RADIOGRAPHIC EXPOSURE Focal Spot-Film Distance (FFD)

- Is what causes the image to form on the detector (x-ray film). - the distance between the x-ray tube and the film.
- Governed by mAs (milliampere-seconds) and kVp (kilovoltage - X-ray machines used in small animal practice have fixed FFD while
peak). portable x-rays used in large animals can be manually adjusted.
- increase FFD = decrease intensity of x-rays
FILM BLACKNESS & OPACITY

X-ray Film
- a special photographic film with a light-sensitive layer containing
silver halide crystals
- silver halide + X-rays/light = neutral silver deposits
- Unexposed crystals are washed away during fixing, leaving clear
areas

Milliampere-seconds (mAs)
- a measure of radiation produced (milliamperage) over a set amount
of time (seconds) via an x-ray tube.
- Increase tube current (mA) results in higher production of electrons,
thus, increasing the quantity of x-rays
- the time factor (s) measures the duration of electron production in
the tube, prescribes how long mA will last.

Inverse Square Law

Assume that when an equine limb is radiographed the FFD should be
40 inches, but instead the machine is held too close, at a distance of
32 inches. If we arbitrarily define the x-ray intensity at 40 inches as
100, what change in intensity will result from the error of having the
x-ray machine at 32 inches rather than at 40?

Assume that when an equine limb is radiographed the FFD should be

40 inches, but instead the machine is held too far, at a distance of 45
inches. If we arbitrarily define the x-ray intensity at 40 inches as 100,
Kilovoltage Peak (kVp) what change in intensity will result from the error of having the x-ray
- sets the voltage difference between the filament and the target machine at 45 inches rather than at 40?
- The tube voltage, in turn, determines the quantity and quality of the
photons generated. The inverse square relationship can also be used to compute a new
- increase kVp = increase depth of penetration mAs value if the FFD is changed intentionally.

Suppose an exposure of 100mAs is needed to make a radiograph of

the abdomen with a 40-inch FFD. When another x-ray machine is
used, the maximum FFD that can be obtained is 30 inches.
What milliamperage must be used to maintain the same X-ray
intensity as at a 40-inch FFD?

Suppose an exposure of 100mAs is needed to make a radiograph of

the abdomen with a 40-inch FFD. When another x-ray machine is
used, the minimum FFD that can be obtained is 45 inches.
What milliamperage must be used to maintain the same X-ray
intensity as at a 40-inch FFD?
FACTORS AFFECTING IMAGE DETAIL - Intensifying screens used to use calcium tungstate (CaWO4) as the
phosphor
Motion - Nowadays, rare-earth phosphors are used instead as they are more
- The biggest enemy of the practice. efficient at converting X-rays to light compared to CaWO4
- Leadsto image unsharpness.
- Exposure time must be very short to reduce its effects. Grids
- Flat, rectangular plate made of alternating strips of absorbent
Focal Spot Size material (like lead) and X-ray transparent material (such as fiber,
- The area of an anode surface that receives electrons from a cathode plastic, or aluminum).
and emits X-rays. - Removes most of the scattered radiation before it reaches and fogs
- Using a small focal spot enhances image detail but requires lower the film Used in patients/parts thicker than 10cm because they
mAs values to avoid filament overheating. scatter more x-rays
- Penumbra - refers to the blurred or |ess sharp edges of an image.
This edge unsharpness can reduce the clarity and detail of the
radiographic image.

- Bucky - the device in the X-ray table that causes the grid to move.
- This motion blurs the lines, making them invisible but it produces
noise or vibrations which may startle the patient.
- Grid Ratio - refers to the relationship between the height of the
Intensifying Screens lead strips (usually up to 5 mm) and the distance between them
- are thin rectangular sheets of fluorescent material placed inside the (typically 0.4 mm or less).
cassette, convert X-rays into visible light. - A higher grid ratio means the grid is more effective at absorbing
- X-ray film emulsion is actually more responsive to visible light than scattered radiation, but it also makes it harder for primary X-rays to
to X-rays. pass through
- When using intensifying screens, much lower mAs values are
required to create a radiograph compared to directly using X-rays to
expose the film.

