CHAPTER # 14 Calyx
REPRODUCTION It is the outermost whorl.
It is usually green in color.
Production of individuals of same species. Its individual units are called sepals.
Sepals protect inner whorls at bud stage.
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS
Corolla
Sexual reproduction involves production of
gametes and their fusion. It is the next inner whorl.
It is brightly colored.
Fusion of gametes is known as fertilization. Its individual units are petals.
Mosses and ferns have motile sperms. Motile Petals attract bees, birds etc.
sperms can swim to egg cells.
Seed plants include gymnosperms and
Reproductive whorls
angiosperms which have special method for
carrying their sperms to egg cells.
Mosses and ferns require water as medium Androecium
while seed plants don't require water as a
medium. It's male reproductive part in plant.
Sporophyte generation is diploid and Its unit is stamen.
produces spores. Each stamen has a thread like filament at free
Gametophyte generation is haploid and end of which anther is attached.
produces gametes. Anther contains pollen sacs in which haploid
The phenomena in which both generations microspores are produced through meiosis.
alternate with each other are called Each microspore germinates in male
alternation of generation. gametophyte generation.
In most plants sporophyte generation is During it, the nucleus of microspore undergo
dominant. It means it is big in size and is mitosis and produces two nuclei i.e.,
independent. generative nucleus and tube nucleus.
The generative nucleus undergoes repeated
mitosis and produces two sperms.
So, a germinated microspore has a tube
nucleus and two sperms.
All these structures are the male
gametophyte generation of plant.
Gynoecium
It is the female reproductive part of plant.
Its unit is carpel.
Each carpel is made up of basel ovary, middle
style and upper stigma.
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN FLOWERING
Inside ovary there are one to more ovules are
PLANTS present.
Inside each ovule one haploid macrospore is
Parent plant is diploid sporophyte generation and
produced through meiosis.
flower is the reproductive structure in this generation. Macrospore is germinated in female
Flower components are arranged in form of whorls. gametophyte generation.
There are total 4 whorls in a flower. The outer 2 During it the nucleus of macrospore
whorls are non-reproductive whorls while the inner 2 undergoes mitosis and produces an egg cell
whorls are reproductive whorls. and associated structure (fusion nucleus).
Egg cell and associated structure are female
Non-reproductive whorls gametophyte generation of plant.
Stigma Pinhead shape with no
branches
stamens and stigmas Enclosed in ring of
petals
Feature Wind pollinated flowers
Size Generally small
Color Petals green or dull in
color
Nectar Don't produce nectar
Floral arrangement Flower hang down for
When pollen grains mature they are transferred to easy shaking
stigma. It is called pollination. Pollen grains Large number
produced/light with
smooth surface
Stigma Feathery branches for
catching pollen
stamens and stigmas Hang out of ring of
petals
DEVELOPMENT AND STRUCTURE OF SEED
In some plants the ovaries become fruit without
fertilization in their ovules. This process is known as
parthenocarpy.
After fertilization in female gametophyte the
zygote divides repeatedly and develops into an
embryo. At this stage, ovule becomes the seed. The
process of sexual reproduction in seed plants
completes with the formation of seed.
POLLINATION
The angiosperm seed consists of three distinct
Transfer of pollen grains from anther to parts:
Embryo formed from zygote
stigma of the flower
Endosperm tissue formed from endosperm
nucleus
Pollination is of two types:
Self pollination is defined as the transfer of The seed coat formed from the wall of ovule
(integument).
pollen grains from the anther to the stigma of
Seed coat develops from integument originally
the same flower or the flower of the same
surrounding the ovule. The seed coat protects the
plant.
Cross pollination is defined as the transfer of seed from mechanical injury and from drying out. It
can be a paper thin layer (peanut) or hard and thick
pollen grains from the anther of flower of one
(coconut). There is a scar on seed coat, called Hilum.
plant to the stigma of flower of another plant of
It is where the seed is attached to ovary wall. At one
the same species.
end of Hilum there is microphyle. This is the same
opening through which the pollen tube entered the
Feature Insect pollinated flowers
ovule. Seed uses it for the absorption of water.
Size Generally large
Embryo is actually an immature plant. It consists of
Color Petals brightly colored
radical, plumule and 1 or 2 cotyledons (seed leaves).
Nectar Produce nectar
The radical develop into new root while the plumule
Floral arrangement Flower face upward
develops into new shoot. The embryonic stem below
Pollen grains Small number
the point of attachment of cotyledon(s) is known as
produced/heavy and
sticky hypocotyl. The embryonic stem above the point of
attachment is known as epicotyl. Within seed there is
store of food for seedling that will grow from embryo. Seed requires both external and internal conditions
In angiosperm the stored food is derive from for the germination of seed. Internal conditions
endosperm tissue. This tissue is rich in starch, oil and include live embryo and sufficient food storage. The
protein. In many seeds the food of endosperm is most important external condition includes water,
absorbed and stored by cotyledons. oxygen and favourable temperature.
