2.

Emancipation (freedom) of women (freedom to

THEME 1 REVISION NOTE get an education and work)
WORLD POPULATION GROWTH
3. Improved levels of education (especially female)
1. Population: the total number of people living in a 4. Reduced infant mortality
particular area at a particular period of time. 2. 5. Introduction of pensions and care homes 6.
natural increase: birth rate - death rate (the Development of economy into secondary and
difference between birth rate and death rate) 3. Birth tertiary sectors
rate the number of people born each year per 1000 7. Delayed marriages and less children
people 8. Anti-natalist policies e.g. China's one child policy
4. Death rate the number of people who die each 9. legalise abortion
year per 1000 people 10. High cost of raising children
5. Fertility rate is the average number of children a
woman is expected to bear in her reproductive
Reasons for high death rate
age. 1. Natural disasters e.g. Tsunami, earthquake,
6. Population growth rate is the rate at which the volcanoes, flooding etc.
population increases in a given time period. 2. Conflicts and wars
7. Net migration the difference between immigrant 3. Poor hygiene and sanitation this leads to easy
and emigrant (immigrant - emigrant) spread of diseases
4. Poor medical care: lack of drugs, doctors,
Reasons for growth in world population inadequate hospitals
Factors influencing population growth Population change
5. Poor diet (might be a shortage of food or
or growth in a country is affected by
unhealthy food)
1. the difference between birth rates and death
6. Poor lifestyle such as Drinking alcohol, smoking or
(natural change) and taking drugs
2. the balance between immigration and emigration 7. Lack of exercise (sedentary lifestyle)
(net migration).
8. Shortage of clean water
Natural change: Natural change is the difference 9. Diseases e.g. cancer and AIDS
between birth rate and death rate.
Reasons for low death rate
Natural change = BIRTH RATE – DEATH RATE PER 1000 OF
1. Immunisation programs e.g. small pox
THE TOTAL POPULATION
2. Availability of clean, safe drinking water
Net migration (NM) is the difference between number 3. Improved diet and knowledge of diet e.g. five
of people moving into a country (immigrants) and the portions of fruit and diet
number of people leaving the country (emigrants) THE
4. Improved levels of exercise
FORMULAR
5. Improved medical care
NM = I – E 6. Availability of care homes and pensions for the
Reasons for high birth rate in LEDCs elderly
• Lack of contraceptives e.g., condoms 7. Good hygiene and sanitation
• Early marriages (this will increase fertility rate) • 8. Improved preventative testing e.g. for cancer so
Cultural belief (preference for male child) • High people can be treated before it kills them
infant mortality (if some babies may die, Population growth rate
couples will be tempted to have more children) •
In calculating population growth rate, you will take into
Religious beliefs e.g. belief against contraception and
consideration the birth rate, death rate and net migration
abortion (Roman Catholicism)
Population growth rate = BR-DR-+NM
• Agriculturally based society (need for people to
farm and collect water) Overpopulation, Under population and
• No care homes or pensions so old dependents
Optimum population
will need their children to care for them in old
age. • Under-population: less people than available
resources
• Pro-natalist policies (governments encouraging
couples to have more children) • Optimum population: available resource and
people are equal.
• lack of education on family planning
• Illegal abortion • Over-population: more people than resources
Impact of overpopulation
Reasons for low birth rate in MEDCs
1. Lack of housing /overcrowded houses /shanty
1. Availability and affordability of contraception e.g.
towns
cheap or free condoms
2. Lack of employment/low wages
 1
3. Lack of food/farmland/starvation /need to import Economic migrant; a person who moves to live and work
more food. there for at least a year.
4. Pressure on educational facilities Source: where people are leaving
5. Pressure on health care Destination: where people are going to
6. Poverty Internal migrant; a person who moves to live or working a
7. Deforestation different place within the same country.
8. Traffic congestion/jams Forms of migration
9. Pressure on sanitation/lots of waste/waste Voluntary migration is the movement of people usually by
disposal problems choice
10. lack of water. Involuntary migration is the forced movement of the
11. Pressure on electricity/power/ fuel shortages people usually to unknown destination
12. Air/water pollution Internal migration – the movement of people within a
Under population country
Causes of under-population International migration – the movement of the people
1. Small population size; from a country to another country
2. Extreme climate Asylum seeker – A person who has left their country of
3. Poor access; origin for fear of persecution with permission to stay.
4. Landlocked; Refugee – a person who has been forced to leave their
5. Large amounts of resources; Large amounts of country of origin in fear of their lives.
outward migration IDP - someone who is forced to leave their home but who
6. Low birth rate remains within their country's borders.
7. Increase use of contraceptives and family Rural to urban migration - the movement of people from
planning village to town.
Impact of under population Reasons why people Migrate
1. Fewer people paying taxes which can lead to • Push factors are negative conditions at the point of
higher taxes origin which encourage or force people to move.
2. Underused resources, which can lead to wastage • Pull factors are positive condition at the point of
3. A shortage of workers destination which encourage people to migrate. Push
4. Lower levels of exports and production which factors
affects the wealth of an area 1. Unemployment/low pay;
5. Fewer customers for goods and services 2. Poor health care/less doctors/hospitals etc.;
6. Difficult to defend 3. Poor education/not enough schools;
Population policy 4. To escape poverty/low GDP;
5. Lack of clean water/sanitation;
Definition: Measures taken by a government to influence
6. Drought;
the way its population is changing
7. Earthquake/volcanic eruption/tsunami/tropical
There are two types of population policies:
storm;
Pro-natalist policies: A policy that tries to increase birth
8. Power cuts/outages/not enough electricity;
rate and total fertility rates. You cannot force people to
9. War/conflict;
have children, so you have to offer incentives e.g. free
10. Inadequate food supplies/famine/can’t grow
education
crops etc.;
Anti-natalist policies: A policy that tries to REDUCE birth
11. Persecution /lack of freedom;
rate and total fertility rate.
12. Corruption/political instability/poor
MIGRATION government/dictatorship;
Migration: the movement of people across a specify 13. Genocide/murder rate;
boundary – national or international and live there for a 14. Air pollution/smog;
year or more. Pull factors
Immigration: moving in to a country from another country 1. Economic migration for employment which will
Emigration: leaving (moving out) one’s own country help to improve their living standard;
Emigrant; migrants who move out of the country. 2. To escape persecution/war/conflict;
Immigrants; migrants who move into a country. Illegal 3. For better standard education;
migrant; a person who enters a country to work and live 4. For better health care which will improve their life
without permission. expectancy;
 5. good food supply in MEDCs which will solve the spread of diseases;
problem of Hunger, Starvation and malnutrition; 6. 7. availability of electricity.
availability of water/sanitation which reduce the
2
Problems immigrant face in the destination Positive impact on the (destination) (moving in to a
country 1. Difficulty finding employment; country)
2. Discrimination/racial abuse/racial conflict/racial 1. Economic migrants tend to take up less desirable
tension/xenophobia; jobs
3. Low pay/exploitation; 2. Gain skilled people at low cost
4. Language difficulties; 3. Can pay low wages
5. Finding/affording a home/poor housing/housing 4. Will work long hours
problem; 5. Cost of retirement transferred back to the home
6. Healthcare may not be affordable; country
7. Education may not be affordable; 6. Creation of multi-cultured society (life style,
8. Away from friends and family; dress, tradition, food)
9. Qualifications will not be accepted; 7. Fresh ideas and intelligent people in research and
10. Hard to get citizenship/green card/permission to development institutions
work; 8. Young talents in the field of sports, culture etc
11. hard to adapt to different culture; Negative impact on the (destination) (moving in to a
12. cannot practice religion. country)
Impact of migration 1. The cost of education to migrants children
2. Fewer jobs for unskilled workers
Positive impact on the source (origin) country
1. Reduced unemployment 3. May move back once earned money
2. Returning migrants bring back skills which make 4. Amenities problems – hospitals, schools etc with
Jobs become available; extra number of people
3. Remittances/financial boost for families 5. There is an over-dependence of some industries
remaining; on migrant labour
4. Less pressure on health/education services; 6. Discrimination against ethnic groups may lead to
5. Returning migrants increase the social civil war (Indonesia – 1997-98)
expectations 7. The loss of aspects of cultural identity particularly
6. Returning migrants are with high purchasing among the second generation migrants
power 8. Segregated areas of similar ethnic groups are
created (Singapore – little India)
7. Increased investments in projects like buildings
Negative impact on the source country (move out from a 9. Problems of illegal migration
country) POPULATION STRUCTURE
1. Imbalanced population structure mostly high • A population pyramid is a graph which shows the
dependent population; population structure of a country
2. Relatively few men remain mostly population of • Population structure is the % of people in different
women left behind; age groups and of different genders in a
3. Lower fertility/birth rates because most men have country’s population
moved out; • Young Dependents: The number or the
4. Reduction in economically active workforce; percentage of the population under the age of
Examples such as loss of farmers/teachers; 16. • Old Dependents: The number or the percentage
5. Less money coming into households because of the population over the age of 65.
working population has decline;
• Economically Active: People between the ages of 16
6. Food production declines because of abandoned and 65. This is basically the working group. •
farms; Dependency Ratio: The ratio between the number of
7. Loss of social cohesion/families are dependents (old and young) and the
split/loneliness; economically active.
8. Remittances/financial boost for families
Features of a population pyramid
remaining;
9. Less pressure on health/education services; 10.
Closure of schools/hospitals/businesses/lack of
clients/customers;
11. Less investment by Government; Etc
 REASONS FOR HIGH NUMBER OF YOUNG DEPENDENT IN LEDCS
1. Lack of /don’t use/cannot afford contraception;

3
2. Lack of education about contraception and REASONS FOR HIGH NUMBER OF OLD DEPENDENT 1. Low
problems of large families; death rates/long life expectancy/decreasing death
3. Children needed for work to earn money i.e. rates;
farming; 2. Investment in health care/hospitals/clinics;
4. needed to look after elderly due to lack of 3. Vaccination/cures for disease/medicines; 4.
pension and care homes; Lots of doctors/nurses;
5. Children needed to do household chores or 5. Good water supply;
examples – fetching wood/water, cleaning house, 6. Sanitation/more hygienic;
looking after younger children; 7. Improved food supplies/nutrition/better diet;
6. Traditional views about large 8. Provision of pensions
families/polygamy/families want a male child; 9. Care provision for elderly/old peoples’
7. Religious/cultural views on homes/specified care for elderly;
contraception/abortion/family size; 10. Education about diet/healthy lifestyle;
8. High infant mortality therefore they have more 11. Early retirement;
babies so some will survive; 12. Healthy lifestyle/exercise
9. Early marriages/teenage pregnancy; IMPACT OF HIGH NUMBER OF OLD DEPENDENT
10. Lack of emancipation for women/women don’t POPULATION
have careers/lack of education for women; 1. Less people working/smaller workforce;
11. No access to abortion, etc 2. Economic decline/GDP falls;
IMPACT OF HIGH NUMBER OF YOUNG DEPENDENT 1. 3. Strain on economically active/people unable to
Children do not work which result to economic work as care for parents;
burden for the country and the dependency rate 4. problems of providing pensions;
increases; 5. increased pressure on hospitals/health services;
2. People cannot work as are caring for children; 6. need to invest more in health/welfare services; 7.
3. More food needed; increased dependency ratio;
4. More schools; 8. lower earnings through taxation/need to increase
5. Need for more child care/support taxes;
6. More healthcare needed; 9. increased need for old peoples’ homes or
7. Tax increases because money is needed for specified service for the elderly;
provide for the young population. 10. difficulty of recruitment for armed forces;
8. increase in orphanages 11. less innovative workforce;
12. children drop out of school to look after parents;
13. less investments in schools;
14. people forced to work longer/increase retirement
age;
15. encourage immigration
DEMOGRAPHIC TRANSITION MODEL (DTM)
Demographic means population and transition means
change, so the DTM basically means the population
change model. The DTM looks at how a country's
population may change as it develops. It looks at birth
rates, death rates and total population. The DTM is usually
 divided into five stages. Stage 1 is the poorest stage and pandemics.
stage 5 is the richest stage. In Stage 2, the introduction of modern medicine lowers
death rates, especially among children, while birth rates
remain high; the result is rapid population growth. Many
of the least developed countries today are in Stage 2. In
Stage 3, birth rates gradually decrease, usually as a
result of improved economic conditions, an increase in
women’s status, and access to contraception. Population

