GROUPMATES:

JEANNE ROSE AGUSTIN

LEVIE RITZ ABEL
JULIA MARIE JARLEGO
GERALDINE JOY NAKILA
JUDY ANN LABADLABAD

RELATED LITERATURE

1. (1.1) Reading comprehension

Reading comprehension is defined as reading by thinking and comprehending in order

to identify the text's underlying meaning (Serravallo, 2015, p. 43). The true goal of

reading, according to Armbruster (2000, p. 41), is comprehension. If readers merely

read the words without comprehending the purpose of the text, they are not truly

reading. (Nunan & Richards, 2015, p. 70) Students must use a variety of

comprehension methods in order to turn those tactics into skills that will enable them

to understand the text. The author believes that reading is a task that requires thinking

and comprehending written material in order to achieve comprehension; therefore,

pupils should do exercises.

(1.2) Recount Text

Grace & Sudarwati (2005, p. 61) define a recount text as a text that describes an event

from the past. Siswanto (2005, p. 201) supports this claim by stating that a recount

text is one that uses the simple past tense to describe an individual's experience.

According to Curriculum 2013, a recount narrative is a writing that narrates an event

that occurred in the past with the intention of entertaining the audience. Orientation,

events, and reorientation are the three features of a recount narrative, often known as
generic structure (Anderson, 1997, p. 50). According to the 2013 curriculum, junior

high school students are only exposed to three forms of recount texts—personal,

factual, and imaginary—out of the five categories identified by Barwick (1999, pp. 4-

5).

(1.3) Media

According to Soeparno (1987, p. 1), instructors require media in order to develop

effective communication. instructors can use media as a resource to help them present

knowledge to pupils. Media serves a number of purposes, the primary one being to

draw in students. Making the instruction, particularly the English lesson, easier to

understand is the second purpose. Reducing time is the third function, and

encouraging students to participate more actively in the learning process is the final

one (Sudjana & Rivai, 2007).

(1.4) Comic

According to Shadely (1990), comics are formed collections of images, with each box

representing a story's progression. These pictures have speech bubbles, which are

occasionally still accompanied by narrative explanations. According to Cary (2004, p.

33), comics can be utilized to educate children who are struggling with sophisticated

vocabulary, particularly when learning a language.

(1.5) A Scientific Method

The Ministry of Education and Culture states that scientific learning is the process of

adopting scientific measures in order to gain knowledge through the scientific method

(Permendikbud, 2013). The 2013 curriculum's scientific approach aims to support the

learning process. It is anticipated that the scientific method will be the most effective

means of fostering students' knowledge, abilities, and attitudes. A scientific method

aims to foster students' creativity by fostering their knowledge and critical thinking

abilities in addition to their competency.

2. Since students must not only read but also comprehend the substance of the text,

reading is one of the skills that can be considered to be of the highest importance.

Reading proficiency is one of the four English skills that the learners will surely

encounter challenges with. The barriers have two origins, including linguistic and

psychological ones. Students in the fourth semester of the University of

Muhammadiyah Kotabumi's English education study program in the academic year

2019–2020 encounter certain psychological obstacles, per the results of a study done

by Muhammadiyah Kotabumi (2020). (1) Lack of focus, (2) poor memory, (3) lack of

confidence, (4) feelings, (5) shyness, (6) motivation, (7) age, (8) attitudes, (9) self-

efficacy, and (10) self-concept are some of these obstacles. This study indicates that

the psychological barrier pertaining to motivation has the biggest negative influence

on students. According to Felzmann (2009), this educational study's ethical

implications will be assessed by taking into account the informed consent process,

confidentiality, and damage and benefit. Informed consent in school settings involves

a variety of stakeholders, including parents, researchers, individual kids, teachers,

school administrators, and the children's peer group. The management of the informed

consent process, including the decision of when and how to incorporate each
stakeholder group, is affected by the environment's added complexity. The presence

of these many stakeholders and their diverse roles within the educational setting also

affects how confidentiality issues are handled, partly because of the group

environment in which participants engage in the research and role expectations within

school settings. Generally speaking, school-based research has non-physical dangers

and benefits. The potential for psychological and social harm, the accuracy of the

research's anticipated benefits, and the issue of participant rewards are the main areas

of concern. The goal of this study, in the opinion of the researchers, was to pinpoint

obstacles and offer solutions for the language reading comprehension of seventh-

grade children. Learning barriers may be reduced in secondary education classrooms

if the relationship between learning obstacles is examined.

3. The act of conveying meaning through written words in a text is called reading. A

reader can comprehend what the author or writer wishes to convey by decoding.

Reading abilities can be improved with consistent practice. A reader can improve

their writing and speaking abilities after engaging with the author in a meaningful

way. Reading involves more than merely comprehending the words or sentences on

the page; it also involves using an attentive and critical thinking, as stated by Pascasio

et al. (1997). They must assess its content and purpose in addition to its meaning and

words in order to comprehend them. Furthermore, reading comprehension is essential

for success in other subject areas.

