Surface Processes

Group 1
 Question

How do natural
processes shape the
surface of the Earth
SURFACE PROCESSES
The wide range of conditions found in
different parts of
the globe at present reflect the variety of
natural processes
that operate to shape the surface of the
Earth.
Land areas are continually being
reduced and their
shape modified by weathering
and erosion, and the
general term for this is

denudation.
WEATHERING
WEATHERING
The breaking down or dissolving of
rocks and minerals on Earth's surface.
Once a rock has been broken down, a
process called erosion transports the
bits of rock and minerals away. Water,
acids, salt, plants, animals and
changes in temperature are all agents
of weathering and erosion.
 CHEMICAL
WEATHERING
WEATHERING
CHEMICAL WEATHERING
Refers to the process where minerals undergo a change in
composition, transforming from one type to another
through reactions such as oxidation, hydrolysis, and
carbonation. This process is influenced by factors like
temperature, surface area, and water availability, leading
to the disintegration of rocks and the formation of new
substances.

SIMPLE EXPLANATION:
Involves the interaction of rock with mineral
solutions (chemicals) to change the composition of
rocks. or Chemical alteration of minerals
 CHEMICAL WEATHERING
▀Water
Dissolves minerals that hold rocks together
(hydrolysis)
Combines with mineral to make new mineral (combine
w/ feldspar to make clay)

▀Acids
groundwater
precipitation
Acid precipitation has a ph level of less than 5.6
living things

▀Oxidation
Oxygen chemically reacts with something else. (Iron +
Oxygen = rust)Inner rock will be diff. color than outer
rock.
CHEMICAL WEATHERING
The primary agents in chemical weathering are water,
oxygen, and acids. These react with surface rocks to
form new minerals that are stable in, or in balance with,
the physical and chemical conditions present at the
earth's surface

Water (H2O) dissolves some minerals and rock. Hard rock,

such as granite, can be broken down by water. But, it
just may take thousands of years. it usually dissolves the
minerals that are the "glue", leaving behind a pile of
sediment.
 CHEMICAL WEATHERING
There are two types of chemical weathering reactions,
congruent and incongruent.

INCONGRUENT REACTIONS CONGRUENT REACTIONS

INCONGRUENT REACTIONS
produce entirely new minerals or amorphous
solids
 CONGRUENT REACTIONS
are the simple dissolution of minerals into their
constituent ions
are the simple dissolution of minerals into their
constituent ions
 PROCESSES OF
DECOMPOSITION

SOLUTION OXIDATION REDUCTION HYDRATION

HYDROLYSIS LEACHING CATION EXCHANGE

SOLUTION

Dissociation of minerals into

ions,
greatly aided by the
presence of CO2
in the soil profile, which
forms
carbonic acid (H2CO3) with
percolating rainwater.
OXIDATION

The combination of oxygen

with a
mineral to form oxides and
hydroxides or any other
reaction in
which the oxidation number
of the
oxidized elements is
increased.
REDUCTION

The release of oxygen from

a mineral
to its surrounding
environment: ions
leave the mineral structure
as the
oxidation number of the
reduced
elements is decreased.
HYDRATION

Absorption of water molecules

into
the mineral structure.

a form of chemical weathering

in which the chemical bonds of
the mineral are changed as it
interacts with water
 HYDROLYSIS LEACHING
The migration of ions produced by
Hydrogen ions in the above processes. Note: the
mobility of ions depends upon
percolating water their
replace mineral ionic potential: Ca, Mg, Na, K are
easily leached by moving water, Fe
cations: no is
oxidation-reduction more resistant, Si is difficult to
leach
occurs. and Al is almost immobile.
 EXCHANGE CATION

This is the absorption

negatively charged onto the surface of
clay of positively negatively clay of
charged cations in positively charged cations
solution, in solution especially
especially Ca, H, K, Calcium (Ca), Hydrogen
(H), Potassium (K), and
Mg.
Magnesium (Mg).
 SOIL PROFILE
The soil is the topmost layer
of the earth’s crust mainly
composed of organic
minerals and rock particles
that support life. A soil
profile is a vertical cross-
section of the soil, made of
layers running parallel to
the surface. These layers are
known as soil horizons.
Limestone scenery

[Link]
 Limestone scenery
These features occur
because limestone reacts
with slightly acidic water,
and often has lots of joints
(cracks) in it.

LIMESTONE IS A SEDIMENTARY ROCK

Sedimentary rocks are formed from deposits of
pre-existing rocks or pieces of once-living
organism that accumulate on the Earth's surface

[Link]
 Limestone scenery
These features occur
because limestone reacts
with slightly acidic water,
and often has lots of joints
(cracks) in it.

LIMESTONE IS A SEDIMENTARY ROCK

Sedimentary rocks are formed from deposits of
pre-existing rocks or pieces of once-living
organism that accumulate on the Earth's surface

[Link]
 Limestone scenery
These features occur
because limestone reacts
with slightly acidic water,
and often has lots of joints
(cracks) in it.