In Stage 1, which applied to most of the world before the

Industrial Revolution, both birth rates and death rates are
high. As a result, population size remains fairly constant
but can have major swings with events such as wars or

4
growth continues, but at a lower rate. Most developing irrigation
countries are in Stage 3. 4. Isolation and Inaccessibility (poor road
Stage 4, birth and death rates are both low, stabilizing the transportation)
population. These countries tend to have stronger 5. Lack of employment
economies, higher levels of education, better healthcare, a 6. Lack of resources
higher proportion of working women, and a fertility rate 7. Relief (mountainous) difficult to access and build
hovering around two children per woman. Most 8. Low rainfall cannot grow crops
developed countries are in Stage 4. 9. Harsh climatic conditions too hot and cold makes it
A possible Stage 5 would include countries in which difficult to build houses
fertility rates have fallen significantly below replacement 10. Dense vegetative cover
level (2 children) and the elderly population is greater Reasons for high-density in the urban areas
than the youthful population. 1. Transportation and communication
LIMITATIONS OF DTM 2. Medical facilities
• limited predictive capacity 3. Safe drinking water
• significant influence of migration 4. Educational institutions
• the theory is continued to shift 5. Job opportunities
1.4 POPULATION DENSITY AND DISTRIBUTION ● 6. Industries
Population density is the average number of 7. Offices (administration and others)
people living in a square kilometre of land. 8. Commerce (banking, import and exports)
9. Entertainment and Recreational facilities
Population distribution
● Population distribution – it describes how people
are spread throughout a region’s land area
NB: How to answer population distribution question
in Geography
• even/uneven
• Location details (latitude and longitude
details, absolute and relative location)
• Place name (Name of the area)
• Widely or narrowly (in term of amount or
quantity)
Reasons for low-density in rural areas PHYSICAL FACTORS AFFECTING POPULATION DENSITY
1. Not enough flat land for agriculture (farming) 1. Areas of low/flat land are densely populated it
2. Infertile soil (acidic or thin) attract lots of people to live there because it is easy to
3. Dry/arid regions difficult to cultivate/need for build houses, road and makes it easily accessible
 while, high land is sparsely populated; 2. Mineral More economically developed areas have stable
resources such as coal, oil and natural gas use to economy so, it is densely populated with more
generate electricity people while, lack of economic development may
3. Areas where amounts of rainfall are result in sparse population;
low/deserts/arid areas/high rainfall are sparsely 2. Work, jobs people earn more money which
populated it attract few people to live there attract more people;
because it’s difficult to cultivate therefore less food 3. Tourism/energy/mining/secondary/tertiary
production and easy spread of disease; 4. Areas attract people to an area;
with extremely low temperatures such as the Arctic 4. Economic development leads to increased
regions are sparsely populated while, temperate accessibility i.e. Roads, railway lines, motorway
areas attract lots of people; built;
5. Areas with dense vegetation/rainforests have few 5. Ports for trade such as imports and exports;
people living there because it is difficult to access; 6. 6. Better healthcare attracts people;
Rivers/water sources/aquifers attract people it 7. Better education attracts people
provides water for irrigation, transport
opportunity for fishing while, swampy attract few
1.5 settlement and service
people because is difficult to build, easy spread of provision
disease;
Settlement: A place where people live.
7. Fertile soils attract for agriculture while, infertile
Pattern: means how something is arranged/the shape of a
are sparsely populated;
settlement
ECONOMIC FACTORS AFFECTING POPULATION DENSITY 1.

5
services: Facilities that are offered to people e.g. in rural areas although some cities may have some small
supermarket, cinema, school or train station. urban farms
Hierarchy is an order of importance Recreational: Any activity that people do in their spare
SETTLEMENT SITE AND SITUATION time. This land use may include golf courses, football
Site refers to the physical place upon which settlements pitches, museums, sports centers and tennis courts. Retail:
are built. This is shops. Traditionally the main shopping areas have
Situation refers to the location of the settlement in been in the CBD but increasingly shops have been
relation to other important features e.g., close to relocating to shopping malls in the rural-urban fringe.
resources, or between two hills. Educational: Any building connected to education e.g.
FACTORS AFFECTING THE SITE, GROWTH AND FUNCTION libraries, schools and universities. This land use may be
OF SETTLEMENT found anywhere in urban areas.
Market Town: originally served as a settlement where
farmers buy and sell goods from their farms in the
surrounding area.
Port: Located on coasts, rivers and lakes for the movement
of goods and people from land to sea.
Tourist Resorts: A settlement where the many tourists visit
on their holidays, normally in an attractive coastal or
mountain location.
Cultural/ Religious: A settlement that attracts people for
educational or religious reasons.
SETTLEMENT PATTERNS

SETTLEMENT FUNCTION
Commercial: This is businesses, mainly offices. The main
commercial area will normally be in the CBD
Residential: This is housing and is where people live.
Apartment type housing is found near the CBD and bigger
houses towards the suburbs. Dispersed settlement: In a dispersed settlement there are
Industrial: This is factories, traditionally found in the few buildings which are far apart from each other. Causes of
transition zone, they are now more likely to be found in dispersed settlement
the rural-urban fringe. ● Relief will lead to E.g., dispersed settlements on
flat farmland and in mountainous areas;
Agricultural: This farming and is obviously normally found
 ● Land use/resource availability will lead to E.g. Water availability will lead to E.g., nucleated
dispersed if farmland resource availability settlements around water sources:
Linear settlement: these are settlements where buildings 4. Land use/resource availability will lead to E.g.,
are grouped in a line. They developed normally along a nucleated if mining area;
road (access), a river valley (flat land and water supply) 5. Topography/hills: Defensive sites may lead to
Causes of linear settlement nucleated settlements.
1. Relief will lead to E.g., linear settlements along SETTLEMENT HIERARCHY AND SERVICE
valley PROVISION
2. Transport/access will lead to E.g., Linear
Hierarchy: A way of arranging settlements into order of
settlements along main roads
importance based upon their population size or services
3. Rivers/bridging points of rivers will lead to E.g.,
provided etc.
linear settlements in valleys
Services: Facilities that are offered to people e.g.
Nucleated settlement- these are settlements where
supermarket, cinema, school or train station. The
buildings are grouped together around a central area.
hierarchy of a settlement normally depends on three
Causes of nucleated settlement
variables:
1. Transport/access will lead to E.g., nucleated
1. The size of population
settlements at road junctions;
2. The range and number of services
2. Rivers/bridging points of rivers will lead to E.g.,
3. The sphere of influence
nucleated where rivers can easily be crossed; 3.

6
to the distance people travel to access a service or
settlement.
Threshold Population: The minimum amount of people
required for a service to be offered and remain open.
Sphere of Influence: The distance or area people travel
from to access a service i.e., the area served by a
settlement or service
Sphere of Influence depends on:
• Size and services it provides - larger town with more
high-order services will have a larger sphere •
Population density – sparsely populated, services are
spread so sphere is large
• Wealth of the people – in wealthy areas, people
have more money to buy goods so more outlets
Settlement hierarchy is a diagram of settlements showing and sphere is smaller
relative importance of settlements within an area; As you • Transport facilities – good transport link allow
move up the hierarchy, the size of the settlement increases further travel so sphere is larger
and the numbers of settlements decrease; There are more • Competition – smaller sphere when there is a
cities than conurbations/more towns than cities and more settlement nearby
villages than towns etc; TYPES OF SERVICES
The number of services that a settlement provides low order services (convenience)
increases with settlement size, small settlements will only • Smaller sphere of influence;
provide low-order services (such as a post offices, doctors • People will not travel as far to use low-order
and newsagents) while large towns, cities and service;
conurbations will provide low and high-order services • Threshold population will be smaller;
(such as leisure centers, chain stores and hospitals) Range
• People will use them more frequently;
of goods: This usually refers to the number of different
• In low order service they sell convenience goods •
services e.g., a school, a post office, etc. It can also refer
 They sell lower cost goods in low order services Land use is arranged in a series of concentric rings or zones
high order services (Comparison) around the city centre. The ideas are that the city has grown
• Larger sphere of influence; outward in all directions from the centre, adding new
buildings around the edges. The process is rather like the
• People travel far to use high-order service; •
growth rings of trees. It means that the urban fabric should
Threshold population will be larger; get older towards the centre. The width of the zones varies
• Frequency of use is low according to the density of building. HOYT’S SECTOR MODEL
• High order sells comparison/specialist goods; • (1939)
They sell expensive goods in high order services
1.6 URBAN SETTLEMENTS
Urban = Cities and towns
Urban Land use = is what land is used in town and cities
(e.g. housing)
A model = a theoretical diagram which helps to explain
reality.
Urban land use model is a theoretical picture which Land use is arranged in wedges or sectors which radiate
suggests where you might find land use within a towns from the city centre. Growth follows a linear pattern along
and cities. major transport routes or physical features such as river
LAND USE MODELS valleys. We assume that once a particular type of land-use
1. Burgess’s concentric model (1925) establishes itself in an area. It attracts similar activities
2. Hoyt’s sector model (1939) (like industry).
3. Urban land use model for an LEDC city

BURGESS’S CONCENTRIC MODEL (1925)

7
URBAN LAND USE MODEL FOR AN LEDC CITY Land use in towns and cities
leisure and recreation - may include open land, eg parks or
built facilities such as sports centres
Residential - the building of houses and flats Transport -
road and rail networks, stations and airports business and
commerce - the building of offices, shops and banks
Industry - factories, warehouses and small production
centres.
CBD (CENTRAL BUSINESS DISTRICT)
The CBD is located in the centre because it is: 1. A
central location for road/railways to converge. 2. The
most accessible location for workers. 3. Accessible to
most people for shops and businesses.
It is different to the other two models as it has – High class Characteristics of CBD
residential closer to the CBD 1. High/multi-storey buildings.
– The quality of housing decrease as you move out from 2. Expensive land values.
the CBD as many people are forced to live in shanty towns 3. Department stores or specialist shops, like
on the edge of a city jewellers.
LAND USES 4. Shopping malls and pedestrian precincts. 5.
Cultural/historical buildings, museums and
castles.
6. Offices, finance, banks, administration, town hall
(business sector).
7. Bus and railway stations (transport centres).
8. Multi-storey car parks.
Reasons why there are high-rise buildings in the CBD of
many urban areas.
1. It is only a small area;
2. Pressure on land due to lots of competing land
uses;
3. High values;
4. More economical way of using the land
FACTORIES/INDUSTRIAL AREAS

Factories were built:

• As close as possible to the CBD but with enough
space
• Next to canals and railways to transport
materials,
• Next to rivers for cooling, power source or waste
disposal
• Next to land where lots of workers could live
RESIDENTIAL AREAS