One should have an idea of what is written in the text when they read it. He can

appreciate and gain knowledge from it if he genuinely comprehends what the authors

are attempting to convey. Therefore, one must truly comprehend the reading texts in
order to relate their experiences and make connections between concepts and

knowledge. He can communicate with the author in this way. People will require

advanced literacy to carry out their employment, manage their houses, and serve as

citizens, as highlighted by Moore et al. (1999). so that they can develop their

imaginations and deal with the vast amount of knowledge in order to create the world

of the future.

Reading is crucial for a child's and the country's prosperity, according to Gove and

Cvelich (2011). Nevertheless, many low-income nations fail to fulfill their

educational systems' fundamental responsibility of producing readers. All people must

have access to elementary education, according to the 2015 Education for All (EFA)

mission. increasing the number of classrooms, instructors, and textbooks used in the

educational process. is what low-income nations and donors have prioritized.

Teachers who will be teaching reading, however, lack the necessary tools and

preparation. Furthermore, reading is not measured by pupils' success on the tests. As a

result, parents are unaware that their kids can read.

4. A number of global challenges might impact reading comprehension, a quality that

is essential for academic success. Due to lack of resources, poverty, and violence,

many students do not have access to high-quality education. For students who are not

very proficient in the language of instruction, language hurdles can also be a major

obstacle. Reading comprehension levels can also be adversely affected by poor

instruction and a dearth of reading resources. All things considered, these worldwide

concerns underscore the want of more assistance and materials to guarantee that every
student has the chance to acquire robust reading comprehension abilities (Banditvilai,

2020; Ghaith & El-Sanyoura, 2019; Subaidi & Aziz, 2020).

Moreover, for the acquisition and ongoing development of knowledge. In order to

find, comprehend, and assess ideas, this process entails the reader and the text

interacting dynamically. Since reading involves interactive processes where

knowledge is used to generate meaning, children cannot expect to succeed without

strong reading skills (Ditona & Rico, 2021).

However, decoding and comprehending written words are part of reading

comprehension (Arnold, 2020; Tadesse, 2017; Yusmalinda & Astuti, 2020). In

addition to taking in the text's content, readers also add their own insights and past

knowledge to aid in its interpretation. Understanding and grasping the meaning of the

written material is the goal of comprehension; reading is more than just decoding

words.

Similar to this, PISA findings show that, out of 79 participating nations, the

Philippines has the lowest reading comprehension score, indicating difficulties for

Filipino pupils. Additionally, the DepEd study exhibits shortcomings in recognizing

major themes, connecting adjacent information parts, and interpreting literal meanings

(DepEd, 2019).

Gaining proficiency in reading comprehension is essential for an efficient

SLM/SSLM response in the present "New Normal" of education, which is defined by

modular distance learning and pervasive modular instance learning (MDL). Ignorance
of the methodology puts one at danger of overlooking important details in the text.

Additionally, students in Grade 7 at General Santos City National High School have

been shown to have low reading comprehension, which affects their grades, academic

performance, and confidence. Problems with reading comprehension hinder critical

thinking and problem-solving skills, which are essential for success in both the

workplace and further education.

The researcher's objective is to assess the reading comprehension skills of Grade 7

pupils at General Santos City National High School in relation to their demographic

profiles. The findings will form the basis of a customized intervention program that

will be advantageous in the years to come.

5. Though few studies have identified whether types of pictures—pre-, theme, or post-

thematic—might be the most effective to use, research has usually demonstrated that

visuals enhance students' reading comprehension (Fukuyama, 2006). This can be seen

as a clear research gap in the area of using visual aids to improve students' reading

comprehension.

The results of this study may have theoretical and practical implications for language

instruction. Even though a vast amount of research has been done on text

comprehension from a variety of perspectives, the literature review demonstrates that

there is still a dearth of empirical studies and research on the impact of particular

contextual visual aids, such as pre-, thematic, and post-thematic pictures, on the

reading comprehension of Iranian high school students.

Therefore, the current study aims to first examine how contextual visual aids affect

high school students' reading comprehension in the immediate posttest, which poses a

particular recall scenario, and then examine how pre-thematic pictures, as opposed to

thematic and post-thematic ones, can improve the reading comprehension of Iranian

high school students. Among the many strategies proposed to improve the reading

comprehension of EFL students, the use of images and contextual visual aids has just

been accepted as the standard (Pan & Pan, 2009).

Understanding input is the main emphasis of comprehension, which is recognized as

an acquired talent. According to Brown (2007), comprehension is "the process of

receiving language; listening or reading; input" (p. 379). The Oxford English

Dictionary (2010) defines comprehension as "the action or fact of comprehending

with the mind; understanding; … grasping with the mind, power of receiving and

containing ideas."

The ability to absorb information, process it, and develop a coherent and accurate

understanding of the input is known as comprehension. Using interactive strategies to

gain a meaningful understanding of the input is a sign of well-developed

comprehension abilities (Lin, 2010). Consequently, input influences comprehension

while also influencing the fluency of a learner's output.

The definition of L2 reading comprehension has been interpreted in a number of

ways. There is no one type of understanding, according to a comprehensive literature

assessment. This "is not one true comprehension, but a range of comprehension" (p.

