Short answer type questions:

1. What does infrastructure-as-a-service refer to?

IaaS, or Infrastructure as a Service, is a cloud computing model that provides

on-demand access to computing resources such as servers, storage,
networking, and virtualization.

IaaS is attractive because acquiring computing resources to run applications

or store data the traditional way requires time and capital. Organizations must
purchase equipment through procurement processes that can take months.
They must invest in physical spaces, typically specialized rooms with power
and cooling. And after deploying the systems, they need IT professionals to
manage and maintain them.

2. What are the innovative characteristics of cloud computing?

[Link] Pooling
Resource pooling is one of the essential characteristics of Cloud Computing. Resource
pooling means a cloud service provider can share resources among several clients,
providing everyone with a different set of services per their requirements. It is a multi-client
strategy that can be applied to data storage, processing, and bandwidth-provided services.
The real-time administration process of allocating resources doesn’t conflict with the
client’s experience.

2. On-Demand Self-Service
It is one of the significant and essential features of Cloud Computing. It enables the client
to constantly monitor the server uptime, abilities, and allotted network storage. This is a
fundamental characteristic of Cloud Computing, and a client can likewise control the
computing abilities as per his needs.

3. Easy Maintenance
This is one of the best cloud characteristics. The servers are effortlessly maintained, and the
downtime sometimes remains low or absolutely zero. Cloud Computing powered resources
undergo several updates frequently to optimize their capabilities and potential. The updates
are more viable with the devices and perform quicker than the previous versions.
4. Scalability And Rapid Elasticity
A key characteristic and benefit of cloud computing is its rapid scalability. This cloud
characteristic enables the cost-effective running of workloads that require a vast number of
servers but only for a short period. Many clients have such workloads, which can be run very
cost-effectively because of the rapid scalability of Cloud Computing.

3. Which are the technologies on which cloud computing relies?

Cloud computing relies heavily on virtualization and automation

technologies. Virtualization lets IT organizations create virtual
instances of servers, storage and other resources that let multiple
VMs or cloud environments run on a single physical server using
software known as a hypervisor.
4. Define cloud computing.

Cloud computing is the on-demand delivery of computing services such as

servers, storage, databases, networking, software, and analytics. Rather than
keeping files on a proprietary hard drive or local storage device, cloud-based
storage makes it possible to save remotely. Cloud computing is a popular option
for people and businesses, allowing for cost savings, increased productivity,
speed and efficiency, performance, and security.

5. What are the major advantages of cloud computing?

Faster time to market

You can spin up new instances or retire them in seconds, allowing developers
to accelerate development with quick deployments. Cloud computing
supports new innovations by making it easy to test new ideas and design new
applications without hardware limitations or slow procurement processes.
Scalability and flexibility

Cloud computing gives your business more flexibility. You can quickly scale
resources and storage up to meet business demands without having to invest
in physical infrastructure.

Companies don’t need to pay for or build the infrastructure needed to support
their highest load levels. Likewise, they can quickly scale down if resources
aren’t being used.

Cost savings

Whatever cloud service model you choose, you only pay for the resources you
actually use. This helps you avoid overbuilding and overprovisioning your data
center and gives your IT teams back valuable time to focus on more strategic
work.

Better collaboration

Cloud storage enables you to make data available anywhere you are, anytime
you need it. Instead of being tied to a location or specific device, people can
access data from anywhere in the world from any device—as long as they
have an internet connection.

Advanced security

Despite popular perceptions, cloud computing can actually strengthen your

security posture because of the depth and breadth of security features,
automatic maintenance, and centralized management.

Reputable cloud providers also hire top security experts and employ the most
advanced solutions, providing more robust protection.
6. Describe the vision introduced by cloud computing?

These are following Vision of Cloud Computing :

1. Cloud computing provides the facility to provision virtual hardware,

runtime environment and services to a person having money.
2. These all things can be used as long as they are needed by the user.
3. The whole collection of computing system is transformed into
collection of utilities, which can be provisioned and composed together
to deploy systems in hours rather than days, with no maintenance cost.
4. The long term vision of a cloud computing is that IT services are traded
as utilities in an open market without technological and legal barriers.
5. In the future, we can imagine that it will be possible to find the solution
that matches with our requirements by simply entering out request in a
global digital market that trades with cloud computing services.
6. The existence of such market will enable the automation of discovery
process and its integration into its existing software systems.
7. Due to the existence of a global platform for trading cloud services will
also help service providers to potentially increase their revenue.
8. A cloud provider can also become a consumer of a competition service
in order to fulfill its promises to customers.

7. What are the disadvantages of virtualization?

Cons of Virtualization :

• Data can be at Risk –

Working on virtual instances on shared resources means that our data
is hosted on third party resource which put’s our data in vulnerable
condition. Any hacker can attack on our data or try to perform
unauthorized access. Without Security solution our data is in threaten
situation.
• Learning New Infrastructure –
As Organization shifted from Servers to Cloud. They required skilled
staff who can work with cloud easily. Either they hire new IT staff with
relevant skill or provide training on that skill which increase the cost of
company.
• High Initial Investment –
It is true that Virtualization will reduce the cost of companies but also it
is truth that Cloud have high initial investment. It provides numerous
services which are not required and when unskilled organization will try
to set up in cloud they purchase unnecessary services which are not
even required to them.

8. Give the names of some popular software-as-a-service solutions?

Salesforce,zoom,google application,slack,hubspot,shopify.

9. Give some examples of public cloud?

Public cloud solutions are one of the most prevalent IT infrastructures

used today for compute and storage. Some of the most common
examples include Google Workspace, Amazon Web Services (AWS),
Dropbox, and Microsoft offerings like Microsoft 365 and Azure, as well
as streaming services like Netflix.
10. What is Google App Engine?

A scalable runtime environment, Google App Engine is mostly used to run

Web applications. These dynamic scales as demand change over time
because of Google’s vast computing infrastructure. Because it offers a
secure execution environment in addition to a number of services, App
Engine makes it easier to develop scalable and high-performance Web
apps. Google’s applications will scale up and down in response to shifting
demand. Croon tasks, communications, scalable data stores, work queues,
and in-memory caching are some of these services.

11. Which is the most common scenario for a private cloud.

1. Infrastructure

It really boils down to flexibility and scalability.

Traditionally, when you build an infrastructure to support a solution, you must build
your infrastructure to support the maximum demand. If you expect 1,000 users to
connect to your infrastructure, your infrastructure must be sized to support all 1,000
users. i.e. you must pay for enough infrastructure, and typically dedicate that
infrastructure for 1,000 users even when only 200 or 300 users are typically connected
to your infrastructure at a given time. In a traditional data center model, it is hard to
truly scale your infrastructure up and down in a cost-effective way.

Because the cloud has built a very stable consumption-based model, you can move
this type of solution into the cloud and only pay for the infrastructure necessary to
support 300 users when only 300 users need the infrastructure. When the demand for
your infrastructure exceeds 300 or even 1,000 users, the cloud can continue to
provide additional resources as needed to scale up the infrastructure to meet the
demand. Then, of course, as demand subsides, the cloud gives you the ability to scale
your infrastructure back down and reduce the cost of the infrastructure so that you
are only paying for the resources necessary to meet the current demand.

2. Bring Your Own Device

Let’s talk about the value of the cloud from a user’s perspective.

Fewer corporations are mandating standard devices and standard configurations for
their end users because the users have demanded additional form factors and
mobility. The cloud makes it easier for corporate IT to reach a happy middle ground.
They can allow users to bring their own devices, yet still mandate a common desktop,
now it is just delivered from the cloud. This gives companies the ability to still protect
their corporate data, even if its accessed from an insecure device like a personal device
or even a kiosk device in an insecure location since no corporate data will be stored on
the local device.
Users want to be more mobile than they’ve been in the past, and the cloud makes it
easy to provide access to the corporate infrastructure from anywhere without
requiring the company to build a complex remote access infrastructure. They can
place their infrastructure in the cloud and still take advantage of multi-factor
authentication to ensure users are connecting with more than just a simple username
and password.

3. Client-Server Based Applications

What type of applications will you move to the cloud?

This is always an interesting discussion, what can be moved to the cloud? Really,
anything can be moved, but some solutions may be easier to move than others. Client-
server applications are good candidates to move to the cloud. Most applications have
a client-side component, especially older applications that are not web-based. The
cloud lets you take these traditional client-server-based applications and turn them
into a cloud-based solution. The cloud also gives you the ability to only move part of
your application or data to the cloud but doesn’t necessitate that all the server
components must be moved to the cloud. You could build a hybrid approach where
some items are in the cloud and others are still on-premises. As mentioned earlier,
the cloud also makes it easy to provide additional scale for these client-server
applications.

The cloud also provides global scale for your applications. The cloud gives you the
ability to market your solution to a larger geographic area because you no longer
need to go on-site to manage your customer’s infrastructure since it’s now hosted in
the cloud.

12. What are the types of applications that can benefit from cloud computing?

1. Art Applications
Cloud computing offers various art applications for quickly and easily design attractive
cards, booklets, and images. Some most commonly used cloud art applications are given
below:

i Moo
Moo is one of the best cloud art applications. It is used for designing and printing business
cards, postcards, and mini cards.

ii. Vistaprint

Vistaprint allows us to easily design various printed marketing products such as business
cards, Postcards, Booklets, and wedding invitations cards.

iii. Adobe Creative Cloud

Adobe creative cloud is made for designers, artists, filmmakers, and other creative
professionals. It is a suite of apps which includes PhotoShop image editing programming,
Illustrator, InDesign, TypeKit, Dreamweaver, XD, and Audition.

2. Business Applications
Business applications are based on cloud service providers. Today, every organization
requires the cloud business application to grow their business. It also ensures that business
applications are 24*7 available to users.

There are the following business applications of cloud computing -

i. MailChimp

MailChimp is an email publishing platform which provides various options to design, send,
and save templates for emails.

iii. Salesforce

Salesforce platform provides tools for sales, service, marketing, e-commerce, and more. It
also provides a cloud development platform.

iv. Chatter

Chatter helps us to share important information about the organization in real time.

v. Bitrix24

Bitrix24 is a collaboration platform which provides communication, management, and

social collaboration tools.

vi. Paypal
Paypal offers the simplest and easiest online payment mode using a secure internet account.
Paypal accepts the payment through debit cards, credit cards, and also from Paypal account
holders.

3. Data Storage and Backup Applications

Cloud computing allows us to store information (data, files, images, audios, and videos) on
the cloud and access this information using an internet connection. As the cloud provider is
responsible for providing security, so they offer various backup recovery application for
retrieving the lost data.

A list of data storage and backup applications in the cloud are given below -

i. [Link]

Box provides an online environment for secure content management, workflow, and
collaboration. It allows us to store different files such as Excel, Word, PDF, and images on
the cloud. The main advantage of using box is that it provides drag & drop service for files
and easily integrates with Office 365, G Suite, Salesforce, and more than 1400 tools.

ii. Mozy

Mozy provides powerful online backup solutions for our personal and business data. It
schedules automatically back up for each day at a specific time.

iii. Joukuu

Joukuu provides the simplest way to share and track cloud-based backup files. Many users
use joukuu to search files, folders, and collaborate on documents.

4. Education Applications

Cloud computing in the education sector becomes very popular. It offers various online
distance learning platforms and student information portals to the students. The
advantage of using cloud in the field of education is that it offers strong virtual classroom
environments, Ease of accessibility, secure data storage, scalability, greater reach for the
students, and minimal hardware requirements for the applications.

There are the following education applications offered by the cloud -

i. Google Apps for Education

Google Apps for Education is the most widely used platform for free web-based email,
calendar, documents, and collaborative study.

ii. Chromebooks for Education

Chromebook for Education is one of the most important Google's projects. It is designed for
the purpose that it enhances education innovation.

Entertaainment applications-online games,video conferencing apps,,social applications-

facebook,twitter,linkedin

,management applications-toggle,evernote,outright,gotomeeting

13. What are the most important advantages of cloud technologies for social networking
application?

Advantages Of Cloud Computing

There are as many advantages of cloud computing for individuals as there are for
business operations, where accessing massive quantities of data is essential every
day. Following are 11 such advantages:

1. Cost efficiency

With cloud computing, you can save money that you may otherwise spend on
buying, setting up and using hardware, software and other IT-related infrastructure.
Similarly, using cloud services reduces the cost of utilities like electricity or building
physical data centres. You can also benefit from the technical know-how of your
cloud service provider. Cloud computing uses the pay-as-you-go or pay-per-use
model. In simple words, you just pay for the resources or services you use for the
specific amount of time you use them. This eliminates the necessity for a huge lump
sum investment.
2. Data recovery
By saving your data in the cloud, you can retrieve it even if your gadgets, such as
your personal computer or smartphone, are damaged or unreachable. In case of a
mishap, such as a power failure, computer malware or a natural calamity like a
hurricane, cloud-based services allow you to restore your files as and when required.
This ensures the smooth continuation of your day-to-day operations without
worrying about the potential loss of data or a decrease in productivity.

3. Enhanced collaboration

Collaborating via the cloud allows you to communicate and share updated
information promptly in just a few clicks. This results in improved business
prospects, which helps team members collaborate more effectively. By allocating
the job among the team's professionals, cloud computing speeds up the influx of
new ideas and saves both resources and efforts. For example, some companies use
cloud computing to offer employees, contractors, clients and third-party firms,
access to the same files when they are working on a project that spans multiple
locations across the globe. 4. Scalability
Using cloud services enhances your ability to scale up or down instantly in response
to changing conditions and demands. This enables you to have the necessary
resources at the time you require them. Thus, cloud computing can easily adapt to
a growth-based model or scale back to fit your demands.

5. Data security

Improved data security is one of the most significant advantages of cloud

computing. Cloud service providers employ a variety of advanced security
mechanisms, like OS (Operating System) updates and patch management, so that
you can store and handle your data safely. CSPs (Cloud Service Providers) can simply
configure the system to grant access on a user-by-user basis. They can use heavy
encryption to protect your data while it is being used or sent over the Internet.

6. Flexibility and accessibility

If you suddenly require extra capacity to upload, download, or otherwise use your
data, a cloud-based service can provide it immediately. This increased independence
and adaptability can have a positive impact on your efficiency and productivity. You
can also be more flexible in your work because of cloud computing. For instance,
you can work at home, while commuting to and from your office, or even when you
are taking a holiday if there is a work emergency. You can quickly log in to your
virtual office whenever you want access to your data. This allows for better time
management and work-life balance.