GERMINATION OF SEED Water: Seeds of most plants have low water content
and germination cannot occur until the seed coat or
For the germination of seed they must arrive at a other tissues have imbibed water. This absorbed
suitable place and remain there at a time favourable water is used in digestion of food and helps in the
for germination and growth. elongation of epicotyl and hypocotyl.
Seed germination is process in which a seed embryo
develops into seedling. During this the embryo soaks Oxygen: Oxygen is essential for respiration of cells of
up water which causes it to swell, splitting the seed embryo.
coat. Root is the first structure that emerges from
radical present in seed. The root grows rapidly and Temperature: Seeds differ greatly in their
absorbs water and nutrients from the soil. In the next temperature requirement for germination. The
phase, plumule develops into new shoot which optimum temperature for the germination of most
elongates and comes out of soil. seeds ranges from 25-30 degree Celsius.
On the basis of epicotyl and hypocotyl germination
there are two types of germination. In epigeal
germination, hypocotyl elongates and forms a hook REPRODUCTION IN
pulling the cotyledons above the ground. Beans, ANIMALS
cotton and papaya are the examples of seed that
germinate this way.
FORMATION OF GAMETES
In this process, diploid gamete mother cells
undergo meiosis and forms haploid gametes.
The male and female gametes are produced
in specialized organs called gonads.
Male gonads are called testes while female
gonads are called ovaries.
The production of sperm in testes is called
spermatogenesis and the production of egg
cells in ovaries is called oogenesis.
In hypogeal germination the epicotyl elongates and
forms the hook. In this type of germination the
cotyledon remains underground. Pea, maize, coconut
germinates this way.
CONDITION OF SEED GERMINATION
External fertilization: In external fertilization the egg
cells are fertilized outside of the body. It occurs
SPERMATOGENESIS mostly in aquatic plants. External fertilization occur
mostly in many invertebrates and first two groups of
vertebrates i.e. fishes and amphibians.
Internal fertilization: In internal fertilization, egg cells
are fertilized within the reproductive tract of female.
It occurs in reptiles, birds and mammals.
REPRODUCTION IN RABBIT
Male reproductive
system
Male reproductive system of a rabbit consists of a
pair of testes in which sperms are formed, a tube
which transfer sperms to external genitalia (male and
female reproductive organs) and glands that add
secretions to sperms
OOGENESIS
Scrotum Bag of skin in which testes are
located
Seminiferous tubule Mass of coiled tubes
in which sperms are formed
Collecting ducts When sperm cell mature
it accumulate in collecting duct of testes
Vas deferens Sperm duct
Epididymes Sperm cells move from
collecting duct to epididymes
Semen Material that contain sperms in
fluid
Seminal vesicles Give secretion which
provide nutrients to sperms
Prostate gland Give secretion which
neutralize the acidity of fluid
Cowper's gland Give secretion which
lubricate the ducts
FERTILIZATION Female reproductive
system
Fertilization has two mechanisms i.e. internal and
external fertilization. Female reproductive system of rabbit consists of
ovaries and associated structures. Ovaries are
situated in abdominal cavity just ventral to kidneys. A NACP stands for NATIONAL AIDS CONTROL
cluster of specialized cells called follicle surrounds and PROGRAMME
nourishes egg cell. Cervix is the portion of uterus Pakistan's Federal Ministry of Health established
which separates it from birth canal. NACP in 1987.
The main objective of this programme is to help
people in the prevention of HIV transmission, safe
blood transfusion and reduction of STDs.
NACP started services though TV radio channels
and print media in 2005 for improved prevention of
HIV by the general public. The objectives of this
activity were to:
Change public attitude for safe sexual activities.
Create demand for information on HIV and AIDS.
Improve attitude and behavior among health care
workers
Role of NGOs
According to the latest data by World Bank, at least
54 NGOs are working in Pakistan for HIV/AIDS. These
FERTILIZATION AND DEVELOPMENT IN RABBIT NGOs work on AIDS education and prevention for sex
workers and other high risk groups. NGOs serve as
Rabbits can breed throughout the year but male members of the provincial consortium on HIV/AIDS,
rabbit commonly sterile in summer months. The male which has been set up in all the provinces of Pakistan.
rabbit deposit there sperms in the vagina of female.
The sperms flow from cervix and uterus to fallopian
tube where they fertilize egg cells, released from
ovary. After fertilization the egg cells are carried to
uterus. By this time, the egg cell starts dividing and is
now called embryo. The embryo implanted in uterus
walls. A connection establishes between embryo and
uterus walls called placenta. Embryo develops into
new offspring in 30-32 days, after which it is born.
AIDS: A SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED DISESASE
The most serious and challenging health problem
faced by the world is AIDS. It is a sexually transmitted
disease. It is caused by HIV.
HIV (human Immuno
deficiency virus)
The virus destroys WBCs which result in loss of
resistance against infections.
Causes
It causes through the transfer of body fluids like
semen and blood.
Its major causes are unprotected sexual
activities, use of infected needles and
transfusion of infected blood.
Role of NACP