4) was said by Brantmeier (2003). On the other hand, Day and Park (2005) divided

reading comprehension into six distinct modes that can cooperate either linearly or in

parallel:
(1) The "understanding of the straightforward meaning of the text" is the definition of

literal comprehension (Day & Park, 2005, p. 62). This implies that any responses to

queries derived from a book would be stated clearly in the reading. One example of

this is learning the meanings of particular words in a text.

(2) When readers need to locate various facts from a reading text and integrate them

for further comprehension, reorganization takes place. Readers continue to employ

literal comprehension in this fashion, but it is applied to many textual sections to

address more focused text-related queries (Day & Park, 2005).

(3) In order to discover the information that is implied, inference necessitates that

students go beyond literal comprehension and apply their own knowledge (Day &

Park, 2005).

(4) Prediction uses readers' past knowledge and comprehension of a chapter to make

educated guesses about what will happen next; nevertheless, each response must be

backed up by the text for it to be considered valid (Day & Park, 2005).

(5) In order to form an opinion or judgment regarding the text, a student must possess

a general awareness of the subject being examined as well as comprehension of the

reading material (Day & Park, 2005).

(6) Readers utilize the open-ended personal answer comprehension type to convey

how they feel about the subject. Readers must rationalize the emotions in light of the

text for them to be legitimate (Day & Park, 2005). Numerous studies on L2 reading
comprehension have found important aspects that influence L2 understanding, such as

eye movements, cultural familiarity, first language (L1), and lexical processing (the

way the brain interprets data).

6. Fluency is defined as a student's capacity for understanding what they are reading,

reading the assigned texts without hesitation, and speaking at the right pace. Rather,

according to the Ministry of Education (2003), correctness is the use of proper syntax,

vocabulary, pronunciation, and a reasonable amount of formality. Teachers should

encourage students to bring in their favorite books (a novel or short tale) and share

them with their peers, according to the Grade 11 English for Ethiopia teacher's guide

and student textbook. It also recommends that educators focus on their pupils' fluency

in reading. According to Rasinski (2006), grade 11 pupils should read silently at an

average pace of 250–300 words per minute. In order to differentiate between verbal

and silent reading, researchers started using the term "fluency" to refer to automated

processing. They found that children first became proficient at reading aloud before

transitioning to quiet reading (Paige, Rasinski, Lavell, Smith, 2014). The

developmental shift from learning to read to reading to learn usually occurs at the end

of the elementary school year (Nation, 2009). One benefit of silent reading is that it is

not constrained by the voice generating speed constraint. For seasoned readers, this

calls for more resources beyond silent word identification (Schreiber, 1980).

Furthermore, the idea of automaticity was first presented by La Berge and Samuels

(1974). They assert that a word's reading automatically depletes cognitive resources.

According to Berninger, Abbott, Olson, Gould, Hiramatsu, Holsinger, McShane,

Murphy, Norton, Boyd, and Westhaggen (2010), reading comprehension reallocates

intellectual resources that need more cognitive capacity. As a result, academics link

reading comprehension and automatic word reading. The field of cognitive

psychology benefits from fluency. Schneider and Shiffirin (2003) introduced a

cognitive study of written word processing that distinguishes between controlled

strategic processing that demands both automated processing that doesn't require

conscious focus and deliberate concentration. When acquiring new words, children

employ deliberate and regulated strategic reading procedures, according to research

(Berninger et al., 2010). They may, however, move from controlled methods to

autonomous pilots after honing their linguistic skills. According to their new research,

strategic processing can be done in a deliberate and controlled manner, becoming very

rapid, but not necessarily automatic, even if automatic processing tends to be quick at

first (Paige et al. 2014). The focus of current cognitive research on reading has shifted

from regulated and spontaneous processing to flexibility. Expert readers are able to

employ a variety of knowledge sources and techniques with flexibility, knowing when

to automate tasks and when to reflect (Cartwright, 2008, Samuels, 1987). It

contributes to the field of special education as well. The Curriculum-based Measure

(CBM), an alternative to psychometric test measures, was first presented by Deno

(1985).

Students' responses to the reading curriculum are evaluated using curriculum-based

measures, which are timed assignments. According to Jenkins et al. (2003), CBM

usually assesses precise performance within a fixed time frame (1 minute) at a fixed

rate (number of seconds per word) or speed (words per minute). According to Jenkins,

Schulze, Marti, and Harbaugh (2017), silent reading dominated adult reading in the

setting of college, careers, and communities. CBM is time-related and commonly

utilized in the measurement of reading fluency. The National Center for Education
Statistics (2017) emphasizes providing students with learning opportunities to

improve their reading skills and gain a deeper understanding of silent reading patterns

(Hiebert, 2019). The current study expanded upon a theoretical framework and a

growing corpus of research on the relationship between silent reading comprehension

and rate (Spichtig et al., 2016, Hiebert & Trainin, 2019). Finding meaning in real-time

readings was its main goal. Higher education, including high school (Hiebert,

Samuels, & Rasinski, 2019). It is an effective method of understanding what you are

reading, and it is essential to effectively extract meaning from any academic work.

Furthermore, since rate-based metrics are more sensitive to growth than accuracy-

based measures, they are essential for progress tracking. Reading comprehension rate

is a reliable indicator of overall reading proficiency.