14. What is Windows Azure?

Windows Azure is a cloud computing platform developed by Microsoft that can be used
to build and host online Web applications through Microsoft data centers.
Management of the scalable Web applications is also performed at Microsoft’s data
centers.

Windows Azure was originally codenamed “Red Dog” and was initially called “Windows
Cloud” when it first launched in October 2008.

The services and applications developed using the Azure platform run on the Windows
Azure operating system, which provides a runtime environment for Web applications
along with an extensive set of services that facilitate the building, hosting and
management of applications without requiring maintenance to expensive onsite
resources.

Windows Azure is designed to support both Microsoft and non-Microsoft platforms.

The three main components that constitute Windows Azure are:

• Compute layer
• Storage layer
• Fabric layer
Windows Azure also includes an automated service management feature that allows
the upgrading of applications without affecting their performance. Windows Azure is
designed to support a number of platforms and programming languages. Some of the
languages supported are extensible markup language (XML), representational state
transfer (REST), Simple Object Access Protocol (SOAP), Ruby, Eclipse, Python and
PHP.

15. Describe Amazon EC2 and its basic features?

Amazon Elastic Compute Cloud (Amazon EC2) provides on-demand, scalable

computing capacity in the Amazon Web Services (AWS) Cloud. Using Amazon EC2
reduces hardware costs so you can develop and deploy applications faster. You can
use Amazon EC2 to launch as many or as few virtual servers as you need, configure
security and networking, and manage storage. You can add capacity (scale up) to
handle compute-heavy tasks, such as monthly or yearly processes, or spikes in website
traffic. When usage decreases, you can reduce capacity (scale down) again.

Amazon EC2 supports the processing, storage, and transmission of credit card data by
a merchant or service provider, and has been validated as being compliant with
Payment Card Industry (PCI) Data Security Standard (DSS). For more information
about PCI DSS, including how to request a copy of the AWS PCI Compliance Package,

Amazon EC2 provides the following high-level features:

Instances
Virtual servers.
Amazon Machine Images (AMIs)
Preconfigured templates for your instances that package the components you need for
your server (including the operating system and additional software).
Instance types
Various configurations of CPU, memory, storage, networking capacity, and graphics
hardware for your instances.
Key pairs

Secure login information for your instances. AWS stores the public key and you store
the private key in a secure place.
Instance store volumes

Storage volumes for temporary data that is deleted when you stop, hibernate, or
terminate your instance.
Amazon EBS volumes

Persistent storage volumes for your data using Amazon Elastic Block Store (Amazon
EBS).
Regions and Zones

Multiple physical locations for your resources, such as instances and Amazon EBS
volumes.
Security groups

A virtual firewall that allows you to specify the protocols, ports, and source IP ranges
that can reach your instances, and the destination IP ranges to which your instances
can connect.
Elastic IP addresses

Static IPv4 addresses for dynamic cloud computing.

Tags

Metadata that you can create and assign to your Amazon EC2 resources.
Virtual private clouds (VPCs)

Virtual networks you can create that are logically isolated from the rest of the AWS
Cloud. You can optionally connect these virtual networks to your own network.

16. Discuss the use of hypervisor in cloud computing.

Virtualization software that are powered by hypervisors have several use cases. We give some
examples below.

Desktop virtualization

Employees use desktop virtualization software to emulate a version of their workstation computing
environment on the server. This allows them to access their work applications and files remotely.

Resource optimization

Companies use hypervisors to consolidate multiple computers that perform different functions into a
single server. For example, if production, marketing, and customer support teams run their
workloads on individual physical servers, it can result in idle resources. With a hypervisor, you can
host the virtual machines for the respective business units on a single server, even if they require
different operating systems and software components.

Failure recovery

The hypervisor captures snapshots of the virtual machine’s previous state in a virtual machine
image—a file that contains the installation instructions, configurations, and other details of the virtual
machine. System administrators can use the image file to restore the virtual machine in case of
failure. There is also capability to create backup copies or move the virtual machine to a different
host.

Legacy system continuity

Some organizations have invested significantly in software that has outlasted the underlying server.
Hypervisors provide an option to continue running the software by virtualizing the hardware
environment required. This allows organizations to support their cloud transformation efforts with
minimum disruption to existing business workflows.
17. What is AWS?

AWS (Amazon Web Services) is a comprehensive, evolving cloud computing platform

provided by Amazon. It includes a mixture of infrastructure-as-a-service (IaaS), platform-
as-a-service (PaaS) and packaged software-as-a-service (SaaS) offerings. AWS offers
tools such as compute power, database storage and content delivery services.

[Link] Web Services launched its first web services in 2002 from the internal
infrastructure that the company built to handle its online retail operations. In 2006, it
began offering its defining IaaS services. AWS was one of the first companies to
introduce a pay-as-you-go cloud computing model that scales to provide users with
compute, storage and throughput as needed.

AWS offers many different tools and products for enterprises and software developers
in 245 countries and territories. Government agencies, education institutions, nonprofits
and private organizations use AWS services.

18. What does the acronym XaaS stand for?

XaaS stands for Everything as a Service or Anything as a Service.

19. What type of service is AppEngine?

App Engine is a fully managed, serverless platform for developing and

hosting web applications at scale. You can choose from several
popular languages, libraries, and frameworks to develop your apps,
and then let App Engine take care of provisioning servers and scaling
your app instances based on demand(PAAS).
20. What is DataStore? What type of data can be stored in it?
A data store is a digital repository that stores and safeguards the information in computer systems. A
data store can be network-connected storage, distributed cloud storage, a physical hard drive, or
virtual storage. It can store both structured data like information tables and unstructured data like
emails, images, and videos. Organizations use data stores to retain, share, and manage information
across business units.

structured data like information tables and unstructured data like

emails, images, and videos.
21. Define Amazon Simple Storage Service.

Amazon S3 is a Simple Storage Service in AWS that stores files of different

types like Photos, Audio, and Videos as Objects providing more scalability
and security to. It allows the users to store and retrieve any amount of
data at any point in time from anywhere on the web. It facilitates features
such as extremely high availability, security, and simple connection to other
AWS Services.

Amazon S3 is used for various purposes in the Cloud because of its robust
features with scaling and Securing of data. It helps people with all kinds of
use cases from fields such as Mobile/Web applications, Big data, Machine
Learning and many more. The following are a few Wide Usage of Amazon
S3 service.

• Data Storage: Amazon s3 acts as the best option for scaling both small
and large storage applications. It helps in storing and retrieving the
data-intensitive applications as per needs in ideal time.
• Backup and Recovery: Many Organizations are using Amazon S3 to
backup their critical data and maintain the data durability and
availability for recovery needs.
• Hosting Static Websites: Amazon S3 facilitates in storing HTML, CSS
and other web content from Users/developers allowing them for
hosting Static Websites benefiting with low-latency access and cost-
effectiveness. To know more detailing refer this Article – How to host
static websites using Amazon S3
• Data Archiving: Amazon S3 Glacier service integration helps as a cost-
effective solution for long-term data storing which are less frequently
accessed applications.
• Big Data Analytics: Amazon S3 is often considered as data lake
because of its capacity to store large amounts of both structured and
unstructured data offering seamless integration with other AWS
Analytics and AWS Machine Learning Services.
Amazon S3 works on organizing the data into unique S3 Buckets,
customizing the buckets with Acccess controls. It allows the users to store
objects inside the S3 buckets with facilitating features like versioning and
lifecycle management of data storage with scaling.

22. List any two innovative applications of Cloud with Internet of Things.

Thingworx is an IoT platform designed by PTC for development of enterprise

app development. It offers basic features, such as:

• Easy connectivity with electronic devices, like sensors and RFIDs

• You can work remotely once you are done with the setup
• Pre-built widgets for the dashboard
• Remove Complexity of the project
• Integrated machine learning

Pros
• Easy web page designs for customers
• Easy to manage devices
• Simple connectivity solutions

Cons
• Difficult to use with custom programs in C#
• Hard to manage complex systems.
• The limitation to install edge program on a custom platform.

Azure IoT Suite provides features like:

 • Easy Device Registry.
• Rich Integration with SAP, Salesforce, Oracle, WebSphere, etc
• Dashboards and visualization
• Real-time streaming

Pros
• Offers third-party services
• Secure and scalable
• High availability

Cons
• Requires management
• Expensive
• No support for bugs

23. Explain the basic of Peer 2 Peer Network Systems.

In a peer-to-peer network, computers on the network are equal, with

each workstation providing access to resources and data. This is a
simple type of network where computers are able to communicate with
one another and share what is on or attached to their computer with
other users.
In a P2P network, computing devices use software to connect with each other over a
private network, such as a home local area network (LAN) or a public network, such as
the Internet. This direct connection allows each device to share files without requiring
the assistance of a remote server.

24. Why is cloud based model more economic?

Economical background of the cloud is more useful for developers in the

following ways:

• Pay as you go model offered by cloud providers.

• Scalable and Simple.
Cloud Computing Allows:

• Reduces the capital costs of infrastructure.

• Removes the maintenance cost.
• Removes the administrative cost.
It is cost occurred in the purchasing infrastructure or the assets that is
important in the production of goods. It takes a long time to generate
profit.

In the case of start-ups, there is no extra budget for the infrastructure and
its maintenance. So cloud can minimizes expenses of any small
organization in terms of economy. It leads to the developers can only focus
on the development logic and not on the maintenance of the
infrastructure.

There are three different Pricing Strategies that are introduced by Cloud
Computing: Tiered Pricing, Per-unit Pricing, and Subscription-based
Pricing. These are explained as following below.

9. Tiered Pricing: Cloud Services are offered in the various tiers. Each tier
offers to fix service agreements at a specific cost. Amazon EC2 uses
this kind of pricing.
10. Per-unit Pricing: The model is based upon the unit-specific service
concept. Data transfer and memory allocation include in this model for
specific units. GoGrid uses this kind of pricing in terms of RAM/hour.
11. Subscription-based Pricing: In this model, users are paying periodic
subscription fees for the usage of the software.
So these models give more flexible solutions to the cloud economy.

25. Write an example of cloud infrastructure components.

Cloud infrastructure is a collection of components required to create cloud
computing environments. This includes computing power, networking, storage, and
interfaces through which users can access virtualized resources.

Virtual resources reflect the virtual resources of the physical infrastructure,

including components such as memory, network switches, servers, and storage
clusters. Organizations might need to run applications that users access through
the Internet, telecommunications services, or wide area networks (WANs). A cloud
infrastructure approach offers benefits flexibility, scalability, and lower cost of
ownership to run these workloads.

• 4 Key Components of Cloud Computing Infrastructure

o Hardware
o Virtualization
o Storage
o Network

The major components that make up the cloud infrastructure are:

Hardware

Hardware includes the equipment needed to connect machines to a single cloud.

Hardware components include servers, power supplies, memory and storage, and
central processing units (CPUs). All of these features need to work together to
provide the performance, security, and availability cloud users need.

Virtualization

Virtualization makes it possible to decouple computing infrastructure from the

hardware that runs them. This is perhaps the most important part of a cloud
infrastructure. Virtualization software plays an essential role, because it decouples
data storage and computing power from the hardware itself. Virtualization also
allows operators to manage their cloud infrastructure through a central user
interface.

Storage

Cloud storage holds data, keeps the latest version of a file or data item and possibly
also previous versions, and enables remote access as needed. Virtualization
provides a link between hardware and cloud storage, enabling the three major
cloud storage models:

• Block storage—sorts data into blocks instead of complete files. This is an

ideal solution for storing data that is static and does not change regularly.
• File storage—like the file manager systems used with regular PCs.
• Object storage—suitable for storing unstructured data, or data that needs
to frequently change.

Network

Network infrastructure is also important for providing cloud computing services.

This includes both internal networks, within the cloud environment, and external
network connections to enable remote access. Network infrastructure covers many
different types of hardware, including routers, switches, load balancers, and
physical cables.

26. Write an example of cloud infrastructure components.

27. List the challenges in designing a cloud.

1. Data Security and Privacy

Data security is a major concern when working with Cloud environments. It is one of the
major challenges in cloud computing as users have to take accountability for their data,
and not all Cloud providers can assure 100% data privacy. Lack of visibility and control
tools, no identity access management, data misuse, and Cloud misconfiguration are the
common causes behind Cloud privacy leaks. There are also concerns with insecure APIs,
malicious insiders, and oversights or neglect in Cloud data management.

2. Multi-Cloud Environments

Common cloud computing issues and challenges with multi-cloud environments are -
configuration errors, lack of security patches, data governance, and no granularity. It is
difficult to track the security requirements of multi-clouds and apply data management
policies across various boards.
3. Performance Challenges

The performance of Cloud computing solutions depends on the vendors who offer these
services to clients, and if a Cloud vendor goes down, the business gets affected too. It is
one of the major challenges associated with cloud computing.

4. Interoperability and Flexibility

Interoperability is a challenge when you try to move applications between two or multiple
Cloud ecosystems. It is one of the challenges faced in cloud computing. Some common
issues faced are:

• Rebuilding application stacks to match the target cloud environment's

specifications
• Handling data encryption during migration
• Setting up networks in the target cloud for operations
• Managing apps and services in the target cloud ecosystem
5. High Dependence on Network

Lack of sufficient internet bandwidth is a common problem when transferring large

volumes of information to and from Cloud data servers. It is one of the various challenges
in cloud computing. Data is highly vulnerable, and there is a risk of sudden outages.
Enterprises that want to lower hardware costs without sacrificing performance need to
ensure there is high bandwidth, which will help prevent business losses from sudden
outages.

6. Lack of Knowledge and Expertise

Organizations are finding it tough to find and hire the right Cloud talent, which is another
common challenge in cloud computing. There is a shortage of professionals with the
required qualifications in the industry. Workloads are increasing, and the number of tools
launched in the market is increasing. Enterprises need good expertise in order to use these
tools and find out which ones are ideal for them.

28. What is cloud reference models?

The Cloud Computing Reference Model is an abstract model that defines the cloud
vocabulary and design elements, the set of configuration rules, and the semantic
interpretation. In simpler words, it divides the cloud into layers, defines each
function, and provides a reference model for cloud computing, helping users select
the right model for specific applications and efficient deployment.

The Cloud Computing Reference Model is divided into three cross functional Layers:

12. Software as a Service (SaaS)

13. Platform as a Service (PaaS)

14. Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS)

Software as a Service (SaaS)

Software as a service is a software delivery model where licensed software, usually

on a subscription basis, is centrally hosted and used by customers over the internet
via a web browser or through client software. It is also referred to as on-demand
software or web-based/web-hosted software. The customer only creates an
account and pays the associated fee if applicable. The SaaS provider is responsible
for operating and maintaining the software and the platform that it runs on.