- Focused Grids- are grids with lead strips angled towards the
periphery.
- These grids must be used within a specific range of focal spot-film
distances (FFDs) to ensure proper alignment between the incoming
X-ray beam and the radiolucent strips.
- Lateral Decentering – the significant loss of the primary X-ray
beams due to misaligning the beam’s center with the center

- Intensifying screens are characterized by speed and detail

parameters that are inversely related.
- Thicker fluorescent layer = increases the likelihood of an X-ray
being absorbed in the screen
- Thicker fluorescent layer = more spreading of light

Distortion
- Occurs when different parts of the object being radiographed are
magnified unequally.
- To reduce distortion, it's crucial to position patients consistently.
- Recognizing the usual distortion patterns helps in accurate
interpretation.

When to use thick or thin screens?

THICK THIN
o Reducing patient dose o High-detail imaging
o Imaging thick body parts o When dose is less of a
o Reducing motion blur concern
 RADIOGRAPHIC POSITIONING

OVERVIEW
- Positioning of small animal patients for radiography requires
knowledge of normal anatomy of the species and descriptive
directional terminology.
- Proper patient positioning usually requires that the patient be
immobilized, either using chemical restraint (administration of
sedatives and anesthetics) or mechanical restraint (use of radiology
positioning aids).
- Manual restraint should be avoided due to the risk of increased
exposure of the handler to ionizing radiation.

PATIENT PREPARATION
• The comfort and welfare of the patient should be considered
first at all times.
• The patient should be clean, dry, and free of any debris.
• Collars, harnesses, and leashes of any sort, especially those
made of metal, should be removed.
• Remove bandages, splints, and casts before imaging unless
there is a definite medical reason for leaving them in place.
FACTORS AFFECTING CONTRAST • For radiography of abdomen, the gastrointestinal tract must be
free of ingesta and fecal material.
Radiographic Contrast • Animals undergoing radiographic study must be properly
- The variation of gray shades in an image, resulting from different restrained.
X-ray absorption rates in various body parts. • Careful planning and preparation will reduce the total time that
- This contrast is influenced by the thickness, physical density, patients must remain in position on the x-ray table.
atomic number of tissues (Zeff), the energy of the X-ray beam
(kVp), and the number of x-rays emitted (mAs). DIRECT TERMINOLOGIES
The American College of Veterinary Radiology (ACVR)
Radiographic Technique determines standard nomenclature for radiographic projections.
- The ability of an X-ray to penetrate tissue depends on its energy. Projections - describes the penetration by the central ray of the
Choosing the right kVp setting is crucial for exposure factors. primary x-ray beam through the anatomical area of interest from
- If the kVp is too low, not enough X-rays penetrate the patient = the point of entrance to the point of exit.
underexposure
- If you use high mAs values, you need to use low kVp values to
prevent overexposure.

Dorsoventral (DV) Projection

When the primary x-ray beam enters the dorsal surface and exits the
ventral surface of the patient.
• High Contrast Radiographs - display predominantly black
and white areas with minimal shades of gray. Ventrodorsal (VD) Projection
• Low Contrast Radiographs - exhibit minimal black and white When the primary x-ray beam enters the ventral surface and exits the
areas but contain numerous shades of gray. dorsal surface of the patient

Film Fogging
- Fog reduces radiographic contrast. Using a grid helps prevent fog
caused by scattered radiation.
- Fogging can also occur due to pressure, high temperature, or
accidental light exposure, such as from a faulty darkroom safelight
or a poor light seal around the darkroom door. Left Lateral (LL) Projection
- Proper storage and handling of X-ray film can help reduce fogging. When the primary x-ray beam enters the right side of the patient and
exits to the left side. The left side of the patient is the one closest to
the cassette.

Right Lateral (RL) Projection

When the primary x-ray beam enters the left side of the patient and
exits to the right side. The right side of the patient is the one closest
to the cassette.

Craniocaudal (CrCd) Projection

When the primary x-ray beam enters from the cranial surface to the
caudal surface of a structure

Caudocranial (CdCr) Projection

When the primary x-ray beam enters from the caudal surface to the
cranial surface of a structure

Dorsopalmar (Dpa) Projection

When the primary x-ray beam enters from the dorsal direction to the
palmar surface of the forelimb.

Palmar dorsal (PaD) Projection

When the primary x-ray beam enters from the palmar surface of the
forelimb toward the dorsal surface of the body.

Dosoplantar (Dpl) Projection

When the primary x-ray beam enters from the dorsal direction to the
plantar surface of the hindlimb.

Plantardorsal (PID) Projection

When the primary x-ray beam enters from the plantar surface of the
forelimb toward the dorsal surface of the body

Oblique (O) Projection

When the primary x-ray beam enters at an angle other than 90
degrees to the anatomical area of interest.