Studies on quiet reading have been carried out by certain researchers. Huey (1908),

for instance, investigated the automaticity of silent reading. Carver's study from the

1960s and 1990s demonstrated that it was possible to achieve the best reading rate and

comprehension efficiency. According to the National Reading Panel (2000), fluency

is important when it comes to fluency instruction in schools. In general, throughout

the last 15 to 20 years, the amount of study on the quiet reading rate has increased due

to the availability of eye-tracking technologies. Because students are deemed

proficient readers when their reading fluency and comprehension are at grade level,

this study focused on these two areas. In the long run, it can bridge the gap created by

research that focuses solely on oral reading fluency at the elementary school level. In

high school, the community, and the workplace, students who practice

comprehension-based silent reading fluency typically complete reading assignments

silently and independently for extended periods of time.

7. Reading is an interactive process in which readers construct a meaningful

representation of a text using effective reading strategies. Effective reading strategies

are considered as significant skills that have received the special focus on students’

reading comprehension proficiency. (Abbas Pourhosein Gilakjani, 2016)

8. According to Wolley, 2011 defines reading comprehension is a complex interactive

set of operation requiring complex cognitive functioning at a number of levels

simultaneously.

9. Reading is a critical ability for students to develop early in their schooling since it

serves as the basis for learning in all academic disciplines throughout their education.

In addition, developing reading abilities before students enter third grade is crucial, as

students begin to read in order to obtain information and learn from academic content

after third grade. Additionally, students who do not master reading abilities by the end

of third grade have low desire for leaming, behavioral difficulties, and academic

success, and are at danger of failing to graduate from high school. However, students

who grasp reading by the third or fourth grade have a better chance of academic

success. (Almutairi, 2018).

10. Reading comprehension is a multifaceted process that requires the integration and

coordination of a variety of abilities, including word decoding, the capacity to

decipher or recognize written words, and speech or listening comprehension, the

ability to comprehend what is decoded in spoken form. ( Chen, 2020 )

11. Reading comprehension is a vital ability for all students because it involves the

process of simultaneously obtaining and generating meaning from written language

through engagement and involvement. Understanding the meaning of words,

analyzing the author’s point of view, aiming for writing, and acquiring new

vocabulary are all critical reading abilities that aid in reading comprehension. (Clarke,

2014)

12. Reading comprehension is more affected by processes such as vocabulary and

background knowledge. One facet of vocabulary knowledge that is closely related to

comprehension is the quality of formal definitions, as this knowledge reflects the

student’s awareness of decontextualized language. ( Durgunoğlu, Peynircioğlu & Mir,

2002)

13. Reading comprehension refers to all perceptual, cognitive, and motor processing

involved in constructing a mental representation of the text's meaning (Van

Dyke, 2021)

14. Effective reading comprehension entails the proper functioning of various skills

such as word recognition (phonological awareness, visual recognition, and alphabetic

principle), language comprehension (verbal reasoning, theory of mind, language

structure, and cultural or prior knowledge), bridging processes (reading fluency,

vocabulary, and morphological awareness), and active self-regulation (motivation,

executive function, and strategy use). (Duke & Cartwright, 2021)

15. The level of reading comprehension refers to the type of mental representation

that is made of the written text. The reader builds a mental model in which he can

integrate explicit and implicit data from the text, experiences, and previous

knowledge (Kucer, 2016; van den Broek et al., 2016)

16. Reading comprehension allows the integration of knowledge that facilitates

training processes and successful coping with academic and personal situations. In

higher education, this reading comprehension has to provide students with autonomy

to self-direct their academic-professional learning and provide critical thinking in

favor of community service (UNESCO, 2009)

17. Reading is a critical ability for students to develop early in their schooling since it

serves as the basis for learning in all academic disciplines throughout their education

(Sloat et. al., 2013 as cited by Almutairi, 2018).

18. Clarke et. al., (2014) also states that students must develop reading comprehension

abilities in order to succeed academically and personally. Reading comprehension is

the foundation for understanding all academic information throughout students'

academic careers.
19. Reading is a process of meaning making that entails a large number of diverse

skills. As a complex construct, reading ability has been conceptualized from multiple

perspectives, including psycholinguistic, sociocultural, and educational. Beyond the

general agreement that learning to read in a second language is a major undertaking,

little consensus exists as to what this ability entails, how it develops, and how

progress in development can be monitored and fostered. This entry provides the

essential foundations for assessing second language reading by first describing the

brief history of reading research. The unique nature of reading ability in a second

language is then outlined, and the challenges for second language reading assessment

are explained. Future directions in reading assessment research include a move away

from exclusive focus on language-specific skills in the target language to encompass

nonlanguage-specific resources available in the learner's first language as well as the

knowledge and interests of the learners. (Koda, K., 2021)

20. A critical review was conducted to determine the influence background

knowledge has on the reading comprehension of primary school-aged children. We

identified twenty-three studies that met our criteria and focused on the links between

background knowledge and reading comprehension of children in the mid to late

primary years. Review findings highlight that higher levels of background knowledge

have a range of effects that are influenced by the nature of the text, the quality of the

situation model required, and the presence of reader misconceptions about the text.