8
 1. Loss of farming land and jobs;
2. Increase in population results in suburbanisation of
villages;
3. Increasing competition for land between
industrial and agricultural purpose;
4. Loss of natural reserves for wild life;
5. Increase in traffic leads to accidents,
6. Sewage works and disposal causes land, water
pollution
Reasons why people move to rural-urban fringe 1.
Developments in transport so, people can commute
daily to work/increased car ownership; 2. Rural
urban fringe is quieter, less noisy; 3. less traffic
congestion;
4. Rural urban fringe is safer due to less crime So,
there are less risks when bringing up their
families;
5. Areas near centre are overcrowded therefore
more spacious in rural urban fringe;
RURAL –URBAN FRINGE (ZONE OF TRANSITION / GREEN
6. lower cost land in rural urban fringe;
BELT)
7. less air pollution in rural urban fringe/fresh air; 8.
Border of city and countryside/the edge of the city/green
elderly move away from central areas when they
belt.
retire;
9. more space for housing;
10. access to countryside for recreation;
11. more modern housing/newer housing;
12. larger housing;
13. people working from home;
OPEN SPACES: REASONS WHY OPEN SPACES ARE
IMPORTANT
Land uses in rural-urban fringe
1. Agriculture;
2. Roads / by-passes / ring roads;
3. Industrial estates / business parks;
4. Retail parks;
5. Airports;
6. New housing
Why some shops and services are being located in
shopping malls in the rural-urban fringe
1. Cheaper land values in rural urban-fringe;
2. Can afford land to build a bigger store;
3. With room for parking;
4. Easier road access help to avoid congestion in
CBD;
5. Attracts customers from other towns and rural 1. Leisure/relaxation/recreation areas;
areas; More pleasant environment/scenery Reasons 2. Go for walks/dog walking or other examples, e.g.
why the rural-urban fringe is being developed. 1. To picnics;
provide housing; 3. For people to play sport/sports fields;
2. For industrial/business use; 4. Woodland/flora and fauna/protect nature;
3. for schools/hospitals/shopping malls, etc.; 5. Gardens/parks;
4. To create employment; 6. Allotments/for growing food;
5. Boost the local economy; 7. To help clean the air/reduce air pollution;
6. Lots of space/free space there; 8. Visual impact within built up area;
7. Land is cheap; CHANGES IN LAND USE PATTERN
Impact of development of rural-urban fringe
 9
Urban Sprawl: The expansion of the city into its
surrounding rural areas is the urban sprawl. As population
increases in towns and cities, urban sprawl takes places.
PROBLEM OF URBAN SPRAWL/ IMPACTS OF THE GROWTH
OF URBAN AREAS ON THE SURROUNDING NATURAL
ENVIRONMENT.
• Deforestation leading to loss of vegetation; •
Habitat loss;
• Traffic congestion
• Loss of farmland
• Wildlife scare, frightened to moves away or killed Greenbelts were established to prevent the continued
which leads to extinction; growth of cities. They are rings of heavily protected open
• Loss of food for wildlife which impacts on food land circling an urban area. They aim to protect the
chains; surrounding countryside from development, and in some
• Air pollution due to increased carbon dioxide or cases stop two large cities from merging.
other named gas/smog; Out of town shopping centre
• Destroy food chain;
• Water pollution, etc.
Urban redevelopment and renewal
Urban redevelopment attempts to counter this by
improving an urban area through demolishing,
reconstructing or substantially renovating existing
Shopping in MEDCs (more economically developed country)
buildings and infrastructure - there is a distinct change in
has changed from an industry dominated by small firms to one
the area
being led by large companies. The retailing revolution has
why redevelopment is taking place close to the CBD in focussed on superstores, hypermarkets and out-of-town
many cities. shopping centres. Advantages of out-of-town shopping centre:
• Many areas near the CBD are old and in need of 1. Plenty of free parking
repair; 2. Lots of space so shops are not cramped
• Heavy industry may have shut down; 3. New developments so usually quite attractive
• Slum clearance is taking place and housing lacks 4. Easily accessible by car
amenities; 5. The shops can sell large volumes of goods and
• Road building schemes to reduce traffic often at slightly lower prices
congestion/creation of car parking; 6. Having a large shop means that individual shops
• Use of land for industrial estates/retail parks, etc. can offer a greater range of goods than smaller
Reasons why parts of the CBD of many cities are being shops
redeveloped. 7. Developments on the edge of the town reduce
• To open new shops/offices; traffic congestion
• Need to attract more customers/visitors/tourists; • 8. Many new jobs can be created
Building new metro stations/bus stations; • Need to Disadvantages of out-of-town shopping centres
increase accessibility; 1. Destroy greenfield site
• Many businesses move out to mall/out of town; • 2. They destroy valuable habitats
Many are old buildings need to be updated or in 3. They lead to pollution and environmental
need of renovation; problems at the edge of town
• Reduce criminal behaviour; 4. And increase in impermeable surfaces (shops, car
parks, roads etc) may lead to an increase in
• Reducing access for vehicles to control the traffic; •
flooding and a decrease in water quality
encourage Investment from businesses etc. Urban
5. They only help those with cars – people who do
renewal involves the improvement of existing buildings,
not benefit might include the elderly, those
parks, roads, and industrial areas - area remains
recognisable without a car, those who cannot drive.
6. Successful out-of-town developments may take
Greenbelts
trade away from city centres and lead to a decline
in sales in the CBD
 7. Small businesses and family firms may not be able to compete with the vast multinational

10
companies that dominate out-of-town region;
developments – there may be a loss of the 4. Costs are reduced for commuters;
personal touch 5. Access central area;
8. They cause congestion in out-of-town areas 6. Air pollution reduced;
9. Many of the jobs created are unskilled. 7. Noise pollution reduced;
URBAN PROBLEMS 8. Less accidents;
9. Can pedestrianised central areas
Impact of traffic congestion
1. Delays/cause people to be late for
work/school/to destination/time wasted;
2. Results in loss of revenue for businesses/goods
delivery delayed;
3. Cause road rage/frustration/stress;
4. Uses more fuel;
5. Increased accidents;
6. Delays emergency services;
7. Result in atmospheric pollution/asthma/lung
disease;
Traffic congestion 8. Increase noise levels;
9. Result in loss of time/revenue for
businesses/goods delivery delayed;
Strategies used to reduce traffic
1. Build Park and Ride facilities: Build car parks on
the edge of a city and provided public transport,
bus or train into the centre
2. Reduce cost of public transport: Lower amount
which needs to be paid to use buses/trains/trams
will encourage more people to use it.
the causes of traffic congestion 3. Introduce congestion charges at peak times: Raise
1. Inadequate road network or narrow road so cars costs to motorists which have to be paid when
can't move freely; they enter a specific area at a busy time or rush
2. Roads were not designed for the number of hour
vehicles using them; 4. Build a metro: Construct an under or overground
3. There is limited space to build roads; rail system
4. Not enough off-street parking therefore parked 5. Car license plate restrictions: Cars with specific
cars cause obstructions; registrations can only enter certain area or use
5. people don't use public transport; specific roads on certain days.
6. Car ownership is increasing; 6. Pedestrianization: Prevent traffic using specific
7. Many people commute to work (rush hours); 8. roads by allowing only people on foot into certain
Focus of commercial activity/many people travel to areas
shops, businesses in CBD; 7. Create cycle lanes: Allow only people riding
bicycles to use parts of the road
9. Road works/ accidents;
10. Population increasing so there are more cars Housing
used;
11. Poor traffic management,
12. lack of investment in road building and public
transport schemes, etc.
Describe the advantage of managing traffic
1. Traffic is reduced on main roads within the urban
area;
2. Journey time is quicker;
3. There is no need to park in the congested central
 Why many people who live in urban areas live in poor 3. little investment from authorities in housing
quality housing. schemes;
1. lack of good quality housing; 4. demand for housing exceeds supply;
2. many people have moved to the cities;

11
5. they are cheap/many people cannot afford better 4. Loss of community spirit;
housing/are jobless; 5. More traffic/traffic congestion;
6. many houses are old and in need of renovation; 6. Danger for children going to nearby schools;
7. lack of space to build etc. 7. More noise pollution from industry;
Attempts which have been made to reduce housing 8. Air pollution from industries;
problems in urban areas. 9. Visual pollution from e.g. new buildings;
1. Building of housing estates/houses in suburbs; 10. New housing could be too expensive;
2. building of high-rise flats; 11. Loss of jobs/change in employment;
3. site and services schemes; 12. People feel land should have been used for
4. self-help schemes; something else
5. provide tools/training/building materials; Pollution: The release of toxic unwanted substance
6. installation of water pipes;
into the environment
7. installation of electricity grid;
8. improvement grants/low interest loans etc
Inequality
Some people are rich whilst others are poor/there are
variations in wealth/standard of living e.g. housing or cars;
Causes of inequality
1. Lots of wealth created in the cities (commercial
centres);
2. the highly paid jobs are in the cities; but many Impact of pollution
people do not have employment or are poorly Ideas such as:
paid; as they don’t possess the skills/education; • Air pollution could make breathing
3. many works in the informal sector with no state difficult/causes asthma;
benefits for those in poverty; • Noise pollution could make it hard for people to
4. there are so many poor people that it is concentrate/sleep/cause stress/headaches;
impossible for charities to help them all; • Water pollution could cause water borne
5. racism/discrimination; disease/cholera;
6. exploitation etc • Visual pollution could stop people selling
Problems of inequality homes/spoiling views;
1. High levels of poverty/no money;
2. high crime levels;
1.7 Urbanization
3. some people have poor housing conditions; 4. Rural depopulation: reduction in the number of
people living in rural area usually due to rural to
growth of squatter settlements/slums/shanty
urban migration
towns;
Urbanisation means the growth of town and cities due
5. Some people cannot afford education for their
to an increase in the proportion of people living in
children;
urban areas compared to rural areas.
6. some people cannot afford medical care; 7.
Some people cannot afford clean water; 8. some Reasons for rural depopulation
1. less people work on farms/declining importance
people do not have access to electricity; 9. some
of agriculture;
homes have poor sanitation;
2. Mechanization of agriculture;
10. Some people cannot afford food;
3. Lack of work/to find jobs/get more pay;
11. social conflict etc.
4. Movement of people to urban areas;
Conflict over land use change 5. For education/universities;
Causes of conflict over land use 6. For health care/hospitals;
1. People may have lived in houses for many years; 7. Transport network may be poor/winding roads
2. People have to move out; etc
3. Some people do not want change/new people Impact of rural depopulation
cause problems; 1. Loss of working population leading to shortage of
 workers; causing starvation;
2. Mainly women, elderly, children are left behind; 3. 5. Family breaks up/nobody to care for elderly/no
There are not enough people to do manual father figure to act as role model for boys, etc.; 6.
work/skilled work example, e.g. doctor, teacher; 4. closure of services/businesses because of less
Less people to farm leading to Less food produced customers;

12
7. Lack of development/(government) investment favela all mean the same thing! They are areas
(or example – installing electricity/building housing built by people themselves out of material
roads), etc. they can find, often around the edge of LEDC cities.
URBAN GROWTH They are often illegally built and can have no
sanitation, water or electricity connection.
Reason for rapid urban growth for several reasons
1. Better transport links e.g., road, rail, river 2.
Better trading prospects
3. Nearby natural resources e.g., fuel
4. Better job prospects
5. Development of Port
6. Increase in rural to urban migration
7. Have markets for surrounding area
8. Have industries/factories
9. Are in central location
10. Better schools and hospitals
11. Better supply of electricity, gas and water
12. Varied entertainment
Problems of urban
growth/urbanisation Problem of urban Problems of squatter settlement
growth on people • overcrowded housing/small houses/cramped
1. Overcrowded conditions;
2. More jobs are needed • lack of piped water/(clean) water supplies/water
3. Cannot afford housing due to low pay borne diseases;
4. Development of squatter settlement • poor quality building materials;
5. Traffic congestion • fire risk/flammable building materials;
6. Visual pollution • poor sanitation/no proper drains/lack of
7. Loss of farmlands sewage/unhygienic;
8. Food shortages • lack of electricity supply/illegal connections to
9. Spread of disease grid;
10. Noise pollution • high crime rates;
11. Increase in crime rate • unmade roads;
12. Difficulties of waste disposal leading to poor • lack of waste disposal;
sanitation • vermin spread disease;
13. Pressure on schools and hospitals • risk of eviction;
Problems for the environment • lacks of clinics/schools;
1. Loss of vegetation • houses not weatherproof/not stable;
2. Loss of habitat • diseases spread easily in crowded conditions etc.;
3. Impacts on food chains Strategies to reduce the problem of squatter
4. Pollution of rivers settlement
5. Death of fish and other species • building of low-cost housing/flats;
6. Air pollution • site and services schemes;
7. River dries up because of extraction and • self-help;
irrigation. • provide tools/training/building materials; •
installation of water pipes;
SQUATTER SETTLEMENT • installation of electricity grid;
• improvement grants/low interest loans etc.
the terms shanty town, squatter settlement, slum and
 Describe what has been done to reduce the problems and services schemes
caused by urban growth 4. (High crime rates), e.g. employ more police ( 5. Air
1. (Traffic congestion), e.g., ring roads pollution), e.g. legislate against pollution from
2. (Unemployment), e.g., attract TNCs factories
3. (Lack of housing/squatter settlements), e.g., site

Theme 2&3 Geography

Volcanoes
A volcano is formed when magma erupts onto the earth’s surface as lava through the vent in the earth's crust.
Features of a Volcano

● How do volcanoes form?