SaaS is currently the most common cloud computing service. Day-to-day workforce
applications such as Slack, Zoom, and Customer Resource Management (CRM)
software are prime examples of SaaS.

Platform as a Service (PaaS)

Platform as a Service is a cloud computing model which provides customers with a

complete platform to develop and run their applications. This includes hardware,
software, infrastructure like servers, storage, databases, and development tools
hosted at the vendor’s data centre. This helps avoid the cost, complexity, and
inflexibility of maintaining this on-premise. Developers can build and deploy apps
on the cloud without worrying about the underlying architecture and resource
constraints. The cloud provides them with the ability to scale up on demand and
also scale down during idle & low-traffic periods.

Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS)

Infrastructure as a Service is a cloud computing model that deals with fundamental

computing, network and storage. Contrary to PaaS, it provides the lowest level of
resources on the cloud. This was one of the earliest cloud offerings since the early
2010s and continues to grow with the introduction of new technologies such as
containerisation, serverless computing, etc. It is the foundational core of any
architecture.

29. Define SLA.

SLA stands for service level agreement. It refers to a document that outlines a
commitment between a service provider and a client, including details of the
service, the standards the provider must adhere to, and the metrics to measure the
performance.

Typically, it is IT companies that use service-level agreements. These contracts

ensure customers can expect a certain level or standard of service and specific
remedies or deductions if that service is not met. SLAs are usually between
companies and external suppliers, though they can also be between departments
within a company.

What are the three types of SLA?

1. Customer SLA is an agreement between an organization and a third-party

vendor providing a service. For example, an organization might hire an office
supply company or a design agency to fill specific business needs.
2. Internal SLA is an agreement between teams within an organization. For
example, the sales team might enlist the marketing team for support in generating
leads.

3. Multi-level SLA is an agreement between multiple parties, such as an

organization and multiple vendors, more than two teams within an organization,
or a vendor providing services to customers with different service plans. For
example, sales and marketing teams within an organization might find they need
to enlist the help of a third team—customer support—to improve customer
satisfaction.

Why are SLAs important?

SLAs are common in the technology industry but can be used in any industry. A
service level agreement is an important component of business procedure with
several benefits for organizations, teams, and vendors:

• An SLA establishes trust and peace of mind among all parties involved.
• In specifying the services provided, terms and conditions of the service, and
the standard of performance measurement, an SLA aligns everyone’s
expectations.
• A consistent and collaborative SLA practice can lead to new business
opportunities. Vendors can offer clients transparency, address concerns, and
describe a high level of service when all parties contribute to an SLA draft.

Although SLAs can vary across industries, vendors, and types of services rendered,
there are several key components of a standard service level agreement:

• Agreement overview
• A list of stakeholders
• The goals of all stakeholders
• A description of services
 • Service levels
• A list of services excluded from the agreement
• Conditions of cancellation
• A plan if goals aren’t reached
• Service performance metrics

30. What is grid computing?

Grid Computing can be defined as a network of computers working together

to perform a task that would rather be difficult for a single machine. All
machines on that network work under the same protocol to act as a virtual
supercomputer. The task that they work on may include analyzing huge
datasets or simulating situations that require high computing power.
Computers on the network contribute resources like processing power and
storage capacity to the network.

Grid Computing is a subset of distributed computing, where a virtual

supercomputer comprises machines on a network connected by some bus,
mostly Ethernet or sometimes the Internet. It can also be seen as a form of
Parallel Computing where instead of many CPU cores on a single machine, it
contains multiple cores spread across various locations. The concept of grid
computing isn’t new, but it is not yet perfected as there are no standard rules
and protocols established and accepted by people.

Working:

A Grid computing network mainly consists of these three types of machines

[Link] Node: A computer, usually a server or a group of servers which

administrates the whole network and keeps the account of the resources in
the network pool.
[Link]: The computer contributes its resources to the network resource
pool.
[Link]: The computer that uses the resources on the network.
When a computer makes a request for resources to the control node, the
control node gives the user access to the resources available on the network.
When it is not in use it should ideally contribute its resources to the network.
Hence a normal computer on the node can swing in between being a user or a
provider based on its needs. The nodes may consist of machines with similar
platforms using the same OS called homogeneous networks, else machines
with different platforms running on various different OSs called
heterogeneous networks. This is the distinguishing part of grid computing
from other distributed computing architectures.

Advantages of Grid Computing:

[Link] is not centralized, as there are no servers required, except the control node
which is just used for controlling and not for processing.
[Link] heterogeneous machines i.e. machines with different Operating
Systems can use a single grid computing network.
[Link] can be performed parallelly across various physical locations and the
users don’t have to pay for them (with money).
Disadvantages of Grid Computing:

[Link] software of the grid is still in the involution stage.

2.A super-fast interconnect between computer resources is the need of the
hour.
[Link] across many servers may make it prohibitive for some applications.
[Link] groups are reluctant with sharing resources.
[Link] in the control node can come to halt in the whole network.

31. What is QoS?

Quality of service (QoS) is the use of mechanisms or technologies that work on a network to
control traffic and ensure the performance of critical applications with limited network capacity. It
enables organizations to adjust their overall network traffic by prioritizing specific high-
performance applications.

QoS is typically applied to networks that carry traffic for resource-intensive systems. Common
services for which it is required include internet protocol television (IPTV), online gaming, streaming
media, videoconferencing, video on demand (VOD), and Voice over IP (VoIP).

Using QoS in networking, organizations have the ability to optimize the performance of multiple
applications on their network and gain visibility into the bit rate, delay, jitter, and packet rate of their
network. This ensures they can engineer the traffic on their network and change the way that
packets are routed to the internet or other networks to avoid transmission delay. This also ensures
that the organization achieves the expected service quality for applications and delivers expected
user experiences.

As per the QoS meaning, the key goal is to enable networks and organizations to prioritize traffic,
which includes offering dedicated bandwidth, controlled jitter, and lower latency. The
technologies used to ensure this are vital to enhancing the performance of business applications,
wide-area networks (WANs), and service provider networks.

Advantages of QoS

The deployment of QoS is crucial for businesses that want to ensure the availability of their
business-critical applications. It is vital for delivering differentiated bandwidth and ensuring data
transmission takes place without interrupting traffic flow or causing packet losses. Major
advantages of deploying QoS include:

[Link] application prioritization: QoS guarantees that businesses’ most mission-critical

applications will always have priority and the necessary resources to achieve high performance.
[Link] resource management: QoS enables administrators to better manage the organization’s
internet resources. This also reduces costs and the need for investments in link expansions.
[Link] user experience: The end goal of QoS is to guarantee the high performance of critical
applications, which boils down to delivering optimal user experience. Employees enjoy high
performance on their high-bandwidth applications, which enables them to be more effective and
get their job done more quickly.
[Link]-to-point traffic management: Managing a network is vital however traffic is delivered, be it
end to end, node to node, or point to point. The latter enables organizations to deliver customer
packets in order from one point to the next over the internet without suffering any packet loss.
[Link] loss prevention: Packet loss can occur when packets of data are dropped in transit
between networks. This can often be caused by a failure or inefficiency, Network congestion, a
faulty router, loose connection, or poor signal. QoS avoids the potential of packet loss by
prioritizing bandwidth of high-performance applications.
[Link] reduction: Latency is the time it takes for a network request to go from the sender to the
receiver and for the receiver to process it. This is typically affected by routers taking longer to
analyze information and storage delays caused by intermediate switches and bridges. QoS enables
organizations to reduce latency, or speed up the process of a network request, by prioritizing their
critical application.

Long answer type questions:

a. What is virtualization?

b. What are its benefits?

Virtualization is a process that allows for more efficient use of physical

computer hardware and is the foundation of cloud computing.
Virtualization uses software to create an abstraction layer over computer hardware,
enabling the division of a single computer's hardware components—such as
processors, memory and storage—into multiple virtual machines (VMs). Each VM runs
its own operating system (OS) and behaves like an independent computer, even
though it is running on just a portion of the actual underlying computer hardware.

It follows that virtualization enables more efficient use of physical computer hardware
and allows a greater return on an organization’s hardware investment.

Today, virtualization is a standard practice in enterprise IT architecture. It is also the

technology that drives cloud computing economics. Virtualization enables cloud
providers to serve users with their existing physical computer hardware. It enables
cloud users to purchase only the computing resources they need when they need it,
and to scale those resources cost-effectively as their workloads grow.
Benefits of virtualization
Virtualization brings several benefits to data center operators and service providers:

Resource efficiency

Before virtualization, IT staff would allocate a dedicated physical CPU to each

application server, buying and setting up a separate server for every application. This
approach, favoring one application and one operating system per computer, was
adopted for its reliability. Invariably, each physical server would be underused. In
contrast, server virtualization enables you to run several applications—each on its own
VM with its own OS—on a single physical computer (typically an x86 server) without
sacrificing reliability. This enables maximum use of the physical hardware’s computing
capacity.

Easier management

Replacing physical computers with software-defined VMs makes it easier to use and
manage policies written in software. This allows you to create automated IT service
management workflows. For example, automated deployment and configuration tools
enable administrators to define collections of virtual machines and applications as
services, in software templates. This means that they can install those services
repeatedly and consistently without cumbersome, time-consuming and error-prone
manual setup. Admins can use virtualization security policies to mandate certain
security configurations based on the role of the virtual machine. Policies can even
increase resource efficiency by retiring unused virtual machines to save on space and
computing power.

Minimal downtime

OS and application crashes can cause downtime and disrupt user productivity. Admins
can run multiple redundant virtual machines alongside each other and failover
between them when problems arise. Running multiple redundant physical servers is
more expensive.
 Faster provisioning

Buying, installing and configuring hardware for each application is time-consuming. If

the hardware is already in place, provisioning virtual machines to run all your
applications is significantly faster. You can even automate it using management
software and build it into existing workflows.

2 List and discuss various types of virtualization?

To this point we’ve discussed server virtualization, but many other IT infrastructure
elements can be virtualized to deliver significant advantages to IT managers in
particular and the enterprise as a whole. In this section, we cover the following types
of virtualization:

• Desktop virtualization
• Network virtualization
• Storage virtualization
• Data virtualization
• Application virtualization
• Data center virtualization
• CPU virtualization
• GPU virtualization
• Linux virtualization
• Cloud virtualization
Desktop virtualization
Desktop virtualization lets you run multiple desktop operating systems, each in its own
VM on the same computer.

There are two types of desktop virtualization:

Virtual desktop infrastructure

Virtual desktop infrastructure (VDI) runs multiple desktops in VMs on a central server
and streams them to users who log in on thin client devices. In this way, VDI lets an
organization provide its users access to a variety of OSs from any device, without
installing them on any device.

Local desktop virtualization

Local desktop virtualization runs a hypervisor on a local computer, enabling the user to
run one or more additional OSs on that computer and switch from one OS to another as
needed without changing anything about the primary OS.

Network virtualization
Network virtualization uses software to create a “view” of the network that an
administrator can use to manage the network from a single console. It abstracts
hardware elements and functions (for example connections, switches and routers) and
abstracts them into software running on a hypervisor. The network administrator can
modify and control these elements without touching the underlying physical
components, which dramatically simplifies network management.

Types of network virtualization include software-defined networking, which virtualizes

hardware that controls network traffic routing, called the control plane. Another type is
network function virtualization, which virtualizes one or more hardware appliances that
provide a specific network function (for example a firewall, load balancer or traffic
analyzer), making those appliances easier to configure, provision and manage.

Storage virtualization
Storage virtualization enables all the storage devices on the network—whether they’re
installed on individual servers or stand-alone storage units—to be accessed and
managed as a single storage device. Specifically, storage virtualization masses all
blocks of storage into a single shared pool from which they can be assigned to any VM
on the network as needed. Storage virtualization makes it easier to provision storage
for VMs and makes maximum use of all available storage on the network.

Data virtualization
Modern enterprises store data from multiple applications, by using multiple file
formats, in multiple locations, ranging from the cloud to on-premise hardware and
 software systems. Data virtualization lets any application access all of that data—
irrespective of source, format or location.

Data virtualization tools create a software layer between the applications accessing
the data and the systems storing it. The layer translates an application’s data request
or query as needed and returns results that can span multiple systems. Data
virtualization can help break down data silos when other types of integration aren’t
feasible, desirable or affordable.

Application virtualization
Application virtualization runs application software without installing it directly on the
user’s OS. This differs from complete desktop virtualization because only the
application runs in a virtual environment—the OS on the end user’s device runs as
usual. There are three types of application virtualization:

• Local application virtualization: The entire application runs on the endpoint device
but runs in a runtime environment instead of on the native hardware.
• Application streaming: The application lives on a server which sends small
components of the software to run on the end user's device when needed.
• Server-based application virtualization The application runs entirely on a server
that sends only its user interface to the client device.
Data center virtualization
Data center virtualization abstracts most of a data center’s hardware into software,
effectively enabling an administrator to divide a single physical data center into
multiple virtual data centers for different clients.

Each client can access its own infrastructure as a service (IaaS), which would run on
the same underlying physical hardware. Virtual data centers offer an easy on-ramp into
cloud-based computing, letting a company quickly set up a complete data center
environment without purchasing infrastructure hardware.

CPU virtualization
Central processing unit (CPU) virtualization is the fundamental technology that makes
hypervisors, virtual machines, and operating systems possible. It allows a single CPU
to be divided into multiple virtual CPUs for use by multiple VMs.
 At first, CPU virtualization was entirely software-defined, but many of today’s
processors include extended instruction sets that support CPU virtualization, which
improves VM performance.

GPU virtualization
A graphical processing unit (GPU) is a special multi-core processor that improves
overall computing performance by taking over heavy-duty graphic or mathematical
processing. GPU virtualization lets multiple VMs use all or some of a single GPU’s
processing power for faster video, AI and other graphic- or math-intensive
applications.

• Pass-through GPUs make the entire GPU available to a single guest OS.
• Shared vGPUs divide physical GPU cores among several virtual GPUs (vGPUs) for
use by server-based VMs.
Linux virtualization
Linux includes its own hypervisor, called the kernel-based virtual machine, which
supports Intel and AMD’s virtualization processor extensions so you can create x86-
based VMs from within a Linux host OS.

As an open source OS, Linux is highly customizable. You can create VMs running
versions of Linux tailored for specific workloads or security-hardened versions for
more sensitive applications.