LIMESTONE IS A SEDIMENTARY ROCK

Sedimentary rocks are formed from deposits of
pre-existing rocks or pieces of once-living
organism that accumulate on the Earth's surface

[Link]
KARST LANDSCAPE
Karst is an area of land made up of limestone.
Limestone, also known as chalk or calcium
carbonate, is a soft rock that dissolves in
water. As rainwater seeps into the rock, it
slowly erodes. Karst landscapes can be worn
away from the top or dissolved from a weak
point inside the rock.

Karst landscapes feature caves, underground

streams and sinkholes on the surface. Where
erosion has worn away the land above ground,
steep rocky cliffs are visible.
KARST LANDSCAPE
Karst is an area of land made up of limestone.
Limestone, also known as chalk or calcium
carbonate, is a soft rock that dissolves in
water. As rainwater seeps into the rock, it
slowly erodes. Karst landscapes can be worn
away from the top or dissolved from a weak
point inside the rock.

Karst landscapes feature caves, underground

streams and sinkholes on the surface. Where
erosion has worn away the land above ground,
steep rocky cliffs are visible.
Mechanical
weathering
WEATHERING
 MECHANICAL WEATHERING
Mechanical weathering, also known as physical
weathering, is the process of breaking down
rocks into smaller pieces without changing their
chemical composition. This occurs due to
physical forces such as temperature changes,
pressure, ice, water, wind, and biological
activity.
 PROCESS OF MECHANICAL
WEATHERING

MECHANICAL MECHANICAL THERMAL WETTINGAND

UNLOADING LOADING LOADING DRYING

CRYSTALLIZATION PNEUMATIC
LOADING
MECHANICAL
UNLOADING

Vertical expansion due to

the
reduction of vertical load
by erosion.
This will open existing
fractures and
may permit the creation of
new
fractures.
MECHANICAL
LOADING

Impact on rock, and

abrasion, by
sand and silt size windborne
particles
in deserts. Impact on soil
and weak
rocks by rain drops during
intense
rainfall storms.
THERMAL
LOADING

Expansion by the freezing of

water in
pores and fractures in cold
regions, or
by the heating of rocks in hot
regions. Contraction by the
cooling
of rocks and soils in cold
regions.
WETTING AND
DRYING

process where soil samples

are alternately saturated
with water and then dried,
simulating natural
conditions such as rainfall
followed by dry periods
 PNEUMATIC
CRYSTALLIZATION LOADING

Expansion of pores and The repeated loading by waves

fissures by of air
crystallization within them of trapped at the head of
minerals that were originally fractures
in exposed in the wave zone of
solution. Note: expansion is
a sea
only
cliff.
severe when crystallization
occurs
within a confined space.
 Unloading
allows a small vertical expansion which gives rise to the
formation of 'sheets' of rock by the opening of joints parallel
to the ground surface.
 Frost action
the process of alternate freezing and thawing of moisture in
soil, rock and other materials, and the resulting effects on
materials and on structures placed on, or in, the ground.
 Frost action
The loosened
fragments fall and accumulate as heaps of scree or talus
at lower levels, material which may later be consolidated
into deposits known as breccia.
 Frost action
The term permafrost (due to S. W. Muller, 1945) is used
to denote perennially frozen ground. Permafrost areas
have remained below 00C for many years and in most cases
for thousands of years.
 Frost action
The term permafrost (due to S. W. Muller, 1945) is used
to denote perennially frozen ground. Permafrost areas
have remained below 00C for many years and in most cases
for thousands of years.
 Frost action
The process of solifluction is the slow downslope movement of
soil due to recurrent freezing and thawing of the ground, Near
the margins of permafrost areas, where slopes are covered
with a mixture of fine and coarse rock fragments,
the slow movement of this surface material over the frozen
ground beneath it takes place by repeated freezing and
thawing.
 Frost-heaving
This occurs when the freezing of the soil results in the
formation of layers of segregated ice at shallow depths.
 Insolation
The outer heated layers tend to pull away from the cooler
rock underneath and flakes and slabs split off, a process
known as exfoliation. incident solar radiation onto some
object
BIOLOGICAL
WEATHERING
WEATHERING
 WHAT IS BIOLOGICAL
WEATHERING?

Biological weathering is a process driven by living organisms

that breaks down rocks physically and chemically. Plants are
key agents, as their roots and secretions contribute directly
to the weathering. Its primary purpose is to contribute to soil
formation, nutrient cycling, and ecosystem sustainability,
forming the foundation of terrestrial life.
 PHYSICAL PROCESS

Burrowing by
Animals Tree Fall
Root Growth
and Expansion
 Root Growth and Expansion
How it happens: Plant roots grow into
cracks or joints in rocks as they search
for water and nutrients.