○ Magma rises through cracks in the Earth’s crust
○ Pressure builds up (inside Earth)
○ Pressure and tension are released → Plate movement
○ Magma explodes to the surface, causing an eruption
○ Lava cools and forms a new crust
○ Over time, rock builds up, and new crusts form on top, forming a volcano.
Impacts of Volcanic eruptions

Environmental Human

Pyroclastic flow Loss of life and injury

lava flow collapse and destruction of buildings

volcanic bombs transport network damaged

Laharas Loss of jobs and businesses

earthquakes Loss of crops

ashfall Power and water supply damaged

landslides

Tsunami

acid rain

ash fallout

Opportunities formed by volcanoes

Fertile soils The cooled lava contains minerals, leading to a

high yield of crops.

Tourism Many people want to visit the area and study it.
 Minerals and They can be sold, providing more work and income.
precious stones

Geothermal energy the magma gives out heat, which can be used to
generate geothermal energy.

Creating new land once the lava and ash cool forms new fertile land.
areas

● Stages of Volcanoes:
○ Active: has erupted recently and is likely to erupt again.
○ Dormant: has not erupted recently but may in future
○ Extinct: no evidence to erupt again.
● shield volcanoe

Composite cone volcanoe

 ]

● Causes of eruptions:
At constructive margin, plates move away from each other; magma rises to fill the gap;
At the destructive margin, oceanic crust melts from friction and heat from the mantle; newly formed
magma is lighter, so it rises to the surface

Earthquakes
An earthquake is a sudden violent shaking of ground followed by a series of vibrations or movements
in the earth's crust.

● How earthquakes happen:

○ Tectonic plates move; they strike.
○ Pressure and tension build up as the plates try to move.
○ Eventually, they jolt free and pressure and tension are released inside the crust as
energy.
○ The energy passes through the earth’s crust as waves, an earthquake.
● Features of earthquake:
Effects of earthquakes

A large number of deaths

Fires breaking out

Water pipes burst

Water contamination, diseases

Corpses: human & animal

Accessibility difficult
 Building damaged/destroyed

Tsunami can follow

Reconstruction costs

● Reduce impacts of earthquakes:

Prediction Preparation

Measure earth tremors, pressure, and release Build earthquake-proof

of gas buildings

Use maps and facts to find patterns in Train emergency services

time/location

Unusual animal behaviour Set up a warning system

Seismometer Create evacuation plan

Richter scale Emergency food supply

Prepare earthquake kit

Types of plate boundaries

Constructive/divergent: occurs when two plates move away from each other

Conservative/transform: occurs when two plates slide past each other

Destructive/subduction/convergent: occurs when a continental plate subducts an oceanic plate.‎

Rivers
The hydraulic cycle is where water is constantly recycled through the system.
Drainage basin - an area of land where water from rain or snow melt drains downhill into a body of
water such as a river, lake, wetland or ocean
● Watershed - is an imaginary line that separates one drainage basin from the next
● Source - The beginning or start of a river.
● Confluence - the point at which two rivers or streams join.
● Tributary - a stream or smaller river joins a larger stream or river.
● The mouth is where the river ends, usually when entering the sea.
● Flood plains are the land that gets flooded when the river overflows

Stores of the Water Cycle

● Stores are those places where water is held for a period of time.
These include:
● Water in the atmosphere in the form of water vapour or water
droplets in clouds
● Surface stores such as puddles, lakes, rivers and reservoirs
● Interception is how precipitation is prevented from reaching the
ground, usually by being caught on leaves or branches
● Aquifers are permeable rocks such as limestone and sandstone which
can hold water
● Ice and snow
● Seas and oceans

Transfers of Water Within the Cycle

Transfers are the ways in which water is moved around the hydrological cycle.
They include:
● Evaporation: the change of water from liquid to vapour
● Transpiration: when plant lose water from their leaves
● Evapo-transpiration: lost of water from earth and plant
● Condensation: the change from water vapour to liquid which form cloud
● Precipitation: the transfer of water from the atmosphere to the earth surface
● in forms of snow, hail, rain
● Overland flow: water flowing across the earth surface
● Infiltration: water soak into soil
● Percolation: Movement of water into rocks and aquifer
● Throughflow: the movement of water through the soil
 ● Groundwater flow: the movement of water through rocks

Reasons why overland flow occur

● Precipitation exceeds infiltration;
● Heavy rainfall;
● Saturation of rock/soil ;
● Melting snow/ice;
● Water within the rock/soil could be frozen;
● After deforestation;
● When an area is covered by concrete/tarmac etc.

Reasons why the flow of the River varies during the year

● change in amount of precipitation/in one season there is lots of rain;

● Change in intensity of precipitation;
● Heavier/more intense precipitation lead to more surface run off;
● Variation in temperature and evaporation;
● Different amount of moisture lost to evapotranspiration or transpiration
or evaporation in different seasons;
● Degree to which ground is saturated;
● Glaciers/ice/snow melt could cause higher levels (in Spring);
● More extraction of water (in summer),

Drainage basins act as a system with:

● Inputs: precipitation
● Transfers: infiltration, percolation, surface runoff, throughflow & groundwater flow
● Stores: interception, surface storage, soil moisture storage & groundwater storage
Outputs: evaporation & transpiration or evapotranspiration

Drainage Basin Features

● Bed: The bottom of the river channel
● Bank: The sides of the river channel
○ A river has two banks
● Width: The distance between the two banks of a river
● Depth: The distance from the water surface to the bed of a river
● Speed of flow: how fast the water in a river is moving; different speeds arise at different parts of
the river
● Channel: The route course (between bed and banks) that a river flows. The flow of the river is
often described as channel flow.
● Thalweg: The fastest part of the river, always near the middle of the river channel, where there
is least friction.
River Processes
1. Erosion(V-shaped valleys, interlocking spurs, waterfalls and gorge): Erosion is the wearing away
of surfaces
2. Transportation(Meanders, oxbowlake, floodplains
3. Deposition(Delta, Levees)

● Attrition: large particles such as boulders collide and break into smaller pieces.
● Hydraulic action: flowing water that hits against the riverbanks and beds.
● Abrasion(Corrasion: smaller particles rub against the riverbanks and bed like sandpaper.
● Solution(corrosion): acid in rivers dissolves rocks; it occurs at any part of the river.

Types of Erosion
● Vertical erosion: dominant in the upper course of rivers. It increases the river's depth and valley
as the river erodes downwards.
● Lateral erosion: dominant in the middle and lower course of rivers. It increases the width of the
river and valley as it erodes sideways.

Transportation
● Traction: rolling stones along the bed
● Saltation: small particles bounce along the bed in a leapfrog motion
● Suspension: silt and clay-sized are carried within the water flow
● Solution: minerals dissolve in the water

Deposition
● When a river lacks the energy to carry its load, it deposits the heaviest particles.
● It happens when there is less water or where the current slows down
● Large boulders are deposited at the top, and very small particles are deposited at the end,
resulting in sorting

Cross Profile
Upper Course: Steep Gradient, Low Velocity, Waterfalls, Gorges,potholes and V-shaped valleys, Narrow,
Shallow, Vertical Erosion,Erosional river process

Middle Course: More gentle gradient, Faster velocity, Meanders, oxbow

lake, floodplains, wider, deeper, lateral erosion, Transportational

Lower Course: Flat gradient, Fastest velocity,Floodplains, deltas,

Levees, widest, deepest, lateral erosion, Depositional
Erosional Landforms

Portholes:
Potholes in riverbeds are formed through the accumulation of sediment, chaotic flow causes stones to swirl and
act as abrasives, gradually enlarging these depressions into potholes. As the potholes grow, they can trap larger
debris, which, in turn, contributes to the ongoing abrasive process, leading to the continued enlargement of the
potholes.

Waterfalls and gorges

Hard rock overlies soft rock layers; Hard rock is resistant to erosion/soft rock is less resistant to erosion; Soft rock is eroded
by hydraulic, abrasion and corrosion process leading to undercut forming an overhang; Overhang falls forming a plunge
pool; The waterfall Moves back/retreats forming a steep sided gorge. This process continue making the plunge pool
bigger with extended gorge

Transportational Landforms

Meander

 meander is formed when the moving water in a river changes its speed of water eroding sediments from the outside of a
A
bend and depositing them on the inside.Combination of the erosion and deposition helps expand the size of the
meander.The result is a 'movement of snake' pattern as the stream meanders back and forth across its down-valley axis.

Oxbow Lake
faster flow of water on outside of bend; erosion on outer bank which make the neck narrows; cuts through neck
during flooding, former meander sealed by deposition; The cut-off meander is an ox-bow lake
Depositional Landform

Delta???

Floodplains and levees

Wide flat valley created by meander migration, smallest sediment deposited in layes on the migrated meanders.
Heavier materials are deposited closest to the river forming [Link] layers of sediment build up after each
flood creating a flat fertile floodplain, as levees increase in height with each flood.

Opportunities of living on a flood plain or a delta or near a river

1. Fertile land: Farmers obtain high yield of crops
2. Land is flat so it makes it easy to build
3. Water supply from rivers
4. Food supplies such as fish from rivers
5. Scenic beauty/good view
6. HEP/ generate electricity
7. Washing of cloth and bathing
8. Irrigation of crops
9. Gold panning
10. Swimming

Flooding occurs when the capacity of the river channel is exceeded. The water flows over the banks
and onto the surrounding area

Causes of flooding
1. Heavy rainstorm
2. Rain over a long period of time
3. Melting of snow/glaciers
4. Impermeable rock: water cannot penetrate
5. Rivers has many tributaries
6. Urban growth/ concrete surfaces
7. Dam breakage
8. Deforestation: lack of trees reduce interception
9. Climate change: increase in global temperature increases the rate of glaciers melting
10. Building on floodplain
Impact of Flooding
1. Loss of life
2. Flooding of roads therefore disruption of transport and communication
3. Flooding of farmland which eventually leads to damage of crops and starvation
4. Death of animal and livestock
5. Disruption of the food chain
6. Damage houses and businesses
7. Damage to trees and vegetation leading to loss of habitat
8. Contamination of land and water leading to pollution
9. Damage boat.
10. People cannot go to school/work

Management of flood
1. Build higher banks/ artificial levees, so it will hold more water
2. Afforestation this will reduce the amount of water reaching a river
3. Build dams and reservoir which will help to regulate the flow of water.
4. Straighten river channels so water will be removed from the channel more quickly
5. Restrict building on floodplain to help increase infiltration
6. Widen and deepen the river channel so less water will be displaced
7. Artificial drainage channel this will help during periods of overflow

Coasts
The size of a wave depends on its fetch. The fetch of a wave it the distance it travels. The greater the fetch, the
larger the wave.

The stronger the wind, the larger the wave because of the energy transfer. The longer the wind blows over the sea or
ocean, the larger the wave.

How waves are formed

Waves are usually formed by the wind blowing over the sea. Friction with the surface of the water causes ripples
to form and these develop into waves.
Types of waves
Constructive Destructive

Low wave height High wave height

The beach gradient is gentle The beach gradient is steep

Spill forward gently Plunge forward

Creates a strong swash Swash is weak

Water drains through beach Rotation of water causes a strong

material backwash

Backwash is weak Erodes beaches

Deposits material

Builds up beaches
Erosional landforms

Cliffs and wave cut platforms

When waves break against a cliff, erosion close to the high-tide line takes a bite out of the cliff to form a feature called a
wave cut [Link] a long period of time the notch gets deeper until the underlying cliff can no longer support its own
weight and [Link] a continual sequence of wave-cut notch formation and cliff collapse, the cliff line gradually
[Link] its place will be a gently sloping rocky platform called a wave cut [Link] is typically a smooth area due to
the process of [Link] long periods of constructive waves the wave-cut platform may become covered by sand or
shingle. Destructive waves may expose it again.