Cloud virtualization
As noted above, the cloud computing model depends on virtualization. By virtualizing
servers, storage, and other physical data center resources, cloud computing providers
can offer a range of services to customers, including the following:

• Infrastructure as a service (IaaS): Virtualized server, storage and network resources

you can configure based on their requirements.
• Platform as a service (PaaS): Virtualized development tools, databases and other
cloud-based services you can use to build your own cloud-based applications and
solutions.
• Software as a service (SaaS): Software applications you use on the cloud. SaaS is the
cloud-based service most abstracted from the hardware.
3

a. What does the acronym SaaS mean?

Software-As-A-Service.

b. How does it relate to cloud computing?

Software as a Service (SaaS) is a type of cloud computing service that allows users to access and use
software applications over the internet, rather than installing them on their own computers. SaaS is
delivered on a subscription basis and is typically accessed via a web browser.

SaaS is closely related to cloud computing because it is built on top of cloud infrastructure and
relies on cloud technologies such as virtualization, containerization, and cloud storage to deliver its
services. This allows SaaS providers to offer their services to a large number of users without the
need for each user to have their own dedicated hardware or software.

For example, a company that uses a SaaS-based customer relationship management (CRM) system
does not need to install and maintain the CRM software on its own servers. Instead, the CRM
software is hosted on the SaaS provider's cloud infrastructure, and the company's employees access
it through a web browser.

The SaaS provider is responsible for maintaining the infrastructure, software updates, backups, and
security of the CRM system, which allows the company to focus on its core business operations
rather than IT management.

SaaS has become one of the most popular forms of cloud computing services, with a wide range of
applications available, from office productivity tools like Google Docs and Microsoft Office 365 to
specialized business applications like Salesforce and Workday.

SaaS has several benefits over traditional software delivery models. Because the software is hosted
on the SaaS provider's servers, users can access it from anywhere with an internet connection,
which allows for greater flexibility and mobility. This also eliminates the need for users to install
and maintain software on their own devices, which can save time and resources. Additionally, SaaS
providers can offer their services on a subscription basis, which allows users to pay only for what
they need and can scale up or down as needed.

Another important benefit is that SaaS providers can often offer their services at a lower cost than
traditional software delivery models, as the costs of maintaining and updating the software are
spread across a large number of users. This can make SaaS a cost-effective solution for small and
medium-sized businesses that may not have the resources to invest in their own IT infrastructure.
SaaS also allows for rapid deployment and easy integration with other systems. Many SaaS
applications come with APIs that allow them to be integrated with other systems, such as other
SaaS applications or on-premises systems. This allows for greater efficiency and streamlined
workflow.

In conclusion, SaaS is closely related to cloud computing as it is based on cloud infrastructure and
relies on cloud technologies to deliver its services. SaaS allows users to access software applications
over the internet on a subscription basis, eliminating the need to install and maintain software on
their own devices, and providing greater flexibility and cost-effectiveness.

4 Classify the various types of clouds.

Types of Cloud
Last Updated : 24 Jan, 2023
•
•
•
Cloud computing is Internet-based computing in which a shared pool of resources
is available over broad network access, these resources can be provisioned or
released with minimum management efforts and service-provider interaction.

Types of Cloud
15. Public cloud
16. Private cloud
17. Hybrid cloud
18. Community cloud
19. Multicloud

Public Cloud

Public clouds are managed by third parties which provide cloud services over
the internet to the public, these services are available as pay-as-you-go
billing models.
They offer solutions for minimizing IT infrastructure costs and become a good
option for handling peak loads on the local infrastructure. Public clouds are
the go-to option for small enterprises, which can start their businesses
without large upfront investments by completely relying on public
infrastructure for their IT needs.
The fundamental characteristics of public clouds are multitenancy. A public
cloud is meant to serve multiple users, not a single customer. A user requires
a virtual computing environment that is separated, and most likely isolated,
from other users.

Advantages of using a Public cloud are:

20. High Scalability

21. Cost Reduction
22. Reliability and flexibility
23. Disaster Recovery

Disadvantages of using a Public cloud are:

24. Loss of control over data

25. Data security and privacy
26. Limited Visibility
27. Unpredictable cost

Private cloud

Private clouds are distributed systems that work on private infrastructure and
provide the users with dynamic provisioning of computing resources. Instead
of a pay-as-you-go model in private clouds, there could be other schemes
that manage the usage of the cloud and proportionally billing of the different
depart ments or sections of an enterprise. Private cloud providers are HP
Data Centers, Ubuntu, Elastic-Private cloud, Microsoft, etc.

Private Cloud

The advantages of using a private cloud are as follows:

28. Customer information protection: In the private cloud security

concerns are less since customer data and other sensitive information do
not flow out of private infrastructure.
29. Infrastructure ensuring SLAs: Private cloud provides specific
operations such as appropriate clustering, data replication, system
monitoring, and maintenance, disaster recovery, and other uptime
services.
30. Compliance with standard procedures and operations: Specific
procedures have to be put in place when deploying and executing
applications according to third-party compliance standards. This is not
possible in the case of the public cloud.
Disadvantages of using a private cloud are:

31. The restricted area of operations: Private cloud is accessible within a

particular area. So the area of accessibility is restricted.
32. Expertise requires: In the private cloud security concerns are less
since customer data and other sensitive information do not flow out of
private infrastructure. Hence skilled people are required to manage &
operate cloud services.

Hybrid cloud:

A hybrid cloud is a heterogeneous distributed system formed by combining

facilities of the public cloud and private cloud. For this reason, they are also
called heterogeneous clouds.
A major drawback of private deployments is the inability to scale on-demand
and efficiently address peak loads. Here public clouds are needed. Hence, a
hybrid cloud takes advantage of both public and private clouds.
Advantages of using a Hybrid cloud are:

1) Cost: Available at a cheap cost than other clouds because it is formed by a

distributed system.

2) Speed: It is efficiently fast with lower cost, It reduces the latency of the
data transfer process.

3) Security: Most important thing is security. A hybrid cloud is totally safe

and secure because it works on the distributed system network.

Disadvantages of using a Hybrid cloud are:

33. It’s possible that businesses lack the internal knowledge necessary to
create such a hybrid environment. Managing security may also be more
challenging. Different access levels and security considerations may apply
in each environment.
34. Managing a hybrid cloud may be more difficult. With all of the
alternatives and choices available today, not to mention the new PaaS
components and technologies that will be released every day going
forward, public cloud and migration to public cloud are already
complicated enough. It could just feel like a step too far to include hybrid.

Community cloud:

Community clouds are distributed systems created by integrating the

services of different clouds to address the specific needs of an industry, a
community, or a business sector. But sharing responsibilities among the
organizations is difficult.

In the community cloud, the infrastructure is shared between organizations

that have shared concerns or tasks. An organization or a third party may
manage the cloud.
Advantages of using Community cloud are:

35. Because the entire cloud is shared by numerous enterprises or a

community, community clouds are cost-effective.
36. Because it works with every user, the community cloud is adaptable
and scalable. Users can alter the documents according to their needs and
requirements.
37. Public cloud is less secure than the community cloud, which is more
secure than private cloud.
38. Thanks to community clouds, we may share cloud resources,
infrastructure, and other capabilities between different enterprises.

Disadvantages of using Community cloud are:

39. Not all businesses should choose community cloud.

40. gradual adoption of data
41. It’s challenging for corporations to share duties.

Multicloud

Multicloud is the use of multiple cloud computing services from different

providers, which allows organizations to use the best-suited services for their
specific needs and avoid vendor lock-in.

This allows organizations to take advantage of the different features and

capabilities offered by different cloud providers.

Advantages of using multi-cloud:

42. Flexibility: Using multiple cloud providers allows organizations to

choose the best-suited services for their specific needs, and avoid vendor
lock-in.
43. Cost-effectiveness: Organizations can take advantage of the cost
savings and pricing benefits offered by different cloud providers for
different services.
44. Improved performance: By distributing workloads across multiple cloud
providers, organizations can improve the performance and availability of
their applications and services.
45. Increased security: Organizations can increase the security of their data
and applications by spreading them across multiple cloud providers and
implementing different security strategies for each.

Disadvantages of using multi-cloud:

46. Complexity: Managing multiple cloud providers and services can be

complex and require specialized knowledge and expertise.
47. Increased costs: The cost of managing multiple cloud providers and
services can be higher than using a single provider.
48. Compatibility issues: Different cloud providers may use different
technologies and standards, which can cause compatibility issues and
require additional resources to resolve.
49. Limited interoperability: Different cloud providers may not be able to
interoperate seamlessly, which can limit the ability to move data and
applications between them.

[Link] fundamental advantages does cloud computing technology bring to scientific

Applications?

Scientific Applications

• Scientific applications have been run on both traditional high-performance computing

(HPC) systems such as supercomputers and clusters, as well as high throughput
computing (HTC) platforms such as Grids, for many years. Many businesses have
 employed classical HPC to assist tackle a range of problems since they have access to
enormous quantities of computer power. Although these systems were often built to
solve a specific problem, a growing number of SMEs and even university departments
began to use general-purpose HPC systems. Scientists, engineers, system
administrators, and developers have been investigating HPC Cloud environments to take
advantage of what Cloud Computing has to offer them as new growing technology.
• Running complex scientific applications has become more accessible to the research
community thanks to the popularity of Cloud Computing, which allows researchers to
access on-demand compute resources in minutes rather than waiting in queues for their
compute jobs and experiencing peak demand bottlenecks. Cloud Computing has a lot of
promise for scientific applications, but it was built for business and web applications,
which have different resource requirements than communication-intensive, tightly
coupled scientific applications, which typically require low latency and high bandwidth
interconnections, as well as parallel file systems.

a) Healthcare: ECG Analysis in the Cloud

Scientific Applications

• Cloud computing is getting involved in scientific applications and because of this the
resources and storage are not available infinitely at reasonable prices.
• Details of Computing Categories such as High-Performance Computing (HPC) and High
Throughput were already discussed in the task programming section of Unit V.

Healthcare: ECG (Electrocardiogram) Analysis in cloud computing

Healthcare is a field, subject, sector, or territory in which information technology has several
uses. These apps are being used to aid businesses in supporting scientists in developing
disease prevention solutions. Cloud computing has emerged as an appealing alternative for
constructing health monitoring systems as a result of the development of the Internet or to put
it another way, as a result of the availability of the internet. The ECG machine, for example, is a
health monitoring device that measures the human body's heartbeat and prints the results on
graph paper.

• Cloud computing technologies allow the remote monitoring of a patient's heartbeat

data. In this way, the patient at risk can be constantly monitored without going to the
hospital for ECG analysis.
• At the same time, the Doctors can instantly be notified of cases that need their attention.
• In this figure, there are different types of computing devices equipped with ECG sensors
to constantly monitor the patient's heartbeat.
• The respective information is transmitted to the patient's mobile device that will
immediately be forwarded to the cloud-hosted web services for analysis.
 • The entire web service from the front end of a platform that is completely hosted in the
cloud consists of three layers: SaaS, PaaS, and IaaS.

2. BIOLOGY: PROTEIN STRUCTURE PREDICTION (PSP)

• Cloud computing is a new technology that allows users to access a variety of computer
services on demand. It gives users easy access to a pool of higher-level services and
other system resources. Cloud computing has become more important in the realms of
geology, biology, and other scientific studies.
• The finest example of a study area that uses cloud technologies for processing and
storage is protein structure prediction. A protein is made up of peptide bonds that
connect lengthy sequences of amino acids. The varied structures of proteins aid in the
development of novel therapeutics, and Protein structure prediction is the prediction of
various sequences of proteins based on their three-dimensional structure.

3. GEOSCIENCE: SATELLITE IMAGE PROCESSING

• Massive volumes of geographic and non-spatial data are collected, produced, and
analyzed by geoscience applications. The volume of data that has to be processed
grows considerably as technology advances and our world gets increasingly
instrumented (e.g., through the deployment of sensors and satellites for monitoring). A
fundamental component of geoscience applications is the geographic information
system (GIS). All sorts of spatially linked data may be captured, stored, manipulated,
analyzed, managed, and presented using GIS applications. This sort of data is becoming
increasingly important in a range of application sectors, ranging from advanced
agriculture to civic security and natural resource management. As a result, large
amounts of geo-referenced data are fed into computer systems for processing and
analysis. Cloud computing is a compelling alternative for completing these time-
consuming processes and collecting useful data to aid decision-making.
• Hundreds of terabytes of raw pictures are generated by satellite remote sensing, which
must be processed before being used to create a variety of GIS products. This procedure
needs both I/O and computationally heavy operations. Large pictures must be sent from
a ground station's local storage to compute facilities, where they must undergo multiple
transformations and adjustments. Cloud computing offers the necessary infrastructure
to support these types of applications. Several technologies are integrated throughout
the full computer stack in the system depicted in Figure.

6 Describe the architecture of Windows Azure.

Microsoft Azure is an open cloud computing platform, designed by
Microsoft. It provides the ability to develop and launch applications
and to store data on servers in distributed data centers. Microsoft
Azure cloud offers two models — platform as a service (PaaS) and
infrastructure as a service (IaaS).

The platform is divided into three major component platforms.

Windows Azure offers a cloud platform built on Windows OS and
based on Microsoft virtualization technology. Applications are
installed on VMs deployed on the data-center servers. Azure manages
all servers, storage, and network resources of the data center. On top
of the infrastructure are the various services for building different
cloud applications. Cloud-level services provided by the Azure
platform are introduced below. This complex orchestration is what
makes Azure so powerful. It ensures that users no longer have to
spend their time maintaining and upgrading computer hardware as
Azure takes care of it all behind the scenes.

• Live Service Users can visit Microsoft Live applications and apply
the data involved across
multiple machines concurrently.
• .NET Service This package supports application development on
local hosts and execution on
cloud machines.
• SQL Azure This function makes it easier for users to visit and use
t he relational database
associated with the SQL server in the cloud.
• SharePoint Service This provides a scalable and manageable
platform for users to develop their
special business applications in upgraded web services.
• Dynamic CRM Service This provides software developers a
business platform in managing
CRM applications in financing, marketing, and sales and
promotions.

7 What is the difference between parallel and distributed computing?

Difference between Parallel Computing and

Distributed Computing
Last Updated : 25 Nov, 2019
•
•
•
Parallel Computing:
In parallel computing multiple processors performs multiple tasks assigned to
them simultaneously. Memory in parallel systems can either be shared or
distributed. Parallel computing provides concurrency and saves time and
money.
Distributed Computing:
In distributed computing we have multiple autonomous computers which seems
to the user as single system. In distributed systems there is no shared memory
and computers communicate with each other through message passing. In
distributed computing a single task is divided among different computers.
 [Link] Parallel Computing Distributed Computing

Many operations are System components are located at

1.
performed simultaneously different locations

2. Single computer is required Uses multiple computers

Multiple processors perform Multiple computers perform

3.
multiple operations multiple operations

It may have shared or

4. It have only distributed memory
distributed memory

Processors communicate with Computer communicate with each

5.
each other through bus other through message passing.