Our findings also indicate that background knowledge impacts differentially on

stronger and weaker readers. Readers with lower background knowledge appear to

benefit more from text with high cohesion, while weaker readers were able to

compensate somewhat for their relatively weak reading skills in the context of a high
degree of background knowledge. Implications of the findings for early years

classroom practice are outlined, together with suggested future research directions.

(Smith, R., 2021)

21. Reading of alphabetic writing systems, such as English, has been extensively

studied and most theories and models of reading are based on findings from these

studies. This practice raises a practical question regarding whether findings from

alphabetic writing systems can be extended to other writing systems, such as Korean

or Chinese, and a more fundamental question about the universality of reading

mechanisms. In this Review, we discuss how findings from different writing systems

contribute to an understanding of the universal mechanisms of reading. We first

describe the unique properties of different writing systems. Then we review evidence

that points to universal mechanisms common to all writing systems, followed by

evidence suggesting that readers of different writing systems develop specific

perceptual and cognitive mechanisms for efficient reading. These findings suggest

that computational models developed for alphabetic reading cannot always account

for reading in other scripts. We conclude that studies in non-alphabetic writing

systems are valuable in understanding the universal and script-specific mechanisms of

reading. ( Li, X., 2022)

22. The role of the teacher, specifically teacher craft, is central to engaging students in

effective reading instruction. However, the science of reading has revealed that the

content taught is also important to reading acquisition. Although the science of

reading was aggregated some two decades ago to result in what became known as the
five big pillars, it has not been fully incorporated into instructional practice.

Subsequent research has continued to inform and strengthen what we understand

about reading, and new energy has now emerged to bring the science of reading fully

into practice. However, the science of reading and teacher craft are each insufficient

without the other. (Paige, D., 2021)

23. With the development of technology that never stops year by year, the

development of learning media also follows particularly from digital media and all

device. All media has been massively used by teachers and instructors to make

learning activities interesting. Teachers always keep searching to find new learning

media to keep students’ moods are still in line. One of media that able to use in

education field is video game. A few studies have looked into the impact of video

game on students learning English especially for reading comprehension. However,

video games are full with content that can increasing students’ English skill especially

on their reading comprehension. One of the video games that full with reading text

and also has historical thing is Age of Empires II. This study purposed to see how

video game influeced students’ reading comprehension on narrative text games. The

study consisted of 72 students from MAN 1 Bandar Lampung in tenth grade. X MIA

3 and X MIA 4 were the class samples of this study. The effect of video games can be

reflected in the multiple-choice students’ score. The writer used a quantitative and

quasi-experimental method as the methodology with a random sampling approach.

Multiple-choice test was used as the tool of test. The research findings in this study

explain that video games has significantly impact. (Amin, F., 2022)
24. This research discussed about student’s perception on the use of Webtoon to

improve reading comprehension skill. Webtoon is a new platform that can be used to

improve reading skill by its words used and interesting pictures. The purpose of this

study is to explain whether or not Webtoon can increase students’ interest in reading

comprehension skill. The respondents of the study are the students of English

Education students at Universitas Teknokrat Indonesia. The result of the study

indicates that the students are more interested and get the motivation to improve their

reading comprehension skill by using Webtoon. (Erya, W. I., 2021)

25. Reading is an effort to understand the author's communication for individual

development and achievement in the pertinent areas. Therefore, psychologists view it

as a complex cognitive process of creating meanings from texts. The current research

aimed to explore the connections between students' reading behaviors, study

techniques, and performance in English at the secondary level in Punjab, Pakistan.

Information acquired from reading is crucial for the cognitive, behavioral, and

attitudinal growth of students (He, 2014; Baffoe and Okae-Anti, 2020; Hassan et al.,

2021) since it represents an individual's capability to process information and

understand language proficiently (Sabbah, 2016; Al-Jarf, 2019). A person reads for

various purposes, such as acquiring knowledge, entertainment, pleasure, unwinding,

and more (Whitten et al., 2016). In this age of globalisation, proficiency in English is

becoming more and more crucial as an international language .Especially the second

language, which is English is essential. English is a foreign language in Indonesia,

where students begin formal English language instruction ,according to Pustika and

Wiedarti (2019), from junior high school. When they begin studying English in

school, they will comprehend. Compared to adults, they will acquire English more
readily (Pustika, 2015). At college, they get ready for graduates with a proficiency test

in English.

Nonetheless, Erguvan (2016) and Mirza et al. (2021) indicated that reading is a

dynamic aspect of life that goes beyond mere enjoyment when necessary.

Nonetheless, Chotitham and Wongwanich (2014) hypothesized that reading facilitates

the enhancement of critical and evaluative thinking skills necessary for problem-

solving by interpreting context. Therefore, Erdem (2015) and Pretorius and Klapwijk

(2016) determined that reading is crucial for success as it begins at the start of

schooling and persists throughout life. Information acquired from reading is crucial

for the cognitive, behavioral, and attitudinal growth of students (He, 2014; Baffoe and

Okae-Anti, 2020; Hassan et al., 2021) since it represents an individual's capability to

process information and understand language proficiently (Sabbah, 2016; Al-Jarf,

2019). A person reads for various purposes, such as acquiring knowledge,

entertainment, pleasure, unwinding, and more (Whitten et al., 2016). Nonetheless,

Erguvan (2016) and Mirza et al. (2021) indicated that reading is a dynamic aspect of

life that goes beyond mere enjoyment when necessary.