Less resistant (soft) rock erodes quickly forming gentle sloping cliffs. More resistant (hard) rock forms
steep [Link] cliffs are made from more hard rocks, wave-cut platforms are often formed. A
wave-cut platform is a wide, gently sloping surface found at the base of the cliff and extends into the sea.

Cave, Arch, Stack, Stump

Cave: large crack opened up by hydraulic action the crack grows into a cave by hydraulic action and
abrasion
Arch:The cave becomes larger and th cave breaks throught the headland forming a natural arch
Stack: The arch headland erodes then collapses, leaving a tall rock stack
Stump: The stack erodes forming a stump
How are headlands and bays formed?
Bays and Headland:

● Bays are formed due to softer rock getting eroded easily

● Headlands are usually formed since they are made of resistant rock and are eroded more
difficulty.

Erosion on Cliffs
● Abrasion: larger rocks and sediments like boulders grind against the riverbed
● Corrosion: salts and acids slowly dissolve a cliff
● Attrition: smaller sediments collide with each other while moving in the flow, making them
rounder and smaller
● Hydraulic action: the force of waves compresses air in cliffs

Impact/problems of erosion on the coast

on people
loss of farmland
negative impact on tourism
destroy roads
damage buildings
damage business such as coastal hotels and restaurant
cost of protection measures

on the environment
loss of vegetation
destroys the food chain
loss of habitat
destroy the landscape
What factors affect the rate of erosion?
● Rock Type
● Wave energy (High-energy waves, driven by strong prevailing winds and a long fetch, will increase the
rate of retreat)
● Weathering and mass movement (Rocks prone to weathering and mass movement will be subject the
severe erosion)

Depositional Landforms
Deposition takes place where the flow of water slows down and sediment can’t be carried anymore so is
deposited (dropped). This occurs commonly in bays.

-Ridges and Runnels

Series of ridges and troughs running parallel to the coast near the low water [Link] ridges are formed by deposition
during backwash and the runnels are formed when water runs back to the ocean. Ridges and runnels can be broken by
drainage channels.

-Ripples
• Ripples are relatively small, elongated ridges that form on the beach. Waves and currents flow across loose
sand which is dragged along the bottom and is piled up to form ripples

-Cusps
Semicircular shaped depressions with coarser material around the edge and finer material in the
[Link] by a collection of waves reaching the same point and backwash scouring out the finer
material in the centre.

-Berms
Small ridges that form near the high tide mark. Deposited by the swash of constructive [Link] be a series of
berms along the beach that indicate the weekly high tide cycle between spring and neap tides.

-Storm Beach
A ridge found near the back of the beach composed of larger sediment. Deposited by waves during storm events
– waves don’t usually affect this part of the beach.

Beaches
Beaches made up of material deposited on a wave-cut platform. Beaches are formed from sand,
sand and shingle or pebbles. They can also be formed from mud and silt.A sandy beach is usually
formed in a sheltered bays, where low energy, constructive waves transport material onto the
shore.
Landforms formed by deposition

Sand dunes

Winds blow from the sea across the beach ; Winds pick up/carry sand particles/blow sand; Drop them around an obstacle
such as plant or rocks; Dunes increase in size due to more build up of sand/deposition; Colonisation by vegetation/plants
grow on them/vegetation anchors sand,

Split
Prevailing winds blow at an angle;Longshore Drift Waves approach the coast at an angle, Swash moves up the
beach at an angle, Backwash drains straight back down the beach, Gradually moving material along the beach in
a zig-zag [Link] the coastline changes direction, a shallow, sheltered area allows for deposition of sediment,
Eventually, a spit slowly builds up to sea level and extends in length, If the wind changes direction, then the wave pattern
alters and results in a hooked end, The area behind the spit becomes sheltered, Silts are deposited here to form salt
marshes.

Bay Bar
A bay bar is very similar to a spit. It is a ridge of sand or shingle that joins two headlands either side of
a bay. It is formed due to longshore drift transporting sediment along the coastline. Behind the bar, a
lagoon is created, where water has been trapped and the lagoon may gradually be infilled as a salt marsh
develops due to it being a low energy zone, which encourages deposition.

Tombolo
A tombolo is formed when a spit connects the mainland coast to an island. A spit is a feature that is formed
through deposition of material at coastlines. The process of longshore drift occurs and this moves material along
the coastline.

why many people live on or close to the coast

Employment in tourism, tour guide);
leisure activities like swimming,
boat ride;
Ports for trade;
Fishing; Fresh/clean air;
Scenic beauty/good view;
Sentimental attachment/lived there all their life;
Can’t afford to move;
Friends and family;
prepared to take the risk;
Confidence in precautions;
Temperate climate/cooler/equable etc.

Coastal Proccesses

CORAL REEF

A structure built up from remains of living organisms/coral polyps/offshore rocks formed of limestone skeletons, etc

Condition to grow
1. Warm water/seas; temperatures above 20°C
2. Shallow water; not more than 50 to 60 meters deep
3. Water free from sediment/clear/availability of light
4. Plentiful supply of oxygen in water/unpolluted
5. Plentiful supply of plankton
6. Lack of strong current
7. Neutral/high pH/alkaline
8. Salt water

Types of coral reefs

Fringing reef attached to coast;

Barrier reef is offshore/separated from coast by a lagoon
Atolls are roughly circular surrounding a deep central lagoon

Mangrove

Conditions required for development of mangrove swamp

1. High salinity;
2. Between high and low water mark / large tidal range;
3. Water higher than 20 °C in coldest month;
4. Seasonal temperature range lower than 5 °C / small temperature range;
5. Gentle wave action / sheltered coastline / delta/estuary/bay;
6. Low shore gradient etc
Characteristics of Mangrove

1. Grow between high and low water mark

2. Evergreen trees
3. Salt tolerant plants
4. Aerial roots: extra root from branches expose to air
5. Salt filtering roots
6. Salt excreting leaves
7. Prop roots: extra root from stem
8. Halophytes: salt tolerant plants

Costal opportunity
1. Tourism: Resorts along coasts; tourists enjoy using coast e.g. swimming and sunbathing
2. Sport: Many sports use coasts e.g. sailing, surfing, diving
3. Fishing: Many people make their living from catching & selling fish on coasts
4. Oil & Gas: Reserves are found under oceans near coasts
5. Housing: Many people live along coasts because of its beauty and relaxing lifestyle
6. Sandstones: building materials
7. Industry: Many industries locate near coasts for easy of trade
8. Transport: Many ports are found in coastal areas & help trading also aid travelling between countries

Costal hazards
● Sea level rises: Caused by global warming, low lying countries become vulnerable to flooding
● Pollution: Sewage discharge, oil spills, litter thrown into the sea can harm coastal ecosystems and environment
● Overfishing: Many fish stocks around the world are being overfished to dangerous levels
● Coastal erosion: Many coastlines are being eroded by stronger storms & raising seal levels
● Tropical storms: Frequency of storms & magnitude increase causing floods, storm surges & wind damage

Soft engineering:

coastal management that does not involve building artificial structure

Beach nourishment
putting sand/pebble/rocks on a beach/artificially adding sand at intervals to the beach

Managed retreat (coastal realignment)

This is when areas of the coast are allowed to erode. This is usually in areas where the land is of low value.

Dune Regeneration
Planting of mangroves Vegetation on slopes, such as marram grass.
This helps to strengthen the dunes and prevent coastal retreat.

Beach reprofiling
Beach reprofiling involves redistributing sediment from the lower part of the beach to the upper part of the beach.
Hard engineering:

method of coastal management that involve building artificial structure

Sea wall:
● Concrete stone wall built to cover cliff in front of coast;
● Sea walls strengthen the cliffs and deflect waves back to the sea because of the curve walls

Groynes:
● wooden extension from beach downwards into sea at right angles;
● Groynes prevent removal of beach material/trap beach material;
● Groynes prevent longshore drift;

Revetments:
wooden slats at an angle at base of cliff in front of coast;

● Revetments cause waves to break/stop waves breaking on beach;

● Erosion on revetment rather than on cliff;

Gabions:
Cages/boxes containing rocks/concrete/sand at base of cliff/coast;

● Gabions absorb wave energy;

● Gabions stabilise cliff;

Breakwater:
These are large concrete blocks and boulders located offshore to change the direction of waves and reduce longshore drift.
They also help absorb wave energy.

Rock Armour/rip rap: big/heavy/granite

rocks placed at base of cliff/coast/in front of sea wall;

● provides protection against serious erosion by absorbing wave energy.

● prevents erosion of coastal features such as beaches and cliffs.

Other methods
Provision of cyclone shelters
Education;
emergency evacuation procedure
Weather

Weather Instruments

● Weather:
○ The mix of events that occur in our atmosphere, including changes in temp., rainfall and
humidity
○ It can vary from day to day and from place to place
Protip: essential to know the features of Stevenson’s screen
Stevenson’s Screen: contains the thermometers
● Painted white to reflect the sun with a double lid for insulation
● Slatted sides to let the air circulate, but slanted downwards to prevent light from getting in
● Legs 1m long to prevent heating from the ground
● On short grass for the same amount of reflection

Rain Gauge: has a fixed diameter so that they collect the same amount of water & so comparisons
can be made
 ● Made of a hollow cylinder (C) containing:
○ Funnel (A) to collect the water.
○ Container to collect water, which may be graduated
○ Emptied once every 24hrs
○ Rain is measured in millimetres.
○ Sunk into the ground, but not level, so splashes or surface water can’t get in.

Anemometer: Measures wind speed

● Three light rotating cups (mounted on a high pole) are blown around by the wind the revolutions
are counted & converted into m/s, km/h or knots
Sunshine Recorder (Heliograph): records the amount of sunshine at a given location
 ● Burns a timeline
● Trace sunshine not the hours of daylight
● The glass ball focuses the light
● This burns a line onto the card

Max-min thermometer: Records max. & min. Temp. over 24hr period

● Max thermometer contains mercury & min contains alcohol

● As temp. rises, mercury expands & pushes up a metal index, and when it cools, mercury
contracts, and the index is left in place at highest temp
● As temp. falls, alcohol contracts & pulls metal index with it; but as alcohol expands, it flows past
index, leaving it at its lowest temp
 ● Both indexes read from the bottom once every 24hrs
●
Wet & dry bulb thermometer (hygrometer): Used to calculate the humidity of the air

● A dry bulb is a normal mercury thermometer, and it measures actual air temperature
● The wet bulb is the same but is covered with a fine cloth connected to a water reservoir.
● Water evaporates from the cloth & cools temperature so it reads a few degrees lower than air
temp.
● Both wet & dry bulb temperatures read.
●
Barometer: Measures air pressure

● An aneroid barometer has a vacuum chamber

● As air pressure rises & falls, the chamber contracts & expands
● Levers conduct this movement to a spindle, which moves the pointer on the dial, which records
the air pressure in mmHg
Wind Vane: Records wind direction

● The wind blows the fletching so that the arrowhead points into the wind.
● Mounted on high places (rooftops)
● Make sure no trees are blocking
● This is the average condition over a longer period, usually a few years.

Factors Influencing Climate Characteristics:

● Latitude: closer to the equator = higher temperature
● Distance from the sea: coastal area = warmer winters and cooler summers
● Prevailing winds: The seasonal difference in heating between land and the sea affects the
temperature of the prevailing wind. Warm prevailing wind = rise in temperature
● Ocean currents: warm currents raise winter temperatures in coastal areas; cold currents cool
them down in summer
● Latitude: with distance from the equator temperatures and sunshine hours decrease as the solar
radiation is more dispersed at the poles and it has to pass through a greater amount of atmosphere
● Pressure systems: areas usually affected by low pressure such as the equator have rising air,
condensation and cloud formation leading to more precipitation, whereas areas affected by high
pressure have dry conditions due to the sinking air
● Aspect: this is the direction a terrain surface faces. In the northern hemisphere slopes facing south are
warmer

Tropical Rainforest
Distribution:
Structure:
 Climate:
● They are close to the equator, so they have very similar climates all year around
● Temp. is constant between 25-30°C
● Rainfall all year around, monthly amounts vary slightly
● Days start warm & then temp. and humidity build-up
● Hot air rises, causing low pressure.