Improves system scalability, fault

Improves the system
6. tolerance and resource sharing
performance
capabilities

[Link] the reasons that parallel processing constitutes an interesting option for

Computing.

Parallel computing uses multiple computer cores to attack several operations at once.
Unlike serial computing, parallel architecture can break down a job into its component
parts and multi-task them. Parallel computer systems are well suited to modeling and
simulating real-world phenomena.

The advantages of parallel computing are that computers can execute code more
efficiently, which can save time and money by sorting through “big data” faster than ever.
Parallel programming can also solve more complex problems, bringing more resources to
the table. That helps with applications ranging from improving solar power to changing how
the financial industry works.
1. PARALLEL COMPUTING MODELS THE REAL WORLD

The world around us isn’t serial. Things don’t happen one at a time, waiting for one event to
finish before the next one starts. To crunch numbers on data points in weather, traffic,
finance, industry, agriculture, oceans, ice caps, and healthcare, we need parallel
computers.

2. SAVES TIME

Serial computing forces fast processors to do things inefficiently. It’s like using a Ferrari to
drive 20 oranges from Maine to Boston, one at a time. No matter how fast that car can
travel, it’s inefficient compared to grouping the deliveries into one trip.

3. SAVES MONEY

By saving time, parallel computing makes things cheaper. The more efficient use of
resources may seem negligible on a small scale. But when we scale up a system to billions
of operations - bank software, for example - we see massive cost savings.

4. SOLVE MORE COMPLEX OR LARGER PROBLEMS

Computing is maturing. With AI and big data, a single web app may process millions of
transactions every second. Plus, “grand challenges” like securing cyberspace or making
solar energy affordable will require petaFLOPS of computing resources [5]. We’ll get there
faster with parallel computing.

5. LEVERAGE REMOTE RESOURCES

Human beings create 2.5 quintillion bytes of information per day [6]. That’s the number 25
with 29 zeros. We can’t possibly crunch those numbers. Or can we? With parallel
processing, multiple computers with several cores each can sift through many times more
real-time data than serial computers working on their own.
 HOME

Parallel Computing and Its Modern Uses

Tom Gerencer
|
October 30, 2019
Reading time: 10 minutes
If you’re at all involved in tech, chances are you’ve heard about parallel computing. You
probably know it’s got something to do with more than one computer or processor working
on the same problem at the same time.
But what exactly is parallel computing? Do coders, data scientists, and even business
people need to understand it? If so, what are the key points?
The good news is, you’re almost certainly using parallel computers every day. That said,
it’s important for tech types - and soon the rest of us - to know the ins and outs of parallel
computer use. The key fact? As the Internet of Things (IoT) takes hold, billions of devices
will need to use this core computing strategy to keep from drowning in a rising sea of data.
What is parallel computing?

Parallel computing uses multiple computer cores to attack several operations at once.
Unlike serial computing, parallel architecture can break down a job into its component
parts and multi-task them. Parallel computer systems are well suited to modeling and
simulating real-world phenomena.
With old-school serial computing, a processor takes steps one at a time, like walking down
a road. That’s an inefficient system compared to doing things in parallel. By contrast,
parallel processing is like cloning yourself 3 or 5 times, then all of you walking side by side,
covering many steps along the road at once.

Why is parallel computing important?

Without parallel computing, performing digital tasks would be tedious, to say the least. If
your iPhone or HP Spectre x360 laptop could only do one operation at a time, every task
would take much longer. To understand the speed (or lack thereof) of serial computing,
think back to the smartphones of 2010. The iPhone 4 and Motorola Droid used serial
processors. Opening an email on your phone could take 30 seconds or more - a lifetime,
compared to now. And if there was an attachment? Forget it!
The first multi-core processors for Android and iPhone appeared in 2011 [1]. IBM released
the first multi-core processors for computers ten years before that in 2001 [2]. But wait - if
we’ve had parallel computers for decades, why all the sudden chatter about them?

Introduction to parallel computing

The exponential growth of processing and network speeds means that parallel architecture
isn’t just a good idea; it’s necessary. Big data and the IoT will soon force us to crunch
trillions of data points at once.
Dual-core, quad-core, 8-core, and even 56-core chips are all examples of parallel
computing [3]. So, while parallel computers aren’t new, here’s the rub: new technologies
are cranking out ever-faster networks, and computer performance has grown 250,000
times in 20 years [4].
For instance, in just the healthcare sector, AI tools will be rifling through the heart rates of a
hundred million patients, looking for the telltale signs of A-fib or V-tach and saving lives.
They won’t be able to make it work if they have to plod along performing one operation at a
time.

Benefits of parallel computing

The advantages of parallel computing are that computers can execute code more
efficiently, which can save time and money by sorting through “big data” faster than ever.
Parallel programming can also solve more complex problems, bringing more resources to
the table. That helps with applications ranging from improving solar power to changing how
the financial industry works.

1. PARALLEL COMPUTING MODELS THE REAL WORLD

The world around us isn’t serial. Things don’t happen one at a time, waiting for one event to
finish before the next one starts. To crunch numbers on data points in weather, traffic,
finance, industry, agriculture, oceans, ice caps, and healthcare, we need parallel
computers.

2. SAVES TIME

Serial computing forces fast processors to do things inefficiently. It’s like using a Ferrari to
drive 20 oranges from Maine to Boston, one at a time. No matter how fast that car can
travel, it’s inefficient compared to grouping the deliveries into one trip.

3. SAVES MONEY

By saving time, parallel computing makes things cheaper. The more efficient use of
resources may seem negligible on a small scale. But when we scale up a system to billions
of operations - bank software, for example - we see massive cost savings.

4. SOLVE MORE COMPLEX OR LARGER PROBLEMS

Computing is maturing. With AI and big data, a single web app may process millions of
transactions every second. Plus, “grand challenges” like securing cyberspace or making
solar energy affordable will require petaFLOPS of computing resources [5]. We’ll get there
faster with parallel computing.

5. LEVERAGE REMOTE RESOURCES

Human beings create 2.5 quintillion bytes of information per day [6]. That’s the number 25
with 29 zeros. We can’t possibly crunch those numbers. Or can we? With parallel
processing, multiple computers with several cores each can sift through many times more
real-time data than serial computers working on their own.

Examples of parallel computing

You may be using a parallel computer to read this article, but here’s the thing: parallel
computers have been around since the early 1960s. They’re as small as the inexpensive
Raspberry Pi or as robust as the world’s most powerful Summit supercomputer. See a few
examples below of how parallel processing drives our world.

1. SMARTPHONES

The iPhone 5 has a 1.5 GHz dual-core processor. The iPhone 11 has 6 cores. The Samsung
Galaxy Note 10 has 8 cores. These phones are all examples of parallel computing.

2. LAPTOPS AND DESKTOPS

The Intel® processors that power most modern computers are examples of parallel
computing. The Intel Core™ i5 and Core i7 chips in the HP Spectre Folio and HP EliteBook
x360 each have 4 processing cores. The HP Z8 - the world’s most powerful workstation -
packs in 56-cores of computer power that lets it perform real-time video editing in 8K video
or run complex 3D simulations.
3. ILLIAC IV

This was the first “massively” parallel computer, built largely at the University of Illinois.
The machine was developed in the 1960s with help from NASA and the U.S. Air Force. It
had 64 processing elements capable of handling 131,072 bits at a time [7].

4. NASA’S SPACE SHUTTLE COMPUTER SYSTEM

The Space Shuttle program uses 5 IBM AP-101 computers in parallel [8]. They control the
shuttle’s avionics, processing large amounts of fast-paced real-time data. The machines
can perform 480,000 instructions per second. The same system has also been used in F-15
fighter jets and the B-1 bomber .

9 List the major categories of parallel computing systems.

Types of Parallel Processing

There are various varieties of parallel processing, such as MMP, SIMD,
MISD, SISD, and MIMD, of which SIMD is probably the most popular.
Single instruction multiple data, or SIMD, is a parallel processing type
where a computer has two or more processors that all follow the same
instruction set but handle distinct data types. Let us now take a look
at the various kinds of parallel processing and how they work:
1. Single Instruction, Single Data
(SISD)
In the type of computing called Single Instruction, Single Data (SISD),
a single processor is responsible for simultaneously managing a single
algorithm as a single data source. A computer organization having a
control unit, a processing unit, and a memory unit is represented by
SISD. It is similar to the current serial computer. Instructions are
carried out sequentially by SISD, which may or may not be capable of
parallel processing, depending on its configuration.

Sequentially carried-out instructions may cross over throughout their

execution phases. There may be more than one functional unit inside
a SISD computer. However, one control unit is in charge of all
functional units. Such systems allow for pipeline processing or using
numerous functional units to achieve parallel processing.

2. Multiple Instruction, Single Data

(MISD)
Multiple processors are standard in computers that use the Multiple
Instruction, Single Data (MISD) instruction set. While using several
algorithms, all processors share the same input data. MISD computers
can simultaneously perform many operations on the same batch of
data. As expected, the number of operations is impacted by the
number of processors available.
The MISD structure consists of many processing units, each operating
under its instructions and over a comparable data flow. One
processor’s output becomes the input for the following processor.
This organization’s debut garnered little notice and wasn’t used in
architecture.

3. Single Instruction, Multiple Data

(SIMD)
Computers that use the Single Instruction, Multiple Data (SIMD)
architecture have multiple processors that carry out identical
instructions. However, each processor supplies the instructions with
its unique collection of data. SIMD computers apply the same
algorithm to several data sets. The SIMD architecture has numerous
processing components.

All of these components fall under the supervision of a single control

unit. While processing numerous pieces of data, each processor
receives the same instruction from the control unit. Multiple modules
included in the shared subsystem aid in simultaneous communication
with every CPU. This is further separated into organizations that use
bit-slice and word-slice modes.
4. Multiple Instruction, Multiple Data
(MIMD)
Multiple Instruction, Multiple Data, or MIMD, computers are
characterized by the presence of multiple processors, each capable of
independently accepting its instruction stream. These kinds of
computers have many processors. Additionally, each CPU draws data
from a different data stream. A MIMD computer is capable of running
many tasks simultaneously.

Although MIMD computers are more adaptable than SIMD or MIMD

computers, developing the sophisticated algorithms that power these
machines is more challenging. Since all memory flows are changed
from the shared data area transmitted by all processors, a MIMD
computer organization incorporates interactions between the
multiprocessors.

The multiple SISD operation is equivalent to a collection of separate

SISD systems if the many data streams come from various shared
memories.

5. Single Program, Multiple Data

(SPMD)
SPMD systems, which stand for Single Program, Multiple Data, are a
subset of MIMD. Although an SPMD computer is constructed similarly
to a MIMD, each of its processors is responsible for carrying out the
same instructions. SPMD is a message passing programming used in
distributed memory computer systems. A group of separate
computers, collectively called nodes, make up a distributed memory
computer.

Each node launches its application and uses send/receive routines to

send and receive messages when interacting with other nodes.
Systems can also use messages to provide barrier synchronization. It
is possible to transfer the messages via a wide range of
communication techniques, such as transmission control protocol (TCP/IP)
over Ethernet and specialized high-speed interconnects, such as
Supercomputer Interconnect and Myrinet.

6. Massively Parallel Processing

(MPP)
A storage structure called Massively Parallel Processing (MPP) is
made to manage the coordinated execution of program operations by
numerous processors. With each CPU using its operating system and
memory, this coordinated processing can be applied to different
program sections.

As a result, MPP databases can handle enormous amounts of data and

deliver analyses based on large datasets considerably faster. MPP
processors typically communicate through a messaging interface and
can have up to 200 or more processors working on an application. It
functions by enabling the transmission of messages between
processes via a set of corresponding data links.

10 Describe the different levels of parallelism that can be obtained in a computing system.

Types of Parallelism:

50. Bit-level parallelism –

It is the form of parallel computing which is based on the increasing
processor’s size. It reduces the number of instructions that the system
must execute in order to perform a task on large-sized data.
Example: Consider a scenario where an 8-bit processor must compute the
sum of two 16-bit integers. It must first sum up the 8 lower-order bits,
then add the 8 higher-order bits, thus requiring two instructions to
perform the operation. A 16-bit processor can perform the operation with
just one instruction.
51. Instruction-level parallelism –
A processor can only address less than one instruction for each clock cycle
phase. These instructions can be re-ordered and grouped which are later
on executed concurrently without affecting the result of the program. This
is called instruction-level parallelism.
52. Task Parallelism –
Task parallelism employs the decomposition of a task into subtasks and
then allocating each of the subtasks for execution. The processors perform
the execution of sub-tasks concurrently.
4. Data-level parallelism (DLP) –
Instructions from a single stream operate concurrently on several data –
Limited by non-regular data manipulation patterns and by memory
bandwidth.
11 Discuss the most important model for message-based communication.

In the development of models and technologies, message abstraction is a

necessary aspect that enables distributed computing. Distributed system is
defined as a system in which components reside at networked
communication and synchronise its functions only by movement of
messages. In this, message recognizes any discrete data that is moved from
one entity to another. It includes any kind of data representation having
restriction of size and time, whereas it invokes a remote procedure or a
sequence of object instance or a common message. This is the reason that
“message-based communication model” can be beneficial to refer various
model for inter-process communication, which is based on the data
streaming abstraction. Various distributed programming model use this type
of communication despite of the abstraction which is shown to developers
for programming the co-ordination of shared components. Below are some
major distributed programming models that uses “message-based
communication model”.