26. Nonetheless, Chotitham and Wongwanich (2014) hypothesized that reading

facilitates the enhancement of critical and evaluative thinking skills necessary for

problem-solving by interpreting context. Therefore, Erdem (2015) and Pretorius and

Klapwijk (2016) determined that reading is crucial for success as it begins at the start

of schooling and persists throughout life. Reading is essential for both academic

achievement and personal growth since it improves vocabulary, fosters critical

thinking, and increases knowledge. Lack of a reading habit is frequently linked to

poorer academic achievement in English classes, highlighting the need of developing

this ability.

27. Reading proficiency is crucial for those learning English. By anticipating,

analysing, summarising, and employing various reading strategies, the student

actively participates in creating an interaction with the text's author during the reading

process. Building this kind of connection between the reader and the text's written

content is challenging, though, and it can be challenging for students learning English

as a second language (ESL) or as a foreign language (EFL) to use various reading

strategies according to Wahyono, E. (2019).

28. Also, it has a component in reading comprehension, stated by Adlof S. M., Catts

H. W., Little T. D. (2006) to the Simple View of Reading, listening comprehension

and word recognition combine to produce reading comprehension. Word recognition

accuracy has been the subject of a lot of research, but word recognition fluency has

received more attention recently. The current study looked into whether the Simple

View of Reading should include a distinct fluency component.

29. Another ideal, Cutting L. E., Scarborough H. S. (2006) measures of reading,

language, and other cognitive abilities that have been proposed to influence

comprehension and explain comprehension variations were compared to reading

comprehension scores from the Gates-MacGinitie Reading Test, the Wechsler

Individual Achievement Tests, and the Grey Oral Reading Test.

30. Additionally examined were the effects of reading speed, receptive grammar, print

exposure, verbal learning and retrieval (a gauge of longer-term retention), and

visuospatial working memory. They employed working memory activities that

involved processing and storing spatial and numerical data. The number span task

created by Yuill, Oakhill, and Parkin (British Journal of Psychology, 1989, 80, 351–

361) served as the basis for one of the numerical working memory exercises. The

forward Corsi block job was used to create its visuospatial counterpart [Corsi,

Abstracts International, 1973, 34, 891] stated to Goff, D. A., Pratt, C., & Ong, B.

(2005).

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RELATED STUDIES

1. The significance of teaching language learners to be strategic readers has been

emphasized by researchers studying first and second languages. Paris et al. (1983), for

instance, point out that developing strategic reading skills can help readers understand

what they read and that "failure to be strategic in reading may result from either

developmental inability or poor learning" (p. 293). Strategic reading, according to

Palincsar & Brown (1984), helps students—particularly those who struggle with

comprehension—avoid comprehension failure and improve their text retention.

Similarly, Koda (2004) notes that strategic reading can help students improve their

critical thinking skills in addition to making up for their comprehension deficiencies.

According to Pressley (2006), language learners should get explicit training in

strategic reading. According to Janzen & Stoller (1998), teachers and second language

learners alike benefit from strategic reading teaching. They contend that it prepares

pre-university children for academic reading performance and fosters learners'

autonomy and self-awareness of the meaning-constructing process. Additionally, they

show that teaching reading strategies gives teachers a productive way to encourage

students to participate in their education and teach them excellent reading techniques.

The teaching of comprehension strategies, including multiple reading strategies, has

been shown to be helpful in helping students become strategic readers and improve

their reading comprehension in numerous research studies over the past three decades

(Klingner et al., 1998; Koda, 2004; Lee, 2003; Lenski & Nierstheimer, 2002;

Palincsar & Brown, 1984; Pressley, 2006; Rosenshine & Meister, 1994; Song, 1998).

In order to help students become more strategic readers and self-regulated learners,

comprehension strategy instruction that emphasizes teaching reading techniques to

kids appears both important and promising.

One kind of comprehension strategy training intended to enhance students' strategic

reading skills through small group discussions is Collaborative Strategic Reading

(CSR), which was proposed by Klingner et al. (1998). Four reading strategies

—"preview," "click and clunk," "get the gist," and "wrap-up"—are taught in CSR.

The beneficial effects of CSR on the reading comprehension, learning motivation, and

English acquisition of primary and secondary ESL and EFL learners have been

substantiated by empirical research (Huang, 2004; Klingner et al., 1998; Standish,

2005; Wang, 2008).

2. Many people in the twenty-first century have called for instructors to be more

involved in their students' education by using the most cutting-edge and successful

research-based teaching methods in the classroom. According to Duke and

Pearson[1], reading research is concerned with issues pertaining to low reading

proficiency and the need to give children additional text-based experience. The fact

that readers are primarily exposed to narrative texts from an early age is one of the

issues. They frequently lack the skills necessary to manage expository texts as they

advance through their academic careers since they are not taught how to write them.