Adaptations:

Plants Animals
 Drip tips - plants have leaves The sloth uses camouflage and
with pointy tips. This allows moves very slowly, making it
water to run off the leaves difficult for predators to spot.
quickly without damaging or
breaking them.

Drip tips - plants have leaves The spider monkey has long,
with pointy tips. This allows strong limbs to help it to climb
water to run off the leaves through the rainforest trees.
quickly without damaging or
breaking them.

Epiphytes are plants that live The flying frog has fully
on the branches of trees high webbed hands and feet and a
up in the canopy. They get flap of loose skin that stretches
their nutrients from the air between its limbs, which allows
and water, not the soil. it to glide from plant to plant.

Lianas - vines which use the

tall

trees as support to reach the

sunlight The toucan has a long, large bill

to allow it to reach and cut fruit
from branches too weak to
support its weight.

Deserts
Vegetation & Animal Adaptations:
Adaptation of plant to desert ecosystem
❖ Long root to reach water underground
❖ Wide root to collect water from larger area
❖ Fleshy stem to store water
❖ Thorns/spikes to prevent evaporation and protect from predators
❖ Seed lie dormant and germinate during times of rain
❖ Light colour to reflect the sunlight
❖ Waxy leaves to prevent water loss
❖ Low lying to protect against
Wildlife & Adaptation:
❖ Can survive for a long time without water/food/can store water;
❖ They eat succulent plants/get water from plant or e.g.;
❖ Large feet to stop sinking into sand;
❖ Large ears with many blood vessels to give off excess heat, They stay in burrows/bury themselves in the sand
during the hot days;
❖ They are nocturnal;
❖ Their kidneys concentrate urine so that they excrete less water;
❖ Some (or e.g.) have a thick outer covering which reduces moisture loss;
❖ Some excrete urine on their legs which cools them by evaporation and irculate the cooled blood back
through the body

How altitude can lead to rainforest and desert

The air mass rises (on windward side) of the mountain range;

Air expands;

Air mass cools;

Condensation of water vapour;

Saturation of air mass; Precipitation on mountains; Air descends;

Heating of air mass at leeward side;

No condensation takes place/no moisture in air/dry air;

Factors influencing the equatorial climate

•The midday sun is almost directly overhead all year meaning there is maximum insolation
•Low pressure all year which leads to rising air, condensation, cloud formation and high precipitation
levels
•Dense vegetation cover leads to high levels of evaporation and transpiration
•The warm air stores large amounts of water vapour until the temperatures start to cool in late
afternoon which then leads to heavy, daily convectional rainfall
•
Reasons for high rainfall
•Heating/heats up;

• Evaporation of water;

•Transpiration; (Evapotranspiration as alternative to evaporation and transpiration);

 •Rising air/convection;

•Cooling;

•Condensation;

•Saturation etc. Clouds form^ Hot^

Reasons for high temperature

1. They are close to the equator
2. Sun is almost overhead
3. Concentration of sun rays over a small area
4. High insolation

Factors influencing the hot desert climate

• High pressure all year which means the air is descending and warming so precipitation does not
occur because the air is not rising
• Prevailing winds are often from over land masses which means they contain little moisture (dry
trade wind)
• Some deserts are in a rain shadow so there is little rainfall
• Cold ocean currents on the west side of continents may reduce summer temperatures due to the
cooling effect of the ocean
• Lack of cloud cover
• Little evaporation and transpiration

Reasons for low rainfall

•Long way from source of moisture/from sea/no water to be evaporated/no water source;
•Prevailing winds blow over large areas of land;

•Winds are dry when they reach the desert/rain falls before the winds reach the desert;

•Descending air lack moisture

•They may be in areas of rain shadow etc

Reasons for high temperature
• Air pass over land which lack moisture
• Descending air
• Low latitude therefore high insolation
• Lack of clouds allow high insolation during day;
• High daytime but cold night temperatures;
• Lack of clouds allows heat to escape at night;

● Desarts are extremely dry (arid) places

● Have less than 250mm of rainfall per year
● Air is dry because:
○ Most of the moisture has precipitated over the equator
○ Air travelling to the desert travels over land, not the sea
● No moisture leads to very few clouds, exposing them to high levels of incoming radiation from
the sun
● Causes day-time temps. to be very high
● The lack of cloud cover allows outgoing radiation to escape
● Causes night-time temps to be low
● The annual temperature range is very low
● Daily temperature range is very high

❖ Emergent: tall trees up to 50m, few lower branches, grows above others to get full sunlight
❖ Canopy: trees 20-40m forming a continuous canopy, few lower branches, makes up 50% of vegetation
❖ Shrub: low shrubs & saplings, plants that adapt because they are extremely close to the forest floor
❖ Lianas: use large trees as support to reach sunlight
❖ Fan Palms: wide leaved plants that capture as much sunlight & rainfall as possible
❖ Humus Layer: decaying biological matter; rainforest soil fertility is dependent on this
❖ Buttress Roots: very long roots that support tall trees & suck up maximum amount of nutrients in poor soil
❖ Drip tip leaves: leaves that let rainfall travel over them & drip to the ground, causing less damage by excess water

● Effects:
 Local Global environment People
environment

Loss of vegetation Melting ice Death of local tribes people

Causes floods Global More carbon dioxide

warming/increase
temperatures

Threatens species Rising sea levels Less oxygen

with extinction

Loss of habitat Changes in climate Reduction of materials

patterns e.g. drought available to build buildings

Reduction of food Loss of species such

supply as polar bears

Soil erosion

Food chain
disrupted

Characteristics of tropical rainforest vegetation

• Dense vegetation/closely packed layers;
• emergents;
• canopy; Tall/long/straight trees/trunks;
• Drip tip/waxy leaves;
• Lianas/creepers;
• Undergrowth/shrub layer;
 • Buttress roots;
• Shallow roots;
• Evergreen/flower all year;
• Lots of/brightly coloured/flowers/berries/fruits;

Causes Of deforestation
1. Farming: demand for food increases with population - need to clear more ground
2. Hydro-Electric Power: land may need to be removed to build a dam
3. Mining: demand for resources increases – rainforests hold plenty
4. Road building: increased traffic requires roads and rainforests in the way
5. Settlements: cities are bigger in population – require more land
6. Timber: cutting down a tree for furniture making
7. Increase in population
8. For firewood
9. Cattle grazing

-Effects of deforestation

- release of carbon dioxide (as a result of burning);

- trees are no longer available to convert carbon dioxide to oxygen/less oxygen is produced;
- carbon dioxide traps heats;
- increases global temperatures/greenhouse effect/global warming;
- melting of ice caps/glaciers;
- rising sea level;
- flooding of coastal areas;
- loss of habitat;
- extinction of species;
- impact on food chains;
- drought;
- damage to coral reefs;
- increasing number/severity of tropical storms, etc. (5 × 1 mark for development) [5]

Importance of protecting rainforest

- Prevent extinction of species/death of animals/people;
- Prevents loss of habitat;
- Conserve ecosystems/maintain biodiversity;
- Ensure that food chains are not broken;
- Prevent flooding;
- Prevent soil erosion/infertile soil;
- Prevent desertification;
- Ensure locals keep producing food/ensures more food for locals;
- Ensure locals have building materials/homes/do not have to move to cities/rely on it to survive;
- Enable locals to continue hunter-gatherer lifestyles;
- Not destroy valuable medicines/undiscovered species;
- Prevent introduction of Western diseases;
- Tourism retained;

THEME 3

Development

Development Description
indicators

GNP per Capital GNP is the total value of goods and services produced by a country, The higher
the GNP per capital of a country, the higher their level of development.

Literacy rate The percentage of adult who can read and write.

Life expectance The average number of years people are expected to live.

People per doctor The number of people there are per doctor. The higher the people per doctor
the least developed the country

Birth rate The number of births per 1000 of the total population. The higher the birth
rate the least developed the country

Death rate The number of death per 1000 of the total population. The higher the Death
rate the least developed the country
 Infant mortality The number of children that die before the age of one. The higher the infant
mortality the least developed the country

HDI indicators:
It measures a country development using life expectancy at birth; literacy rate (mean years of
schooling); and GDP per capita.
It combines this data to give each country a score from 0 – 1. 0 (least developed) to 1 (most developed)

Reasons for wealth inequality between countries

1. Length of time in which development has been occurring
2. Impact of colonisation
3. Presence / absence of raw materials like crude oil in the case of Nigeria
4. Development of specific economic activity such as tourism, mining or manufacturing
5. Accessibility/ presence of port for transport
6. Government policies
7. Level of corruption
8. Level of education which include the skilled and unskilled workforce
9. Trade policies such as free trade
10. Presence of transnational companies
11. War which will reduce investments
12. Reliance on low level primary products
13. Over reliance on one product lack of diversification

Reasons for wealth inequality within countries

1. Variation in availability of/some parts have more resources;
2. Variation in availability of/some parts have more energy supplies;
3. Variation in availability of/some parts have more water supplies/rivers;
4. Variation in ability to produce food/soil quality/some parts have more fertile soils;
5. Variation in employment/some parts have more employment or example, e.g. industry, tourism, etc.;
6. Variation in accessibility/roads/railways;
7. Variation in access to education;
8. Variation in access to health care;
9. Whether areas are urban or rural;
10. Coastal locations proximity to ports trade;
11. Variation in amount of government investment;
12. Extremes of climate, e.g. desert areas tend to be less developed;
13. Variation in terrain/mountain areas tend to be less developed;
14. Civil wars, etc.

Primary industry inlove taking raw materials from the ground or growing things
Secondary: Involves making things from raw materials
Tetiary; involves selling things or providing a service
Quateranry: involves providing information and expertize
 Reasons why employment structure changes as a country develops.
Primary sector

1. Mechanisation therefore less people are needed to work;

2. Movement of people to urban areas;
3. Primary work is hard and can be dangerous;
4. Exhaustion of resources or raw materials run out;
5. Loss of farmland to urbanisation;
6. Import of food and raw materials;
7. Country industrializes and more factories are built therefore more
services are provided or demanded;
8. More or better pay in factories
9. People become more educated

Secondary sector

1. Improvement of
technology/automated machines
2. Manufacturing not profitable
3. No source of raw materials
4. Cheaper to import than
manufactured goods
5. Lack of profit from manufacturing
6. Competition from abroad

Tertiary sector

1. More wealth available

2. Greater demand for leisure and retail services
3. Growth of tourism
4. Education and improvement of skills
5. Improvement in healthcare and transport
6. Increase of demand for services

Globalisation: Globalisation is the process by which the world is becoming interconnected as a result of trade and
cultural exchange.
Interdependence: the relationship between two or more countries, usually in terms of trade.
Transnational Corporation: a corporation or enterprise that operates in more than one country.