• Message Passing – In this model, the c oncept of message as the major

abstraction of model is introduced. The units which inter-change the data
and information that is explicitly encode, in the form of message.
According to then model, the schema and content of message changes or
varies. Message Passing Interface and OpenMP are major example of this
type of model.
• Remote Procedure Call – This model explores the keys of procedure call
beyond the restrictions of a single process, thus pointing the execution
of program in remote processes. In this, primary client-server is implied.
A remote process maintains a server component, thus enabling client
processes to invoke the approaches and returns the output of the
execution. Messages, created by the Remote Procedure Call (RPC)
 implementation, retrieve the information of the procedure itself and
that procedure is to execute having necessary arguments and also
returns the values. The use of messages regarding this referred as
marshal-ling of the arguments and return values.
• Distributed Objects – It is an implementation of Remote Procedure
Call (RPC) model for the Object-oriented model, and contextua lizes
this for the remote invocation of methods extended by objects. Every
process assigns a set of interfaces which are accessible remotely.
Client process can demand a reference to these interfaces and invoke
the methods available through them. The basic runtime infrastructure
is in transformation the local method calls into a request to a remote
process and collecting the result of the execution. The interaction
within the caller and the remote process is done trough messages. This
model is stateless by design, distributed object models introduce the
complexity of object state management and lifetime. Common Object
Request Broker Architecture (CORBA), Component Object Model
(COM, DCOM and COM+), Java Remote Method Invocation (RMI),
and .NET Remoting are some major examples which falls under
Distributed object infrastructure.
• Active objects – Programming models based on active objects
comprise by definition the presence of instances, whether they are
agent of objects, despite the availability of requests. It means, that
objects having particular control thread, which enables them to

• convey their activity. These models sometime make manual use of

messages to encounter the execution of functions and a more complex
and a more complex semantics is attached to the messages.
• Web Services – Web service technology delivers an approach of the
RPC concept over the HTTP, thus enabling the communication of
components that are evolved with numerous technologies. A web
 service is revealed as a remote object maintained on a Web server, and
method invocations are transformed in HTTP requests wrapped with
the help of specific protocol. It is necessary to observe that the concept
of message is a basic abstraction of inter-process communication and it
is utilized either implicitly or explicitly.
• Message-based communication is a type of IPC (Inter-Process
Communication) mechanism in which processes or threads
communicate with each other by sending messages. In this approach, a
process sends a message to another process using a message queue,
and the receiving process reads the message from the queue.

12 Discuss RPC and how it enables interprocess communication.

Remote Procedure Call (RPC) is a powerful technique for constructing

distributed, client-server based applications. It is based on extending the
conventional local procedure calling so that the called procedure need not
exist in the same address space as the calling procedure. The two
processes may be on the same system, or they may be on different systems
with a network connecting them.

1. The calling environment is suspended, procedure parameters are

transferred across the network to the environment where the procedure is to
execute, and the procedure is executed there.

2. When the procedure finishes and produces its results, its results are
transferred back to the calling environment, where execution resumes as if
returning from a regular procedure call.

NOTE: RPC is especially well suited for client-server (e.g. query-response)

interaction in which the flow of control alternates between the caller and
callee. Conceptually, the client and server do not both execute at the same
time. Instead, the thread of execution jumps from the caller to the callee and
then back again.

The following steps take place during a RPC :

53. A client invokes a client stub procedure, passing parameters in the

usual way. The client stub resides within the client’s own address space.
54. The client stub marshalls(pack) the parameters into a message.
Marshalling includes converting the representation of the parameters into
a standard format, and copying each parameter into the message.
55. The client stub passes the message to the transport layer, which sends
it to the remote server machine.
56. On the server, the transport layer passes the message to a server stub,
which demarshalls(unpack) the parameters and calls the desired server
routine using the regular procedure call mechanism.
57. When the server procedure completes, it returns to the server stub
(e.g., via a normal procedure call return), which marshalls the return
values into a message. The server stub then hands the message to the
transport layer.
58. The transport layer sends the result message back to the client
transport layer, which hands the message back to the client stub.
59. The client stub demarshalls the return parameters and execution
returns to the caller.
3. Binding: The most flexible solution is to use dynamic binding and find the
server at run time when the RPC is first made. The first time the client stub is
invoked, it contacts a name server to determine the transport address at
which the server resides.

Binding consists of two parts:

• Naming:
• Locating:
60. A Server having a service to offer exports an interface for it. Exporting
an interface registers it with the system so that clients can use it.
61. A Client must import an (exported) interface before communication can
begin.
4. The call semantics associated with RPC :
It is mainly classified into following choices-

[Link] request message –

Whether to retry sending a request message when a server has failed or the
receiver didn’t receive the message.
[Link] filtering –
Remove the duplicate server requests.
3. Retransmission of results –
To resend lost messages without re-executing the operations at the server
side.

13 What are hardware virtualization techniques?

Types of hardware virtualization techniques and its advantages: Virtualization techniques

are used to generate numerous isolated partitions on a single physical server and these
techniques vary in the Virtualization solutions methods and the level of abstraction while offering
similar traits and traveling towards the same goal. The most popular virtualization techniques are:

1. Full Virtualization: This technique fully virtualizes the main physical server to support
applications and software to operate in a much similar way on virtualized divisions. This
creates an environment as if it is working on a unique server. Full virtualization technique
enables the administrators to run unchanged and entirely virtualized operating system.

Advantages:

• Full virtualization technique grants the potential to combine existing systems on to the
newer ones with increased efficiency and a well-organized hardware.
• This amazing methodology contributes effectively to trim down the operating costs
engaged in repairing and enhancing older systems.
 • The less competent systems can be power-packed with this technique, while reducing the
physical space and augmenting the overall performance of the company.

2. Virtual machines: Virtual machines are popularly known as VMs, imitate certain factual or
illusory hardware requiring the valid resources from the host, which is nothing but the actual
machine operating the VMs. A virtual machines monitor (VMM) is used in certain cases where
the CPU directives need extra privileges and may not be employed in user space.

Advantages:

• This methodology benefits numerous system emulators who use it for running a random
guest operating system without altering the guest OS.
• VMMs are used to examine the performed code and facilitate its secure running. For such
varied benefits it is widely used by Microsoft Virtual Server, QEMU, Parallels, VirtualBox
and many other VMware products.

3. Para-Virtualization: This methodology clearly runs modified versions of operating systems.

Only the software and programs are carried out in a precise manner to work for their exclusive
websites without executing any kind of hardware simulation. Using this technique, the guest is
very well aware of its environment as the para-virtualized OS is altered to be alert about its
virtualization.

Advantages:

• It enhances the performance notably by decreasing the number of VMM calls and prevents
the needless use of privileged instructions.
• It allows running many operating systems on a single server.
• This method is considered as the most advantageous one as it augments the performance
per server without the operating cost of a host operating system.

4. Operating System level Virtualization: Operating system level virtualization is specially

intended to grant the necessary security and separation to run manifold applications and replicas
of the same operating system on the same server. Isolating, segregating and providing a safe
environment enables the easy running and sharing of machines of numerous applications
operating on a single server. This technique is used by Linux-VServer, FreeBSD Jails, OpenVZ,
Solaris Zones and Virtuozzo.

Advantages:

• When compared with all the above mentioned techniques, OS level virtualization is
considered to give the best performance and measurability.
 • This technique is easy to control and comparatively uncomplicated to manage as
everything can be administered from the host system.

Virtualization has become a widespread concept in the today's world of information technology.
Decisive and influential designers can do all the wonders required for optimizing the performance
of virtualized systems while steadily focusing on your business needs.

14 What kinds of needs are addressed by heterogeneous clouds?

Heterogeneous means the CPU are not the same type. Most heterogeneous computing is a
conventional CPU, like an Intel x86–64, and a Graphics Card with a number of GPU (Graphics
Processing Units). The are two different kinds of CPUs in on computer cluster.

The NIVIDA’s CUDA and the OpenCL are software platforms that support heterogeneous computing.
CUDA runs only NIVIDA GPU cards.

OpenCL runs on Intel x86–64 clusters, in addition to GPUs that on chip and a seperate GPU cards.

The performance different is that are “embarrassing parallel” problems a heterogeneous computer
cluster may be much much faster. The improvement may be from 10x to 1,000x depending on
problem.

Problems found in “Computation Physical” are the typical problems for heterogeneous computing.

Heterogeneous computing revolutionized world of Supercomputing.

Suddenly, problems that were waiting for multi-million dollar Supercomputer could be solved on a
desk top computer!

The heterogeneous cloud model requires businesses to work with

different vendors for their public and private cloud, and then integrate
the many solutions to create a multi-cloud environment.

Pros of heterogeneous cloud

62. More freedom to make changes to your architecture in the future, through use of
both private and public cloud architecture (hybrid or multi-cloud capabilities).
63. Less risk of vendor-lock in by using many different components from different
vendors, integrated together to meet business needs.
Cons of heterogeneous cloud
64. More expansive training and certification required by in-house staff, creating
expense and taking time.
65. Complexities setting up hybrid or multi-cloud environments on the front end,
requiring skilled IT administrators or experts.
66. Higher up-front cost for installation and set-up, before seeing long-term savings.

15

How does cloud computing help to reduce the time to market for applications and to cut

down capital expenses?

Cloud Computing Benefits for Business

There are numerous advantages of cloud computing for business. Well, you
will look for assets as a business to help you simplify and minimize your work,
right? Plus, if you're wondering how small business entrepreneurs and
company owners run their operations, the answer is using cloud computing,
which offers significant financial savings and reduced stress.
Right from the investment and its application to services, we have mentioned
the critical advantages of implementing cloud computing technology into
your business.

1. Reduced Capital Expenditure

Businesses can go from a capital expenditure model to an operational
expenditure model thanks to cloud computing. It frees organizations from the
upfront expense of purchasing expensive gear and software, enabling them
to merely pay for what they use monthly or annually. The fact that firms no
longer need to buy and maintain pricey equipment and software can
dramatically save capital expenditure.
Cloud computing can also reduce the requirement for IT personnel because
the cloud provider handles upgrades and maintenance. Because firms no
longer need to spend money on pricey IT workers and training, it can cut
capital spending even further.
2. Pay-as-you-go
Cloud computing users get charged based on actual consumption. Precisely
put, another benefit of cloud computing for organizations is that you only pay
for what you use. Cloud applications allow users to upgrade their IT systems
in line with changing IT needs. You can add or reduce the capacity and
number of users per the processes' requirements in a different situation.
As companies may use cloud provider services on a pay-as-you-go basis
and only pay for what they use, it is one of the best methods to cut costs.
These capabilities also give organizations the flexibility to scale their
resources up or down based on their workload. Cloud computing's pay-as-
you-go feature can significantly reduce expenses and boost a company's
bottom line.
3. Simple and Quick Implementation
Well, one of the significant benefits of cloud solutions for businesses is simple
and quick implementation. Unlike traditional on-premises solutions, which
can probably take weeks or months to implement, cloud computing can run
in just a few hours or days.
It implies that enterprises can immediately utilize the cloud provider's
capabilities without spending money on expensive hardware or software.
Additionally, cloud computing may be simply linked with current systems,
making the switch to the cloud simple and seamless. With that being said,
ensure that you also investigate the cloud computing trends as you explore
the benefits so that you do not skip anything while looking forward to digital
transformation.
4. Data is Accessible
Several businesses use cloud business solutions to access information
anywhere by using an internet-compatible device. In its simplest form, cloud
computing enables you to save data online rather than on your computer or
server at work.
As a result of being able to access their data from mobile devices, home
offices, and other remote locations, organizations can now operate more
productively and quickly. Additionally, cloud computing enables firms to
communicate in real-time and exchange data, which improves
communication and teamwork.

5. Maintains Consistency Between the Users

It is prone to errors when multiple team members work on the same digital
file. A centralized platform for data processing and storage is offered by cloud
computing. Simply said, everyone can access the same information and
application from a single location, ensuring they all work with the same data.
Cloud computing also provides the usual tools and services for restricting
access to data and applications, making sure that only authorized users have
access to sensitive data. It is one of the most effective strategies to improve
security and lower the possibility of data breaches or other security issues.
7. It Helps Facilitating Remote Work
You must concede that businesses rely on cloud computing to give their staff
members access to documents and applications from any location with an
internet connection. Therefore, it can simply foster better teamwork and
productivity.
Additionally, cloud computing can offer improved security features like data
backup and encryption to safeguard sensitive data.
9. Disaster Recovery
It is a backup operation for all the data and facts gathered. Remember that
no matter how well or robustly built your system is, a single crash can easily
wipe out all the data, mainly if it has not been backed up.
Therefore, it is crucial to have backup data so that all the information can be
recovered within minutes in the event of a crash, and work may resume as
soon as possible.

16. Provide some examples of media applications that use cloud technologies.

Streaming media refers to multimedia, such as video or audio, that is delivered over the
internet in compressed form. Users can play such media content immediately without the need
to save or download it to their hard drive first. Users can pause, rewind, or fast-forward the
streaming video or audio just like they can with a downloaded media file.

1 Use Case: Netflix

An example of a cloud-based streaming OTT service provider is Netflix. Netflix uses a cloud
media player and cloud-based media server for cloud-based video streaming, cloud video
processing, cloud-based video encoding, cloud-based video transcoding, cloud media analysis,
and more. Some other popular examples of cloud video streaming services include Hulu and Y
Use Case: Spotify
An example of a cloud-based audio streaming service is Spotify, which allows you to stream
music over the internet via an audio cloud player. Spotify also allows users to create saved
playlists, store songs, and listen in offline mode.

ouTube.

Applications of Cloud Computing in Satellite Image Processing

Satellite images are images of the earth collected through satellites. These images are used for
weather forecasting, navigation, cartography, and more. Since satellites produce a large
amount of image data, scientists and researchers need advanced image analysis tools and
powerful computing resources to process these images, which the image processing cloud can
provide.

67. Google Drive: This cloud storage service allows users to store files
online and access them from any device. It’s a prime example of cloud-
based applications that have become essential for both personal and
professional use.
68. Dropbox: Another cloud storage solution, Dropbox offers similar
functionalities to Google Drive but with a focus on seamless file
synchronization across devices.
69. Zoom: This video conferencing service became a household name
during the pandemic, and it operates entirely in the cloud, offering scalable
solutions for both personal and business use.
70. Microsoft Office 365: This cloud-based version of Microsoft’s popular
Office suite allows for real-time collaboration on documents,
spreadsheets, and presentations.
71. Amazon Web Services (AWS): This comprehensive cloud services
platform offers a range of computing power, database storage, and
content delivery solutions, among other functionalities

17 Differentiate between Public cloud and Private cloud.

Below is a table of differences between Public Cloud and Private Cloud

is as follows:

Public Cloud Private Cloud

Cloud Computing
infrastructure is shared with
Cloud Computing infrastructure is shared with the
private organizations by
public by service providers over the internet. It
service providers over the
supports multiple customers i.e, enterprises.
internet. It supports one
enterprise.
Multi-Tenancy i.e, Data of many enterprises are
stored in a shared environment but are isolated. Single Tenancy i.e, Data of a
Data is shared as per rule, permission, and single enterprise is stored.
security.

Cloud service provider provides all the possible

Specific services and hardware
services and hardware as the user-base is the
as per the need of the
world. Different people and organizations may
enterprise are available in a
need different services and hardware. Services
private cloud.
provided must be versatile.