Effect: As the roots grow and thicken, they

exert pressure on the rock, causing it to
crack and eventually break apart.
Burrowing by Animals
How it happens: Animals like earthworms,
moles, ants, and rodents burrow into the
soil, exposing rock surfaces to air and
water.

Effect: This loosens and fragments the

rock, making it easier for other weathering
processes to act.
Tree Fall
How it happens: When large trees are
uprooted during storms, they can pull up
soil and loosen rock fragments.

Effect: This exposes rocks to further

weathering agents like water, air, and
microorganisms.
 CHEMICAL PROCESS

Organic Acid
Production
Decay of
Organic Matter

Microbial Activity
Organic Acid Production
How it happens: Plants (such as mosses,
lichens, and fungi) and microorganisms
release organic acids as part of their
metabolic processes.

Effect: These acids dissolve minerals in

rocks (e.g., carbonates like limestone),
changing their chemical structure and
causing the rock to weaken and break
down.
Decay of Organic Matter
How it happens: Decaying plant
and animal material produces acids
(e.g., humic acid) and releases
carbon dioxide.

Effect: Carbon dioxide reacts with

water to form carbonic acid, which
can chemically weather rocks.
Microbial Activity
How it happens: Bacteria and other
microorganisms secrete acids and
enzymes that break down minerals in
rocks.

Effect: This process is especially

effective in dissolving silicates,
carbonates, and other mineral-rich
rocks.
GLOBAL
TRENDS
 WHAT IS GLOBAL
TREND?

Global trends in geology are the big-picture patterns, research

focuses, and technological advancements that geologists are
exploring to better understand Earth and address global
challenges. These trends are shaped by human needs (like
energy and water), environmental concerns (like climate
change), and scientific curiosity (like exploring other planets).
Present distribution of weathering types. Based on data from Washburn (1979);
LEGENDS:
Meigs (1953); Flint (1957); and Strakhov(1967).
*M = Mechanical
*C = Chemical ( including
biological)

*Mc= Mechanical weathering

dominates
*Cm= Chemical weathering
dominates

*Boundary to semi-arid and

drier zones
*Limit of seasonal widespread
permafrost
*Limit of permafrost during
Ice Age
EROSION AND
DEPOSITION
 WHAT IS EROSION
AND DEPOSITION?

Erosion and deposition continuously reshape Earth's surface,

creating new landscapes over time. While erosion wears down
features, deposition builds them up, demonstrating nature’s
balancing act.
 THE WORK OF RIVER
Rivers play a crucial role in
shaping the Earth's surface
and supporting ecosystems.
Their work can be categorized
into three main processes:
erosion, transportation, and
deposition.
 HOW RIVER WORKS?
“Erosion (Wearing Away of Land)”
Where It Happens: Mostly in the upper course of a river,
where the flow is fast and powerful (e.g., waterfalls,
rapids).

“Transportation (Moving Sediments)”

Where It Happens: Mostly in the middle course, where the
river is less steep but still flows fast.

“Deposition (Dropping Off Sediments)”

Where It Happens: Mostly in the lower course, where the
river slows before reaching a lake or sea.
 THE WORK OF SEA
Just like rivers, the sea
constantly shapes coastlines
through erosion,
transportation, and deposition.
These processes create various
coastal landforms and
influence landscapes over
time.
 HOW SEA WORKS?
“Erosion (Breaking Down the Coastline)”
When waves crash against the shore, they wear away
rocks and cliffs. Erosion Forms: Cliffs, wave-cut platforms,
caves, arches, stacks, and stumps.

“Transportation (Moving Sediments Along the Coast)”

Results: The coastline constantly changes, with some
areas losing land (erosion) and others gaining land
(deposition).

“Deposition (Dropping Off Sediments)”

When waves lose energy (e.g., in bays or sheltered areas),
they drop the sediments they were carrying. Deposition
Forms: Beaches, spits, bars, sand dunes, and lagoons.
 VALLEYS
Valleys are long, low areas that can typically
be found between hills and mountains. They
are often formed by the erosion of land over
time by ice (glacial erosion) or a source of
moving water, such as a river or stream.

Those valleys produced by tectonic action are

called rift valleys.

Very narrow, deep valleys of similar

appearance are called gorges.
THE WORK OF WIND
It is the great equalizer
of the atmosphere,
transporting heat,
moisture, pollutants,
and dust great
distances around the
globe.
THE WORK OF WIND
Erosion: Wind can erode
rocks and soil by blowing
fine particles across the
surface. This process is
called abrasion, where
windborne particles (sand,
dust, etc.) scrape against
rocks and break them down
into smaller pieces.
 THE WORK OF ICE

Glaciers are rivers of ice

which erode the
landscape by destroying
soil and stones to
expose the solid rock
below.
 MASS TRANSPORT

Mass transport, or mass wasting,

is a key geological process that
reshapes the Earth's surface by
moving soil, rock, and debris down
slopes due to gravity. It plays a
vital role in both destructive and
constructive landform
development
thank YOU
GROUP 1 (Chapter 3)