Reflex Error
Human Reflex Error – When measuring things that require a reaction, like timing
how fast something happens, human reaction time can cause small errors.
Different people have different reflex speeds, which can affect the results.
 Zero Error
Zero Error – This happens when a measuring tool does not start from exactly
zero. For example, if a scale already shows a small weight before anything is
placed on it, all measurements will be slightly wrong.
Error video
 POLL!
What was your favourite
topic in this unit?‌

What is science‌

Lab rules‌

Lab equipment‌

Choose an option!
Making measurements‌‌
Task Name
Variables‌

Observations and inferences‌

Data - tables‌

Task Name Data - graphs‌

Scientific method‌‌

Errors‌

● Loading...‌
SOLUTIONS AND
MIXTURES
2.0
 QUIZ!
Is Bose-Einstein
ANSWER ME! Condensate (BEC) a state
of matter?‌
Task Name
Yes

No

Task Name I DONT KNOW!‌

Submit‌

● Loading...‌
 QUIZ!
Is plasma a state of matter?‌
Task Name
Yes

No

Task Name
Submit‌

● Loading...‌
 QUIZ!
What is it called when a
solid turns into a gas?‌

Task Name Deposition‌

Ionization‌

Sublimation‌

Task Name Bose-Einstein Condensation‌

Submit‌

● Loading...‌
 QUIZ!
What is it called when a gas
turns into a solid?‌
Task Name
Sublimation‌

Deposition‌

Solidization‌
Task Name
Submit‌

● Loading...‌
STATES OF
MATTER
2.1
 States of matter
All matter on Earth can exist
in one of three main states;
solid, liquid, or gas. The
image below shows how
particles are arranged in
each of these states.
States of matter - The
Water Cycle
Water is one of the few
substances on Earth that
naturally exists in all three
states. At room temperature,
water is a liquid. If water is
heated to boiling point, it
becomes a gas (steam). If
water is cooled to freezing
point, it becomes a solid (ice).
Water on Earth moves
between these states in a
cycle, known as the water
cycle.
THE PARTICLE-KINETIC
MODEL
2.2
 QUIZ!
Why does metal expand
under hot weather?‌

Because ‘physics’.‌

Task Name Because particles gain energy and

contracts‌

Because particles gain energy and

vibrate, moving further apart from
each other causing expansion of metal‌

Task Name I DON’T KNOW BECAUSE I DIDN’T PAY

ATTENTION IN CLASS!!!‌

Submit‌

● Loading...‌
 The Particle-Kinetic Model
Let's look at that in more detail, to understand how the particles are rearranged in order for a substance
to change states:

1. All substances are made up of tiny particles.

Everything around us, from the computer in front of you to the air we breathe, is made up of particles
that are too small to see. These particles can be atoms or molecules. For example, a cube of ice is made
up of water molecules (H2O). Each ice cube contains millions of tiny water molecules tightly packed
together.

2. The particles are attracted towards surrounding particles.

All particles have forces of attraction between them, which keep the particles in a substance together.
However, the strength of these forces varies depending on the state of matter. In solids, the particles are
strongly attracted to each other. This is why an ice cube keeps its shape. In liquids, the attraction is
weaker, allowing the particles to slide past one another, which is why water takes the shape of its
container. In gases, the attraction is very weak, so gas particles move freely and spread out.
 The Particle-Kinetic Model
(continued)
3. The particles are always moving.
Even though we can’t see it, particles are constantly in motion. The speed of this movement depends on
the state of matter and the temperature they are at.

Solids: In a solid like ice, the particles vibrate in place. They don’t move around much, which is why solids
have a fixed shape.
Liquids: In a liquid like water, the particles move around each other more freely. This is why water can
flow and take the shape of its container.
Gases: In a gas like oxygen, the particles move quickly and are far apart. They fill the entire space
available, which is why a balloon can expand when filled with air.
 The Particle-Kinetic Model
The information next to this summarises the
(continued x2)
properties and arrangement of particles in
solids, liquids and gases:
Solids are very rigid and have a fixed
volume and shape. They only move a
little in reaction to a change in heat or
energy.
Liquids are not rigid and don't have a
fixed shape but have a fixed volume.
They move over the top of one another
as energy is added (think about how
much boiling water moves!).
Gases are not rigid, and don't have a
fixed shape or volume. They disperse
themselves in the space they are in. The
bounce off each other and have a lot of
movement as more energy is added.
 Predicting Behavior with
the Particle Model
The particle model helps us understand how matter
behaves when conditions change. For example:
Adding Heat:
Ice to Water: When you heat ice, the particles gain
energy and start to vibrate faster. Eventually, they
break free from their fixed positions, and the ice
melts into water.
Water to Steam: If you continue to heat water, the
particles gain even more energy and move so fast
that they escape into the air as steam.
Increasing Pressure:
Compressing a Gas: If you take a balloon and
squeeze it, you’re applying pressure. The gas
particles inside the balloon are pushed closer
together, making the balloon shrink. If you squeeze
too hard, the balloon may pop!
Benefits and Limitations of Using Models
Why Do We Use Models in Science?
Makes Science Easier to Understand: Models help us picture things we can’t see, like tiny particles or
things that are too large to see like the solar system.
Helps Us Make Predictions: Scientists use models to guess what might happen if we change something,
like heating ice.
Task Name
Explains Everyday Observations: The particle model explains why water boils, why balloons pop, and why
ice melts.
Limitations of Models
They Are Simplified: Models don’t show every detail. For example, the particle model doesn’t show
different types of atoms.
They Might Not Always Be Accurate: Some materials don’t behave exactly like the model predicts.
They Don’t Show Everything: The particle model doesn’t explain electricity, magnetism, or how atoms
Task Name stick together.
Why the Particle Model is Useful
Helps Explain Solids, Liquids, and Gases: It shows why ice keeps its shape, water flows, and air spreads
out.
Explains Changes of State: It helps us understand melting, freezing, boiling, and condensation.
Used in Science and Engineering: Scientists and engineers use the model to study materials and invent
new things.
Benefits and Limitations of Using Models
(Continued)

Limitations of the Particle Model

Doesn’t Show Forces in Detail: While the model
explains that particles are attracted to each other,
it doesn’t show exactly how these forces work.
Task
Doesn’t Name
Explain Differences in Substances: The
model treats all particles as the same, but different
substances have different properties that aren’t
fully explained by the model.
Doesn’t Include More Advanced Science: It doesn’t
Task Name
show what happens inside atoms or explain things
like chemical bonding in detail.
Even though models have limitations, they are still
useful tools to help us learn and understand the world
around us.
ATTRACTIVE
FORCES
2.3
 Attractive Forces
COHESION - the attractive forces
between similar particles in a substance

ADHESION - the attractive forces

between particles of different
substances
 POLL!
What was your favourite
part in this unit?‌
Task Name
States of matter‌

Particle-kinetic model

Task Name Expansion and contraction‌

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DIFFUSION
2.3
 Diffusion
Diffusion is the movement of particles
from an area of high concentration to
an area of low concentration until
they are spread evenly.
Concentration Gradient

Task Name

Task Name