It is hosted at the Service

It is hosted at the Service Provider site.
Provider site or enterprise.

It only supports connectivity

It is connected to the public internet.
over the private network.

Scalability is limited, and

Scalability is very high, and reliability is moderate.
reliability is very high.

Cloud service provider manages the cloud and Managed and used by a single
customers use them. enterprise.

It is costlier than the public

It is cheaper than the private cloud.
cloud.

Security matters and dependent on the service

It gives a high class of security.
provider.

Performance is low to medium. Performance is high.

It has shared servers. It has dedicated servers.

18 What is the difference between symmetric and asymmetric multiprocessing?

S Asymmetric Multiprocessing Symmetric

. Multiprocessing
N
o
.

In symmetric
1 In asymmetric multiprocessing, the processors multiprocessing, all the
. are not treated equally. processors are treated
equally.

Tasks of the operating

2 Tasks of the operating system are done by
system are done
. master processor.
individual processor.

All processors
3 No Communication between Processors as they communicate with
. are controlled by the master processor. another processor by a
shared memory.

In symmetric
4 In asymmetric multiprocessing, process multiprocessing, the
. scheduling approach used is master-slave. process is taken from the
ready queue.

Symmetric
5 Asymmetric multiprocessing systems are
multiprocessing systems
. cheaper.
are costlier.
 Symmetric
6 Asymmetric multiprocessing systems are easier
multiprocessing systems
. to design.
are complex to design.

7 The architecture of each

All processors can exhibit different architecture.
. processor is the same.

It is complex as
synchronization is
8 It is simple as here the master processor has required of the
. access to the data, etc. processors in order to
maintain the load
balance.

In case a master processor malfunctions then

In case of processor
slave processor continues the execution which is
9 failure, there is reduction
turned to master processor. When a slave
. in the system’s
processor fails then other processors take over
computing capacity.
the task.

1
It is suitable for homogeneous or heterogeneous It is suitable for
0
cores. homogeneous cores.
.

19 Describe the key advantages of fog/edge computing over traditional cloud computing.

Feature Cloud Computing Fog Computing

 Cloud computing has high
Fog computing has low
Latency latency compared to fog
latency
computing

Cloud Computing does not

Fog Computing reduces
provide any reduction in
Capacity the amount of data sent
data while sending or
to cloud computing.
transforming data

Response time of the Response time of the

Responsiveness
system is low. system is high.

Cloud computing has less

Fog computing has high
Security security compared to Fog
Security.
Computing

Access speed is high High even more

Speed depending on the VM compared to Cloud
connectivity. Computing.

Multiple Data sources

Multiple data sources can be
Data Integration and devices can be
integrated.
integrated.

In cloud computing mobility Mobility is supported in

Mobility
is Limited. fog computing.

Location Partially Supported in Cloud Supported in fog

Awareness computing. computing.
 Fog computing has
Number of Server Cloud computing has Few
Large number of server
Nodes number of server nodes.
nodes.

Geographical It is decentralized and

It is centralized.
Distribution distributed.

Cloud Computing Edge Computing

On the other hand, it is a highly distributed

Cloud computing is centralised servers
and global computing infrastructure closer
stored in faraway, large-scale data centres.
to the devices and users.

Process data on site quickly and analyze

It processes data on a central cloud server
data in real-time. It does not focus on storing
far from the data sources.
data.

It is suited for applications that are not time- It is ideal for low latency, where every
sensitive. millisecond counts.

Cloud computing gives improved and

As it processes in the device, it has lower
innovative processing capabilities and
processing power and storage capacity.
storage capacity.
 It is suitable for in-depth and long-term
It is better for fast and real-time analysis.
analysis.

It needs internet connectivity. It can work without internet connectivity.

An expensive and intensive operational Automated scalability with zero-touch

activity for the company. provisioning

The connectivity, data movement, Fewer latency and bandwidth requirements

bandwidth, and latency cost are relatively increased performance and lower
high. operational expenses.

20 Explain the concept of latency reduction and its importance in edge computing.

Latency and Edge Computing: Why is it important?

SEPTEMBER 20, 2022
For many years we have been in a race to increase the speed of our connections. Ever
since those modems that treated us to a symphony of beeps, the end of which we waited
anxiously to see the speed at which we were connected finally confirmed, higher
speeds have always been the goal to be achieved.
The incorporation of new technologies, such as ADSL, fibre optics, 3G or 4G mobile
communications, private MPLS networks, has gradually brought higher and higher speeds.
And in many cases, the commercial claim has been to promise more kilobits, more
megabits in a technical and commercial race so that we can consume new services. For
example, mobile internet consumption did not become widespread until the arrival of 3G.
The case of HD or UHD video is unthinkable without these higher bandwidth values.
But bandwidth is not the only parameter that is important when consuming digital services.
This is where latency comes in.
Latency, the great protagonist

Latency basically measures the time that elapses in the communication between the
client initiating the communication and the time it takes to receive the response. The
order of magnitude in which we move is milliseconds.
Latency, even if it has not been very visible, has always been there and some of its
consequences are sometimes perceptible. When transatlantic communications were
carried out via satellites in geostationary orbit, more than 35,000 km above the earth's
surface, the time taken for the signal to travel from the earth station to the satellite and
back down to another earth station added enough delay to complicate communication
between people, with timeouts, collisions between speakers, etc. Here the latency is in the
order of hundreds of milliseconds.
Another example is in data centres when replicating data between two locations. There are
hardware solutions that do not commit write operations to disk until the remote system
has committed the equivalent write to the secondary system to ensure that the copy has
been performed correctly. This is why many vendors have at least two data centres in the
same metropolitan area to offer synchronous replication solutions.
In contrast, there are many other situations where latency is not relevant, because
communications response times are much shorter than the processing time, or the
responsiveness of a human being. For example, a large part of most web query
applications are not particularly sensitive to latency.
In mobile communications, the advent of 5G has been a major departure from previous
generations. While this technology promises a growth in speed, it has put latency at
the centre. On the one hand, to achieve much lower values, and on the other, to ensure
stable values, with little variation and very controlled. But this is not only happening in
mobile communications: fibre networks also allow for lower and more stable latency
values.
And it is latency that really puts Edge Computing at its best. Edge means in simplified
terms that we are bringing computing capabilities to the edge. To the edge of the network.
Why bring this compute capacity to the edge of the network?

The main advantage is to improve the latency perceived by the consumer of this capacity. If
instead of the hundreds or thousands of kilometres that the signal would have to travel to
reach a traditional Data Centre, it only must travel a very short distance of a few
kilometres, the latency is reduced to very low milliseconds.
But is it really worth the effort to deploy multiple nodes to bring computing closer to end
users? For some use cases, it certainly is. And this is where one of the most important
lines of work begins: identifying the use cases that really need a very low latency value.
In this line, at Telefónica we have been working for some time now with our customers and
partners to identify these use cases that, only in an Edge Computing infrastructure, could
happen. Many of them are the result of the most advanced lines of research and are still in
a very preliminary stage. We can mention some of them, such as augmented reality,
Smart Industry, image recognition in real time, gaming, drone management, etc.
For this reason, Next Generation Networks (5G and Fibre) combined with Edge
Computing are the winning option to optimally develop solutions that are sensitive to
latency.

21 Describe the concept of hybrid cloud-edge deployments and their benefits.

What is the hybrid cloud architecture?

Individually managing public and private cloud resources is preferable to uniformly

managing cloud environments because it reduces the likelihood of process redundancy.
By limiting the exposure of private data to the public cloud, a hybrid cloud architecture can
eliminate many security risks. A hybrid cloud deployment infrastructure typically consists
of a public infrastructure as a service (IaaS) platform, a private cloud or data centre, and
network access. Many hybrid cloud deployment models make use of both local area
networks (LAN) and wide area networks (WAN).

What is the purpose of a hybrid cloud?

Hybrid clouds can also be used to create multi-cloud environments, giving businesses
more options for where they want their data stored and how they want it accessed. By
allowing businesses to back up data in both public and private clouds, a hybrid cloud
deployment environment can be beneficial for disaster recovery.

What are the benefits of hybrid cloud deployment?

Governance of applications that works: A hybrid cloud method allows you to choose where
your application will run and where hybrid computing will take place (Kaviani, Wohlstadter
and Lea, 2014). This can assist to increase privacy while also ensuring compliance for your
regulated apps.

Enhanced speed and decreased latency: A hybrid cloud solution might sometimes assist
dispersed programmes in faraway regions. Hybrid computing occurs near the end
consumers for applications with low latency needs.
Flexible operations: Hybrid computing allows you to function in an environment that is
ideal for you. You may, for example, construct portable apps and simply migrate between
public and private clouds by creating using containers.

Better ROI: You may increase your cloud computing capacity without raising your data
centre costs by adding a public cloud provider to your existing on-premises architecture.

Benefits of hybrid cloud computing

• Flexibility and agility: By far the most important benefit of a properly

architected hybrid cloud is increased business agility. You have ready
access to resources to support new applications, accommodate
development and testing projects, or to quickly address unanticipated
needs. In an ideal world, workloads can be moved quickly between on-
premises and cloud locations, and leverage resources from multiple
locations. (Unfortunately, API and architectural differences between
different cloud providers make this challenging).
• Elasticity: Many industries experience big variations in resource
demand. One clear example is retail, where activity spikes before the
December holidays. A hybrid cloud model gives you the ability to
respond elastically to resource demands. In a similar vein, many
individual applications have big fluctuations in resource demand. Such
applications need to run in an environment where they can grab
resources when they are needed and release them when they are not,
reducing overall expenses.
• Self-service: A well-designed hybrid cloud can allow IT users - such as
developers and line-of-business managers - to gain access to IT
infrastructure and services through a self-service portal. This not only
gives them immediate access to services, it reduces the burden on IT
since it no longer has to serve as the middleman.
• Faster delivery of new products and services: Hybrid cloud
computing can help you deliver new products and services more
quickly by eliminating barriers that slow your business and
development teams down. New digital services become easier to
create and deploy, and developers and test engineers can better access
the resources they need when they need them.
 • Cost control: A hybrid cloud model lets you run every application as
efficiently as possible, while adopting a pay-as-you-go model that
reduces your capital investments in infrastructure and datacenters.
Designing datacenters to accommodate peak loads only to have
infrastructure sitting idle much of the time is a poor choice versus
adding cloud resources when needed to accommodate peak periods.
• Avoidance of lock-in: If you adopt a cloud-only model, it’s almost
impossible to avoid getting locked into one or two cloud vendors. It can
be cost-prohibitive to get your data out of the cloud, so you need to
exercise caution before you move data from datacenters into the cloud.
• Access to the latest technology: In today’s competitive business
environment, enterprises cannot afford to find themselves in a situation
where they are unable to gain immediate access to technologies that
could provide a business advantage. One example of this is AI. The large
public clouds are innovating rapidly and offering competing services. A
hybrid cloud model gives you the flexibility to use the best technology
to seize opportunities.

22 What does the acronym SaaS mean? How does it relate to cloud computing?

23 Describe the applications of high performance and high throughput systems.

High-performance computing refers to the capacity of a system to process an

enormous amount of data and run complex models rapidly. HPC programs, therefore,
require a huge compute power to process terabytes, petabytes, or even zettabytes of
data in real-time.

Thus, HPC relies on the principle of computing, networking, and data storage.

That said, here are some notable applications of high-performance technology that
have influenced the world.
1. Predictive Cardiovascular Health

No doubt, heart failure is life-threatening. And perhaps one of the challenges faced
while trying to understand its mechanisms is the differences in the anatomical
response of the heart to various conditions. Consequently, it becomes difficult to
predict its behavior in real-time.

Thankfully, some HPC-based solutions are coming up.

For instance, IBM, along with a defense laboratory, historically simulated the
homeostatic mechanisms of the human heart on a molecular level using one of the
world's fastest supercomputers, Sequoia, in 2012.

2. Understanding the Viral Genome

lthough the viral genome could be sequenced, understanding its invasive pathology in
real-time is difficult as it mutates. But thanks to high-performance computing, ground-
breaking simulations of these mechanisms are evolving. And it's helping decision-
makers.

A more recent example of a high-performance computing application, in this case, is

CSIRO's exploration of the COVID-19 complete genome, which they simulated on a
CSIRO supercomputer in early 2020.

The CSIRO Data61 team successfully simulated the binding mechanism of COVID-19 to
the human ACE2 receptor.

COVID-19 is an actively mutating virus. But a simulation of its mechanism of action

goes a long way to help researchers understand most of its evolving behaviors. Such a
breakthrough doesn't only help scientists to know where a vaccine should target on a
COVID-19 viral genome. But it's also a template for the development of a predictive
behavioral pattern for some of the most notorious infectious agents ever known.
3. Autonomous Driving Technology

The algorithm required to operate a driverless vehicle is complicated, and it has to

process many complex calculations in real-time. Essentially, an autonomous truck or
car can't afford a lag in any of its functionalities. Thus, they need a highly reliable
computing speed to run.

Accident simulations, obstacle detection, rapid and accurate response to senses are the
key characteristics of driverless vehicles to navigate smartly and safely.

4. Augmented Reality

With evolving technologies and the advancements in cloud computing, augmented

reality, no doubt, will turn fantasies into realism.

Augmented reality can help you choose and test the products that you buy. And it feels
like you're seeing them physically. AR makes it possible to test how products like
clothes and accessories look on you before buying them.

It's even emerging in military operations. An example is Microsoft's Integrated Visual

Augmentation System (IVAS), which helps soldiers see through their entire coordinate in
real-time.

5. NASA's Solar Weather Monitoring

NASA, in 2019, leveraged high-performance computing to remotely monitor the extreme

ultraviolet irradiating nature of the sun that causes solar flares, the disruptor of solar
weather.

The weather condition of the solar system influences the launching of spacecraft,
satellites, and solar stations. Therefore, to sustain human exploration in space and
protect the earth, it's necessary to track the changes in solar weather over time.

And of course, a distortion in solar weather can equally affect the earth's transmitting
utilities, especially those that depend on the solar system in one way or another.
6. Aircraft Production and Aerodynamics

High-performance computing is also applicable to manufacturing. Many industries now

use this technology to model and predict how undiscovered materials behave. Thus, it
creates a gateway to the creation of new industrial materials.

Computational fluid dynamics is one of the areas where HPC has found its purpose.
The simulation of wind turbines, aviation parts, and the prediction of the strength of
materials has led to the invention of some life-changing products.

AAI, for instance, is an aerospace defense technology organization that models various
aero parts based on computational fluid dynamics. AAI's model, however, focuses on
developing HPC-optimized systems for making safer aircraft.