Reasons for globalization

1. Make more profit/seek new markets
2. Improved/good transport/rapid growth in air-travel/easy movement of people and goods across the
globe.
3. Reduced the costs of transport;
4. Making trade cheaper and more efficient;
5. Improved communications, easier to communicate and share information around the world/information
spreads quickly; e.g. internet;
6. Growth of multinational companies/TNCs Which have reduced national barriers; e.g. European Union,
NAFTA, ASEAN;
7. free trade;
8. Firms exploiting gains from economies of scale, To gain increased specialization; Growth of global
media/social media;
9. Improved mobility of capital;
 10. Increased mobility of labour; Cheaper labour in other countries/LEDCs; Going to places with higher skill
levels e.g. IT skills; Government incentives/cheap taxes/free ports;

Positive Impacts of Globalisation

More trade and investment
More jobs
Abetter tecnology
- More diversity and understanding
- More variety in goods and services
- More access to information
Better education
- More chances to study abroad
Job Losses in Rich Countries
Better Healthcare -
Better medical technology
- More access to medicines
- Working together on global issues

Negetive impacts
- Bigger gap between rich and poor
- Workers can be treated unfairly
- Local cultures can disappear
- Western culture can dominate
- More pollution
- More access to medicines
- Natural resources used up faster
Companies move jobs to cheaper places
More unhealthy food
More social conflicts
Countries lose some control
Loss of Local Culture

A Trans National Corporation (TNC) is a company that has operations (factories, offices, research and development, shops)
in more than one country

Advantages of TNC’s
1. Creates jobs for local people
2. Locals with jobs then spend money in their local economy at local businesses and therefore there is a positive
multiplier effect as extra money gets added to the local economy.
3. TNCs will pay local and government taxes and therefore increase the government budget.
4. Jobs at a TNC will be in the formal economy, so hopefully better regulated in terms of safety, pay, etc.
5. Improves workers skill and education levels
6. They introduce new technology into the country
7. Infrastructure like roads and ports are often upgraded and benefit the whole economy
8. Diversifies the economy, might move away from the reliance on one industry like farming or tourism
9. The country receives prestige for attracting TNCs and investment into the country.
DIsadvantages of TNC’s
1. Many of the best paid managerial jobs go to foreigners
2. Local workers often do manual jobs which are poorly paid and often workers suffer exploitation (long shifts, no breaks,
etc.)
3. There will be some economic leakage as profits from TNCs go back to their home country
4. Increasingly manufacturing processes are becoming more mechanised so less workers are needed in factories.
5. One of the attractions of LEDCs is cheap labour, but as a country develops labour costs increase and TNCs may move to
cheaper locations.
6. Products produced by TNCs maybe too expensive for locals to buy. TNCs may also use local raw materials.
7. The increased demand created by TNCs may cause local inflation.
8. If the government is building new roads or a port for a TNC it probably means that they can't spend as much money on
education or healthcare.
9. TNC decision makers are often foreign so policies of TNCs may not always benefit local people
Industry: This is the processes involved in collecting raw materials and transforming them into finished
products
System: A set of processes working together to form a complex whole.
Factory: A building or group of buildings where goods are manufactured or assembled

Inputs = items which are brought into the factory to use in production/raw materials for the industry
Processes = what happens in the factory to convert the raw materials into finished products
Outputs = the finished products/the items which have been made in the factory

Types of industries
1. Manufacturing: the process of producing goods through the use of labor, machines, and other resources.
2. Processing: the transforming raw materials into a finished or semi-finished product.
3. Assembly: the act of putting together components or parts to create a final product.
4. High technology industry: this involves the development and production of advanced, cutting-edge
technology and products.

Possible reasons for the decrease in employment in (manufacturing) industries

1. Competition from abroad
2. Impacts of mechanisation/ technological advancements
3. Factories relocate abroad as it is cheaper to produce overseas

Effects of decrease in manufacturing industries

1. Economic decline of a country due to less taxation
2. Less money to invest in public services such as transport/ healthcare
3. Unemployment which may lead to poverty
4. Shops may close down
5. Less atmospheric pollution from industrial discharge
6. Employment opportunities in other sectors
7. People who seek employment may emigrate

Footloose industries: do not depend on a particular location, as they are not reliant on raw materials, energy/water supply, transport
etc.
Most footloose industries:
1. use light small components
2. produce small products
3. use electricity as their power source
4. rely on a small skilled labour force
5. are usually non-polluting

High technology industries: refers to industries that produce the most advanced and most
recent technology available.
Most high technology industries:
1. Have advanced manufacturing techniques
2. Use processing technologies that involve the use of microelectronics
3. Tend to produce high value products
4. Employ a skilled workforce
5. Invest in research and development
6. High technology industries are usually regarded as footloose industries, as they can transport
their components easily and thus do not rely on locations near raw materials or markets.
● Processing: creating a final product, the processing industry takes a raw product and only makes this ready for
further sale or use. Processing is often located near raw materials, and/or near manufacturers.

● The assembly industry takes component parts which are produced by different companies and combines them into
a final product. For example, in car manufacturing individual parts (e.g. car door, windshield wiper, windshield,
engine, etc.) are assembled to produce the final vehicle.

● Linkage is when one industry depends on the output of another. For example, the milk industry and
leather production rely on cattle herding.
● Agglomeration is a concentration of liked industries in one area.

Physical factors affecting industrial location

• Raw materials - industries that need heavy or bulky materials, will locate as near as possible to these
materials
• Land - availability and cost of land is important. Large factories need flat, well-drained land with or without
the potential for expansion later on
• Climate - industries such as aerospace and film benefit from sunnier climates. Good climate also reduces
energy bills and a better quality of life
• Energy - energy demanding industries may relocate to countries/areas with readily available or cheaper
energy
 • Natural routeways - harbours, motorways, airports and railways provide good locations for ports and
industrial complexes, which create good access points for inputs but also outputs
• Water supplies - some industries (paper and cotton processing etc.) require a lot of water in their
manufacturing and so need to be near a reliable water supply such as lakes, rivers etc.

Human and economic factors affecting industrial location

• Capital - some areas naturally attract inward investment as the returns will be higher
• Markets - location and size of the potential market is a major influence for some industries
• Government influence - incentives, grants and policies can make areas attractive for
industries to invest in
• Transport - cost of transport is expensive and accessibility for easy access helps to reduce
those costs. Central to motorways, railways, ports and airports can influence where industry
locates
• Communications - being able to communicate effectively and quickly with customers and
suppliers is vital to successful manufacturing
• Labour force - quality and cost of labour is central to effective manufacturing, having a reliable
workforce is necessary, but also mobility, turnover and reputation is also a factor
• Quality of life - highly skilled workers will prefer areas where the work/life balance is good

Food Production

Agriculture: the cultivation/production of crops and rearing of livestock for man's benefit

Farming: the process involved in the cultivation of crops and the rearing of livestock.

Agricultural Practices
Inputs: things which are put into the farming system
Processes: The things which are done on the farm
Outputs: the things which come out of the farm at the end of the system

Natural Inputs:
1. Quality of soil: poor soil is usually used for growing sheep's while rich soil used to grow crops
2. Relief: crops can grow on flat land, while steep slope for grazing animals
3. Hours of sunshine: crops grow when there is enough sunlight for photosynthesis and ripening of
fruit
4. Temperature: cold areas can rare sheep while warm temperature is needed to grow crops
5. Precipitation: large amount of rainfall needed for crop growing and drinking by animals
6. Aspect: south facing slope is good for vine growing

Human inputs
1. Labour
2. Buildings
3. Machinery and technology
4. Markets and transport
5. Money/capital
6. Seeds and animal breeds
7. Herbicides, pesticides
8. fertilizers

Processes:
Harvesting
Feeding
Shearing
Fertiliser application
SOwing
Planting
Ploughing
Irrigation
Slaughtering animals
Milking
Spraying
Weeding
Grazing
Lambing

Output
Crops:Wheat, maize, tomatoes, potatoes, rice, cotton, vegetables etc.
Animals: Dogs, lambs, chickens, turkeys etc.
Animal products: Beef, eggs, wool, milk, skin etc.

Classification of Farming
What they farm:
Arable: growing of crops
Pastoral: rearing animal (livestock)
Mixed: rearing animal and growing crops on the same land

Why they farm:

Subsistence farming: crop is grown mainly for consumption by the farmer and his/her family.
Commercial farming: crop is grown and produced sold to make profit.

How they farm:

Intensive farming: A relatively large amount of produce is obtained per hectare of farm, so farms only covers
small areas.
Extensive farming: a relatively small amount of produce is obtained per hectare of farm, so farms are normally
large areas.

Where They Farm:

Nomadic farming is when a farmer moves from one place to another. This is common in some LEDCs.
Sedentary farming is when a farm is based in the same location all the time. Permanently in one place.

Advantages of mixed farming:

1. If crops fail farmers will be able to depend on animals

2. Animal manure can be used for crops
3. Crop waste can be used for animal feed
4. Animals used to plough fields
5. Farmers can used all types of land e.g. fertile soils for crops and infertile soil for grazing
6. Income will come into the farm at various different times
7. Can adapt to changes in demand
8. Enable crop rotation

Food Shortage
Food shortage occur when:
• The demand for food exceeds supply of food leading to undernourishment
• Prolonged undernourishment can damage people's health and eventually lead to starvation

Human causes of food shortage:

1. Overpopulation: The growing population of the world means that demand for food is increasing.
Unfortunately the supply of food is not always matching this demand.
2. Overgrazing: By trying to graze too many cattle on land, all the vegetation can be eaten. This reduces the
integrity of the soil and can cause topsoil erosion.
3. Overcultivation: Trying to grow much on land can cause its degradation by using all the nutrients and not
giving them time to recover. If the land becomes degraded then the yields decline.
4. Deforestation: By deforesting large areas of woodland, then again the integrity of the soil can be damaged
as well as its source of nutrients. This can cause soil erosion, both leading to reduced yields.
5. Pollution: Farming and industrial pollution can both degrade the land and reduce yields of crops.
6. Conflict: When fighting takes place, it is often men that fight removing them from farming duties and
therefore reducing yield. Also conflict can also make the land too dangerous to farm (mines) or degrade
the soil because of chemical or biological warfare.
7. Corruption: Sometimes government officials or armies can use crops for themselves or their own needs
leading the general population to go hungry.
8. Low capital investment: Not investing enough money into the infrastructure needed to sustain agriculture
such as roads, storage facilities, machinery, seeds etc. This means that agriculture will not develop in line
with population growth
Physical causes of food shortage
1. Temperature: Temperatures that are too hot or too cold can both kill crops and animals. Most crops need
steady and reliable temperatures.
2. Droughts: If there is a shortage of rainfall then most crops will die or need extra irrigation. If water to
irrigate is not available then crops will begin to die and yields reduce.
3. Flooding: Although all crops need rainfall, especially things like rice, too much rainfall can flood and kill
crops or wash away topsoil reducing the soils fertility.
4. Natural Disasters: Natural disasters like hurricanes, tsunamis and volcanoes can destroy large areas of
agricultural land. They can also kill or injure farmers. Both factors reduce yields.
5. Soil fertility: If soil is infertile because the bedrock contains few minerals or there is no flora and fauna to
provide humus layer then it can be hard to cultivate the land and lead to low yields.
6. Pests: Various pests such as locust swarms, birds etc can eat crops and reduce yields

Political factors

War and conflict

Transport

Corruption

Landuse

Food aid

Effects of food shortage

1. Hunger
2. Susceptible to infectious diseases
3. Impair physical and mental development
4. Reduce labour productivity
5. Famine: When the demand for food exceeds the supply of food leading to undernourishment. Prolonged
undernourishment can damage people's health and eventually lead to starvation.

Solution to food shortages

1. Reduce corruption
2. Mechanization: this will help to cultivate large land than using human labour
3. Crop rotation/cultivating more than one crop
4. Hydroponic; cultivation in the absence of land
5. Greenhouse/glasshouse
6. Use land to cultivate food crop rather than export crop for people
 7. Government grant to farmer to buy seeds, machinery
8. Better quality seed/HYV (high yield variety seeds)
9. Provide irrigation (the artificial supply of water to farmlands) this will help to grow food all through the
year
10. Use of fertilizers, pesticides and herbicides
11. Send expert to educate farmers on modern farming techniques, such as crop rotation, use of fertilizers,
terracing and contour ploughing
12. Emergency food aid
13. Contour ploughing
14. Improve roads and distribution network for international aid so that it will reach everyone in need of
food
15. Terracing

Food Aid:
According to Action Aid ( a charity), there are three types of Food aid.
• Relief food aid-which is food delivered to people when their is a crisis
• Programme food aid- which is given to governments for sale on local markets
• Project food aid- which is when charities target specific groups of people in a country who need help with
food production to try to help them long term

Tourism

Tourism: when a person travels to another destination for more than 24 hours but less than one year. It is a
leisure activity done for enjoyment in free time. 2 types, domestic, and international.