Differences in gender also have a significant impact on how texts are used and how

important text exposure is. Below, Fearrington Skinner and Sorrell [2] found that

while boys like reading factual and nonfictional material, they also enjoy reading

fiction. Similarly, Coles and Hall [3] and Brozo [4] claimed that as fictional reading is

usually employed at the college level, classroom education should take gender

disparities and inequalities into account, which cause both boys and girls to perform

below expectations in reading. Reading teaching should focus on five areas, according

to the National Reading Panel [5]: (1) phonemic awareness, (2) phonics, (3) fluency,

(4) vocabulary, and (5) comprehension. In order to close the gap between decoding

skills and comprehension, the National Reading Panel [5] has advocated for additional

research on the reading comprehension strategies that work best for specific age

groups and sexes.

"The process of simultaneously extracting and constructing meaning through

interaction and involvement with written language" is how RAND [6] defined

reading. Additionally, Randi Grigorenko and Sternberg [7] discussed the

circumstances in which strategy instruction improves reading text with inquiry-based

content areas, and RAND [6] proposed future research on reading comprehension
strategy instruction. These three components for reading comprehension are the

reader, the text, and the activity. Examining students' improvements in reading

comprehension and metacognitive functioning through text will be the focus of the

current study.

3. Reading comprehension makes it possible to incorporate information that supports

training procedures and effective management of both personal and academic

circumstances. According to UNESCO (2009), reading comprehension in higher

education must give students the freedom to self-direct their academic and

professional learning and foster critical thinking in support of community service.

However, recent studies have shown that some university students struggle with

reading (Smagorinsky, 2001; Cox et al., 2014) or are not prepared to handle academic

texts (Bharuthram, 2012; Afflerbach et al., 2015). This could limit academic training

that focuses on written texts. Taking into account the diversity of current educational

paradigms, this work attempts to examine the degree of reading comprehension

supplied by research conducted in various nations.

The kind of mental image created from the written material is referred to as the

reading comprehension level. In order to include explicit and implicit information

from the text, experiences, and prior knowledge, the reader constructs a mental model

(Kucer, 2016; van den Broek et al., 2016). The most widely used reading

comprehension model, the construction-integration model (Kintsch and van Dijk,

1978; Kintsch, 1998), distinguishes between two processing levels: a superficial level

that recognizes or memorizes information that forms the text's foundation and a deep

level that elaborates the text situation model by integrating prior experiences and
knowledge. According to the domain-learning model (Alexander, 2004), the cognitive

methods employed at various processing levels vary from simple coding to text

modification. According to studies in the scientific literature, reading comprehension

levels range from a literal level of idea identification to an inferential and critical level

that necessitates the elaboration of inferences and the transformation of data (Yussof

et al., 2013; Ulum, 2016).

Higher education-focused studies (Barletta et al., 2005; Yáñez Botello, 2013)

demonstrate that university students have a literal or basic level of understanding and

frequently struggle to draw conclusions and recognize the written text's

macrostructure, which prevents them from developing a model of a situation in the

text. These scientific findings are consistent with studies on university students'

mother tongue reading comprehension. According to Bharuthram (2012), university

students are unable to access or acquire appropriate reading comprehension methods,

such as the ability to abstract and synthesis-analyse. According to Livingston et al.

(2015), first-year education students have trouble understanding written texts and

have restricted reading methods. According to Ntereke and Ramoroka (2017), 34.3%

of students exhibit poor task execution, whereas only 12.4% of students do well on a

reading comprehension task.

The mode of presentation of the text (printed vs. digital), the type of metacognitive

strategies employed (planning, making inferences, inhibition, monitoring, etc.), the

type of text and difficulties (science passage vs. novel), the writing mode (text vs.

multimodal), the type of reading comprehension task, and the diversity of the student

are all factors that are associated with the level of understanding of written

information. According to Spencer (2006), college students prefer reading printed

texts over digital ones, and multiple studies (Tuncer and Bahadir, 2014; Trakhman et
al., 2019; Kazazoglu, 2020) show that reading is more efficient with better

performance on reading comprehension tests when the text is printed as opposed to

digital. Metacognitive methods are used when reading written texts (Amril et al.,

2019), but research suggests that students do not employ them for reading

comprehension (Channa et al., 2018). In fact, Korotaeva (2012) found that just 7% of

students use metacognitive strategies. While Feng (2011) indicates that expository

texts are more challenging to read than narrative texts, Wolfe and Woodwyk (2010)

believe that expository texts gain more from the development of a situational model

of the text than narrative texts. In terms of the text's modality, multimodal texts that

include images enhance reading comprehension, according to Mayer (2009) and Guo

et al. (2020). The type and format of the reading comprehension assessment test have

a significant impact on student performance, and more structured tests make it easier

to distinguish between students who perform well and those who do not. This was

demonstrated in a study by Kobayashi (2002) that used open-ended, closed-ended,

and multiple-choice questions. Last but not least, research on student diversity relates

reading comprehension to university students' interest and intrinsic motivation

(Cartwright et al., 2019; Dewi et al., 2020), gender (Saracaloglu and Karasakaloglu,

2011), and the fact that women exhibit higher reading comprehension levels than men

and possess more reading-related knowledge (Perfetti et al., 1987). All of the texts

used in this study were printed and unimodal, meaning they contained only text. This

is crucial since these variables can affect the cognitive processes that go into reading

comprehension (Butcher and Kintsch, 2003; Xu et al., 2020).