High-throughput screening in drug discovery

Drugs targeting the central nervous system (CNS) have a notoriously high failure
rate – for clinical trials of neurodegenerative disorders, such as Alzheimer's disease,
this failure rate can be > 99%.7 In addition, preclinical testing of these drugs is still
largely dependent on in vivo screening that is expensive and time-consuming.
Therefore, there has been considerable focus on developing in vitro model systems
recapitulating the blood-brain barrier (BBB) to assess drug delivery to the brain.
These cell culture systems have significantly reduced the amount of time and
money required to conduct drug screening and have helped to address ethical
concerns surrounding animal testing. In recent years, high-throughput technologies
have further enabled these assays to meet the demand of current pharmacological
development speeds.

High-throughput technologies for genomics research

High-throughput sequencing has greatly assisted rapid whole-genome sequencing
during infectious disease outbreaks – such as the COVID-19 pandemic – and
tracking antimicrobial resistance.11,12 However, even though considerable advances
have been made in sequencing, the upstream techniques used to prepare samples
for sequencing have lagged behind.

Sample preparation presents a bottleneck for high-throughput sequencing and has

implications for its use in molecular diagnostics. For example, a study in the United
Kingdom found that the turnaround times for routine cancer diagnosis using
genomic analysis can be as long as six days in all-manual laboratories. While
aspects of the sample preparation workflow have been successfully automated,
such as nucleic acid extraction, preparing reagents and plates continues to be
performed manually. Automating liquid handling has been identified as a cost-
effective way of improving the performance of high-throughput laboratories. The
cost of laboratory personnel as part of the genome sequencing workflow can be
significantly reduced from 15% of the total cost in conventional laboratories to just
4% when automated sample preparation steps are introduced. This reduces the
time spent by highly skilled life scientists pipetting liquids allowing them to refocus
their attention on data analysis.

High-throughput tumor profiling

High-throughput technologies have allowed researchers the opportunity to design

targeted therapies for diseases that have a high degree of heterogeneity and that
would otherwise be treated uniformly. Targeted therapies work by targeting
specific drivers of disease and are based on an awareness of differences in disease
between patients. In tailoring treatments to a particular disease profile, the safety
and efficacy of drugs can be enhanced. One field benefiting greatly from a targeted
therapeutic approach is oncology. High-throughput technologies enable clinicians
to gain a clearer and more comprehensive understanding of molecular
heterogeneity between and within individuals with cancer. For example, high-
throughput tumor profiling that incorporates genomics and transcriptomics can be
used to identify heterogeneity in markers that can influence prognosis, drug
resistance and sensitivity as well as adverse effects. Understanding these
differences can then be used to tailor treatments specific to the patient’s
requirements. High-throughput tumor profiling can go one step further by allowing
researchers the opportunity to understand the cellular heterogeneity that exists
inside tumors. Such intratumor heterogeneity has been detected spatially and
temporally.14 These findings highlight the importance of individualized treatments
for cancer patients with heterogeneous tumors and the need for high-throughput
technologies to facilitate such therapies.

While understanding the cancer heterogeneity can help design individualized

treatments, there are a limited number of cancers where this approach is
applicable. One reason is that very few gene mutation/drug pairs have been
established. Therefore, to expand personalized medicine, drugs need to be
evaluated using primary tumor tissue. Unfortunately, using patient-derived
xenografts can be extremely costly, time-consuming to prepare and only allow for a
limited number of drugs to be assessed.

Researchers at the University of California, Los Angeles, led by principal investigator

Assistant Prof. Alice Soragni, are experimenting with three-dimensional spheroids
and organoids to overcome these challenges. The advantage of organoids is that
they can be readily established from primary cancers, thus making the direct
assessment of drugs possible. Assays involving these structures can also be easily
automated for high throughput. In one example, the researchers screened a library
of 240 kinase inhibitor compounds to establish clinically actionable drug
sensitivities for tumors15 obtained from surgeries. When asked how far this
platform has progressed Soragni said, “we have definitely expanded our programs
which are for now research-related16*… we are in the initial phases of clinical
translation, and are working on designing a clinical trial to confirm if we can predict
therapeutic outcomes with our system… it is a step-by-step process.”

In addition to pursuing clinical trials to validate the platform, the lab is continually
developing the platform. In a recent publication, high-speed live cell
interferometry17* was built into the platform.
Soragni elaborated on this, “We’ve added a couple of different innovations to the
platform, one is bioprinting which we really think is going to be a game-changer for
us. It removes all manual manipulation that you can think of [from the platform].”
The second, in collaboration with the Teitell Lab at UCLA, introduces an alternative
way to measure how the organoids are responding to therapies – using high-speed
live cell interferometry. Soragni highlighted that, “it is non-invasive and label-free,
so you can measure [the cells] over and over again … and we believe it has the
potential to be a really sensitive approach to detect how organoids react to
therapy.” High-throughput drug screening using patient-derived patient organoids
has the potential to benefit individual patients/ patient groups by rapidly identifying
promising novel compounds or existing drugs that can be repurposed – multiple
drugs within classes can be assessed to try to determine the most promising
treatments warranting further optimization – or selection for clinical trials.15

24 List few drawbacks of grid computing.

Disadvantages of Grid Computing:

72. The software of the grid is still in the involution stage.

73. A super-fast interconnect between computer resources is the need of
the hour.
74. Licensing across many servers may make it prohibitive for some
applications.
75. Many groups are reluctant with sharing resources.
76. Trouble in the control node can come to halt in the whole network.

25

Outline the similarities and differences between distributed computing, grid computing

and cloud computing.

26 Discuss the cloud computing reference model.

27

a. Describe the basic component of an IaaS-based solution for cloud computing?

b. Provide some examples of IaaS implementation.

1. Cherry Servers
Unrelated to the brand of mechanical keyboard switches of the same name,
Cherry Servers focuses on the server infrastructure side of things. Based in
Siauliai, Lithuania, Cherry Servers has a solid 19-year track record in helping
clients build their servers.

When we say servers, it isn’t just virtual servers either. Here you can work with
multiple forms of server setups; it depends on your needs. If you just need a slice,
there are virtual server slots to consider. If you need more, the sky is virtually the
limit.

2. Microsoft Azure
Microsoft Azure is a name that comes up often no matter whether you’re
thinking about SaaS, IaaS, or Paas. The company is justifiably proud of Azure
since it is one of the dominant forces in all three categories.

In IaaS, customers make use of Azure to deploy various configurations of

managed infrastructure. Because of the very versatile nature of these services,
Azure IaaS is suitable for a wide range of business needs.

3. Amazon Web Services

Where there is Cloud, Amazon isn’t far away and the company is a top competitor
for Microsoft’s Azure. The brand is highly identifiable with the public Cloud and
IaaS in particular. Its offerings do cover the entire Cloud spectrum.

Amazon Web Services (AWS) is easy to use and has been known to include a
massive array of tools. Best of all, it is virtually limitless yet gives customers the
advantage of flexibility and affordability, very important elements as businesses
scale upwards.

5. Google Cloud Infrastructure

Google has always been known as an innovative company and its Cloud
Infrastructure business is built in the same mould. Using a variation of
technologies, Google aims to build security through depth in layers.

The company owns one of the largest network backbones around, seamlessly
connecting their massive spread of data centers around the world. Essentially, it has
its own Cloud on a global scale – something it is justifiably proud of.

Oracle Cloud Infrastructure

Oracle Cloud Infrastructure (OCI) is the IaaS arm of its Cloud business. Through
this, it provides powerful compute (and other infrastructure) related services.
The scale of OCI enables it to meet the demands of large-scale organizations with
ease.

Their IaaS structure enables Oracle to deliver on-demand scalability for

enterprise workloads. This is done through the combination of their other
autonomous services. Wrapping round it all is a security layer that tightly
integrates where needed.

28

Describe how cloud computing technologies can be applied to support remote ECG

monitoring?

29

Describe some examples of CRM and ERP implementation based on cloud computing

Technologies.
What is CRM?
CRM stands for Customer Relationship Management and is a software that is
hosted in cloud so that the users can access the information using internet.
CRM software provides high level of security and scalability to its users and
can be easily used on mobile phones to access the data.
Now a days, many business vendors and service providers are using these
CRM software to manage the resources so that the user can access them via
internet. Moving the business computation from desktop to the cloud is
proving a beneficial step in both the IT and Non-IT fields. Some of the major
CRM vendors include Oracle Siebel, Mothernode CRM, Microsoft Dynamics
CRM, Infor CRM, SAGE CRM, NetSuite CRM.

What is ERP?
ERP is an abbreviation for Enterprise Resource Planning and is a software
similar to CRM that is hosted on cloud servers which helps the enterprises to
manage and manipulate their business data as per their needs and user
requirements. ERP software follows pay per use methodologies of payment,
that is at the end of the month, the enterprise pay the amount as per the
cloud resources utilized by them. There are various ERP vendors available
like Oracle, SAP, Epicor, SAGE, Microsoft Dynamics, Lawson Softwares and
many more.
30

a. What is an architectural style?

An architecture style is a family of architectures that share certain characteristics. For

example, N-tier is a common architecture style. More recently, microservice
architectures have started to gain favor. Architecture styles don't require the use of
particular technologies, but some technologies are well-suited for certain architectures.
For example, containers are a natural fit for microservices.

We have identified a set of architecture styles that are commonly found in cloud
applications. The article for each style includes:
 • A description and logical diagram of the style.
• Recommendations for when to choose this style.
• Benefits, challenges, and best practices.
• A recommended deployment using relevant Azure services.

b. What is its role in the context of a distributed system?

Architecture Styles in Distributed Systems

Last Updated : 30 Jan, 2023
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Distributed systems are a set of autonomous computers that appears to be a
single coherent system to its users from outside. There are actually two different
types of systems that exist in prospective of computers:

Centralized System :

• A centralized system consists of a single machine.

• All calculations are done by a particular computer.
• Its performance is low as the workload is not divided.
• There is also no machine present in backup if the original computer system
fails.

Distributed Systems :

• A distributed system consists of multiple machines.

• All computation work is divided among the different systems.
• Its performance is high as the workload is divided among different computers
to efficiently use their capacity.
• There are systems present in backup, so if the main system fails then work will
not stop.
A distributed system contains multiple nodes that are physically separate but
mixed together using the communication networks.

Architecture Styles:
To show different arrangement styles among computers Architecture styles are
proposed.

1. Layered Architecture:

In Layered architecture, different components are organised in layers. Each layer

communicates with its adjacent layer by sending requests and getting responses.
The layered architecture separates components into units. It is an efficient way of
communication. Any layer can not directly communicate with another layer. A
layer can only communicate with its neighbouring layer and then the next layer
transfers information to another layer and so on the process goes on.
In some cases, layered architecture is in cross-layer coordination. In a cross-layer,
any adjacent layer can be skipped until it fulfils the request and provides better
performance results. Request flow from top to bottom(downwards) and response
flow from bottom to top(upwards). The advantage of layered architecture is that
each layer can be modified independently without affecting the whole system.
This type of architecture is used in Open System Interconnection (OSI) model.
To the layers on top, the layers at the bottom offer a service. While the response
is transmitted from bottom to top, the request is sent from top to bottom. This
method has the advantage that calls always follow a predetermined path and that
each layer is simple to replace or modify without affecting the architecture as a
whole.

2. Object-Oriented Architecture:

In this type of architecture, components are treated as objects which convey

information to each other. Object-Oriented Architecture contains an
arrangement of loosely coupled objects. Objects can interact with each other
through method calls. Objects are connected to each other through the
Remote Procedure Call (RPC) mechanism or Remote Method Invocation (RMI)
mechanism. Web Services and REST API are examples of object-oriented
architecture. Invocations of methods are how objects communicate with one
another. Typically, these are referred to as Remote Procedure Calls (RPC).
REST API Calls, Web Services, and Java RMI are a few well-known examples.
These characteristics apply to this.

3. Data Centered Architecture:

Data Centered Architecture is a type of architecture in which a common data

space is present at the centre. It contains all the required data in one place a
shared data space. All the components are connected to this data space and
they follow publish/subscribe type of communication. It has a central data
repository at the centre. Required data is then delivered to the components.
Distributed file systems, producer-consumer systems, and web-based data
services are a few well-known examples.

For example Producer-Consumer system. The producer produces data in

common data space and consumers request data.
4. Event-Based Architecture:

Event-Based Architecture is almost similar to Data centered architecture just

the difference is that in this architecture events are present instead of data.
Events are present at the centre in the Event bus and delivered to the required
component whenever needed. In this architecture, the entire communication is
done through events. When an event occurs, the system, as well as the
receiver, get notified. Data, URLs etc are transmitted through events. The
components of this system are loosely coupled that’s why it is easy to add,
remove and modify them. Heterogeneous components can communicate
through the bus. One significant benefit is that these heterogeneous
components can communicate with the bus using any protocol. However, a
specific bus or an ESB has the ability to handle any kind of incoming request
and respond appropriately.
31 Discuss the reference model of full virtualization.

32

a. What are Dropbox and iCloud?

b. Which kinds of problems do they solve by using cloud technologies?

33

Explain how edge computing is reshaping industrial platforms in the era of Industry 4.0.

Discuss the role of edge computing in enhancing real-time data processing, reducing

latency, and improving operational efficiency. Provide examples of industries or

applications where edge computing has demonstrated significant benefits.

34

Discuss the challenges and opportunities associated with deploying edge computing
solutions in IoT (Internet of Things) environments. Explore how edge computing

addresses issues such as latency, bandwidth constraints, and data privacy/security in IoT

deployments. Provide real-world examples of edge computing applications in IoT-

enabled systems.

35

How does cloud computing leverage distributed computing principles to provide

scalable and resilient services? Explain with examples of distributed systems used in

cloud platforms like AWS, Azure, or Google Cloud

36

Answer Briefly:

a. Difference between elasticity and scalability in cloud computing.

b. Service oriented Architecture (SOA)

c. Virtual Machine

37 Compare Public, Private, Community and Hybrid Clouds

38

Suppose you are designing Virtual Data Centre. What key elements you need? Draw the

Block Diagram for it.

39

What phases of cloud service life cycle are required to provide cloud services in your

institute? Justify your answer.

40

Which IoT technologies can be used for home automation? Relate home automation with
cloud computing.

41

Differentiate between Block level storage virtualization and File level storage

Virtualization. (Any six points)

42

It is said, ‘cloud computing can save money’.

a. What is your view?

b. Can you name some open source cloud computing platform databases? Explain

any one database in detail.

43

What are the various components of NIST Cloud computing