Reasons for Growth of Tourism

● Increased income of money and leave allowance.
● Easier travel.
● Faster and easier transport.
● Improved communication.
● Increased natural attractions.
● Increased manmade human attractions.
● More advertisement of places.
Factors that Change Tourist Patterns
● Transport & accessibility.
● Scenery: landscape & visual appearance of places
● Weather: Climate is important, e.g. cold place for a ski trip
● Accommodation: quality/price of hotels, camps, resorts
● Amenities: various recreational, historical, and leisure facilities & sites offered.

Advantages Disadvantages
 Increased in skills Loss of land

Increased diversity of culture Illegal behaviour of tourists

Creates job opportunities Often low-paid seasonal work.

New infrastructure is built Congestion and pollution is caused

Money is brought to the country’s Money often goes to big businesses

economy

Tax revenues are provided Economic leakage

Foreign language skills are Local language and traditional values

promoted can erode

Nature conservation areas Nature can be destroyed for land use

awareness can be increased

Money from tourism can be used Tourism leads to more pollution

to protect the environment

Improves sustainable practices Increased greenhouse gas emissions

from travelling

Preserve area or species The activity of tourists disturbs and

damages the habitat and wildlife

Electricity and water supply Racism and discrimination

improves

Improved roads, healthcare and Shortage of supplies

education

Managing Tourism
 ● Ecotourism: holidays that involve eco-related activities & are sustainable, e.g. hiking,
bird-watching, horse riding
● Sustainable Tourism: tourist activities that are socially, environmentally & economically
sustainable
● How?
○ Built National Parks with entrance fees → Money raised can be spent on
conservation/improvement of parks
○ Ban hunting/fishing
○ Fence-prohibited or protected areas
○ Put up signs such as “no littering”
○ Impose fines for littering or breaking any rules
○ Vehicles prohibited in certain areas
○ Create paths for people to walk on.

Water
97 percent is saltwater and found in the ocean, 3 percent is freshwater, of which 77 percent is locked in
glaciers and ice sheets and 22 percent is deep underground in aquifers. That leaves only 1 percent that is easily
accessible in rivers, wetlands and lakes

Uses of Water

● Agriculture: to water plants

● Industrial:
○ Heated to make steam to turn turbines
○ Cooling down reactors
● Domestic:
○ Household e.g. cooking, cleaning, drinking
○ Recreational, e.g. swimming, sports
● Environmental: preserving water in a dam

Methods of Water supply

● Dams: barrier placed across a river made from concrete
● Reservoirs: the artificial lake that develops behind a dam
● Wells: a shaft sunk into the ground to obtain water
● Aquifers: water stored in porous rocks under the ground.
● Surface water: water in lakes, rivers and swamps
● Glaciers: Glaciers are a composite of different snow falls which accumulate over the millennia
● Rainwater harvesting is the simple process or technology used to conserve rainwater by collecting,
storing, conveying and purifying of rainwater that runs off from rooftops, parks, roads, open grounds,
 etc. for later use
● Desalination:
○ Thermal: evaporation of water to remove salt
○ Reverse Osmosis: forces water through semi-permeable membrane to remove salt
● Sewage Treatment:
○ Removal of contaminants from wastewater & household sewage
○ Requires physical, chemical & biological processes to remove all the contaminants
and make safe

Reasons for difference in water supply in developing and developed country

1. Greater amount is used for agriculture in developing countries because more people is used in
farming
2. Greater amount used for industry in developed countries as there are more factories
3. Greater proportion used for domestically for drinking, electricity generation, washing cooking
etc. in developed countries because there is good infrastructure.
4. Improving living standards in developed countries - people have more appliances/sanitation
which use water
5. Increased use of water in leisure and tourism in developed countries- water parks, golf courses
6. Increased urbanisation: increase in number of people living in town and cities

How water is used

● Almost 70% of the world’s water usage can be attributed to agriculture (growth of crops using irrigation
and supplying livestock with drinking water.
● Around 15% of the water is used for industrial purposes.
● The remaining water is used domestically (home use, eg. washing, cooking).

● Physical water scarcity: this occur when there is not enough water available to meet demand in the country. This is
common in arid or semi-arid areas.

● Economic water scarcity: this is due to lack of infrastructure to store and utilise the water available in the area.
Mostly LEDC’x

Reasons for Water shortage/Surplus in some areas

1. The amount of precipitation: When an area has less than 500mm of rainfall a year, there is more
chance of water shortage
2. Temperature and the amount of evaporation: The higher the temperature the greater the
amount of rainfall that will evaporate before it can be used
3. The importance of Agriculture: When irrigation is practice over large areas, it is common for
agriculture to be the biggest user of water compared to industrial and domestic
 4. The population density: If the population density is high, there may be a huge demand for water
and huge pressure on it.
5. The proximity of rivers: some areas use river water as a water source.
6. If there are no nearby river there may be water shortage.
7. Presence/absence of water bearing rocks/aquifer: The presence of aquifers below the surface
can provide adequate water supplies
8. Level of economic development/development of infrastructure: developed economy has

money to invest in water development projects

Impact of water shortage

1. Loss of lives/higher death rates due to dehydration of both human and animals.
2. Less food production/crops die so people die of starvation or malnutrition due lack of water for food
production.
3. Migration to urban areas as crops fail in rural areas
4. Slows down economic development
5. Puts off tourists
6. Lowers production of manufacturing industries as water not available for cooling or processing goods
7. Reduction in levels of hygiene/sanitation so diseases like cholera spread easily.
8. Water conflict
9. Eutrophication:
○ Run-off from farms containing fertiliser causes excess growth of algae in water
○ Water does not oxygenate properly/receive light
○ Causes plants & animals to suffocate & die

Solutions to Water Shortages

● Desalination: governments should invest more in desalination plants
● Sewage Treatment: governments should enforce better policies regarding disposal and
reuse of wastewater
● Conservation:
○ Half-flush toilets & showering instead of bathing
○ Watering the garden at dusk to prevent evaporation
○ Collecting rainwater to use in the garden
○ Using appropriate plants for the climate
○ Using drip irrigation rather than sprinklers
● Water Charities:
○ Building wells to access groundwater
○ Building toilets to reduce sewage & pollution
○ Teaching appropriate farming techniques
○ Low-cost schemes to filter and clean water
● Irrigation Projects: use irrigation systems to redistribute water & water the
 Energy

Types of energy
1. Renewable
2. Non-renewable
Non-renewable resources: Are finite resources it takes millions of years for them to form.
Examples of non-renewable energy
a) Fossil fuels (coal, oil and natural gas)
b) Nuclear energy

Renewable energy can be replaced as quickly as they are used.

Examples of renewable energy includes:
a) biofuels (bioethanol, biogas and wood): energy from plant
b) geothermal power: energy from the earth mant
c) le
d) hydro-electric power: energy from water
e) tidal power: energy from ocean tides
f) wave power: energy from waves
g) solar power: energy from the sun using solar panels
h) wind power: energy from wind

Energy by oil and gas (fossil fuels)

Advntages:
1. Extraction provides jobs
2. Plentiful supply in some location
3. Readily available
4. The technology used is well-known and the methods of extraction are well-practised.
5. Produce large amount of energy

Disadvantages:
1. Release carbon dioxide and toxic gases into the atmosphere when burnt.
2. Extraction causes damage to the environment
3. Possibility of oil spill
4. Damages local area;
5. Contribute to global warming and acid rain
6. Pollute the atmosphere

Coal
Advantages
● Coal is an affordable energy source compare to other fossil fuel sources (cheap/ not expensive)
● Coal is easy to burn
● Coal produces a high level of energy upon combustion
● Coal is one of the most abundant sources of energy (more than oil and natural gas)
● Coal exports provides valuable income for some countries
● Coal is a reliable source of energy
Disadvantages
● It is a non-renewable resources (limited supply)
● It is highly polluting and releases greenhouse gases when burned
● Coal mining destroys the land surface as it involves deep mining
● Coal mining is dangerous and can lead to harmful health conditions
Biogas
Advantages
i. It is cheap and renewable
ii. Biogas is produced from waste so it is usually cheap
iii. Power station that turns fossil fuels can be easily converted to burn biofuels
iv. It is readily available for supply
Disadvantages
i. Burning biofuels releases carbon dioxide into the atmosphere
ii. It requires a large piece of land which affects food production
iii. It leads to loss of biodiversity

Nuclear Power
Advantages
● Large amounts of electricity can be generated;
● Low cost of generation/cheap running costs;
● No atmospheric pollution;
● Does not enhance global warming;
● Uses small amounts of uranium/will last many centuries
Disadvantages
● Radiation/risk of leaks/cancer;
● difficulty of disposal of nuclear waste;
● public opposition/perception of threat;
● expensive to build the power station.

Hydro Elcectrical Power

Advantages
● Does not produce carbon dioxide
● doesn’t contribute to global warming
● Water can be reused.
Disadvantages
● Dams impact the natural flow of water
● Villages and ecosystems may be destroyed.

Geothermal Power
Advantages
● Does not produce carbon dioxide

● Unlimited supply as it uses heat from the earth

Disadvantages
● Expensive to install

● Only certain areas have suitable conditions.

Wind Power

Advantages
● Does not produce carbon dioxide
● Renewable source
● It's cheaper to maintain

Disadvantages
● Requires a large area to install

● It's not reliable as its weather dependent

● Noise pollution as a result of the shaft

Solar Power
Advantages
● Solar energy is a renewable energy resource and there are no fuel costs.

● No harmful polluting gases are produced.

● Solar cells provide electricity in remote locations, such as roadside signs.

Disadvantages
● Solar cells are expensive and inefficient, so the cost of their electricity is high.

● Solar cells do not work at night.

Wave Power

Advantages
● Renewable
● Environmental friendly hence, it does not produce carbon dioxide
● Abundant and widely available
● It is easy to install and cheap to maintain
Disadvantages
● Restricted to certain locations
● Effect on marine Ecosystem
● Noise pollution
Tidal powers
Advantages
i. Renewable and fossil fuel free

ii. Low cost to run

iii. Efficient at low speeds

Disadvantages
i. Expensive to Construct

ii. Limited locations

iii. Weather effects

Reason for different energy use
1. Less/more people live there/varying population size;
2. Some countries have more energy resources; e.g. Oil, coal etc.;
3. Some countries/people can’t afford energy/can’t afford to develop energy supplies;
4. Lack of technology;
5. Energy/electricity supply is available throughout the country;
6. Using more electronic devices/home appliances;
7. Some countries are more industrialized/have more factories; e.g. manufacturing industry is likely to use
large amounts of energy;
8. Some countries use more transport/have more cars; e.g. car ownership is higher in MEDCs/more delivery
by hgvs (HEAVY GOODS VEHICLES);
9. Some countries use more energy travelling by plane/for leisure travel;
10. Specified reference to impact of climate e.g. Impact of air conditioning; etc

THE DEMAND FOR ENERGY IS INCREASING WORLDWIDE DUE TO:

1. INCREASING POPULATION SIZE.
2. INCREASING INDUSTRIALISATION AND URBANISATION.
3. IMPROVEMENT IN TECHNOLOGY
4. IMPROVEMENTS IN STANDARDS OF LIVING (PEOPLE USE MORE APPLIANCES AT HOME) AND EXPECTATIONS.
5. DEVELOPMENT OF TRANSPORT (PLANE, TRAINS, CARS)

WHY RELYING ON IMPORTS OF NATURAL GAS COULD CAUSE PROBLEMS

1. EXPENSIVE;
2. PRICES FLUCTUATE;
3. IMPACT ON BALANCE OF TRADE;
4. RELIANCE ON A FUEL WHICH IS NON-RENEWABLE / WILL EVENTUALLY RUN OUT / MAY HAVE TO FIND
ALTERNATIVE FUEL; IMPACT(S) ON NATURAL ENVIRONMENT E.G. AIR POLLUTION, GLOBAL WARMING;
5. SUPPLY MAY BE RESTRICTED (IF THERE ARE POLITICAL DISPUTES);
6. PROBLEMS OF DAMAGE TO PIPELINE / EXPLOSIONS / LEAKS;