4. Scaffolding and readers' awareness of or usage of metacognition strategies have

been the subject of recent studies. According to these studies, proficient readers
believe that using the right techniques can improve their comprehension of texts. The

use of metacognition techniques based on comprehension monitoring, reading

strategies, and reading comprehension by Italian bilingual learners was investigated

by Kolic-Vehovec and Bajsanski [22]. The meta-understanding test, which included a

cloze exercise, was used to gauge their comprehension monitoring. A strategic

reading questionnaire was used in this study to gauge strategic reading. The findings

showed that the most significant predictor of the students' reading comprehension was

comprehension monitoring.

Zhang and Wu [32] looked at reading techniques and metacognition awareness in

Chinese high schools. The researchers employed a 28-item survey on reading

methods. The study's conclusions showed that the pupils employed three types of

reading methods with a high degree of proficiency. In two categories of reading

strategies—global and problem-solving—the individuals with high group competence

performed at intermediate and low reading proficiency levels.

By surveying and comparing strategies in Malaysia, Shah et al. [33] looked at the

employment of strategies. The participants were second language readers with

varying reading levels of secondary school pupils who were evaluating reading

support, supervision, and paraphrase techniques. The study's findings showed that

average and good readers differed, with good readers favoring reading comprehension

techniques that included a dash of scaffolding and metacognition.

In their investigation of Thai students' attitudes toward classroom activities, Channa

Yossatorn and Yossiri [34] discovered that students' perceptions and satisfactions of

their teachers were influenced by the use of teaching strategies, class activities, and

social environments. These strategies assisted international students studying in

medical and engineering facilities in reducing or altering negative attitudes. Promising

results regarding students' views about teacher-using activities were found in this

study.

Franco-Castillo [35] used dialogue notebooks and textbooks to study the reading

comprehension, science achievement, and metacognitive methods of second grade

students interacting with teachers. Data was gathered through several methods. The

results showed that experimental participants did much better on the linear

combination of metacognition functions through scaffolding that enhance students'

reading awareness and reading comprehension based on the achievement of science

texts.

5. Reading is an activity done to learn more about a topic or subject. One of the

essential skills for success in life is the ability to read. Readers remain informed, up to

date, and involved. The act of reading is both receptive and active. The reader actively

searches the text for connections between ideas. Reading requires a variety of mental

activities, including information collecting, processing, and analysis. According to Li

and Wilhelm (2008), people also feel fulfillment in reading.

Even if reading plays a significant role in a person's educational and personal

development, comprehension may be an even more crucial idea. The ability to

deconstruct, evaluate, and reorganize concepts and information is also necessary;

reading alone is insufficient. A person must be able to comprehend what the author is

trying to say.

Reading comprehension is a multifaceted, intricate skill. According to Grabe and

Stoller (2002), these procedures were separated into two primary categories, lower-
level and higher-level, which are both equally challenging. Word recognition,

graphophonics, and other skills are at the lower level, but syntactic and semantic

processes are at the upper level. In order to understand what is read, one must be

knowledgeable about the topic and structure of the text, as well as reading methods

and how to apply them to word recognition and material processing (Pang, 2008).

The ability to comprehend a text, evaluate the data, and accurately interpret the

author's meaning is known as reading comprehension. Janzen and Stoller (1998)

identified ten reading comprehension processes or strategies, which include

"identifying a purpose for reading, previewing, predicting, asking questions, checking

predictions or finding an answer to the questions, connecting the text to prior

knowledge, summarizing, connecting one part of the text to another, and recognizing

text structure." (Grabe and Stoller, 2002:17) "No single process defines reading

comprehension by itself, but together they provide a fairly accurate account of the

processes required for fluent reading."

According to Veeravagu et al. (2010:206), reading comprehension is "a thinking

process by which a reader selects facts, information, or ideas from printed materials;

determines the meanings the author intended to transmit; decides how they relate to

previous knowledge; and judges their appropriateness and worth for meeting the

learner's own objectives."

One component of understanding is word recognition. Fast, accurate, and automatic

word processing is a skill of proficient readers (Pressley, 1998; Stanovich, 2000).

Additionally, Pressley (1998) discovered that proficient readers can read more

complex texts at a pace of 200 words per minute, and for leisurely reading, 250 to 300
words per minute. They can accomplish this with minimal effort. Complex texts are

hard for poor readers to comprehend.

Reading is more than just recognizing letters; it also entails figuring out context and

meaning. Information is arranged into identifiable patterns as one reads (Norris,

1998). The information is connected either directly or indirectly. Understanding

develops as the information is processed. Norris (1998) distinguished between

perceptual and conceptual information processing in response to visual inputs.

Individual or grouped letters, passages, phonemics, and word formations are all inputs

that perceptual processors process. Context, discourse structure, and past knowledge

are used to assign meaning. According to Numan (2003), reading comprehension is a

fluid process that creates meaning by fusing information from the text with previously

learned knowledge.

According to Walter (2007), comprehension is a general cognitive ability in addition

to being a language competence. Gernsbacher's Structure Building Framework (SBF),

which consists of three steps, was used in Walter's study. A mental structure is being

laid, fresh knowledge is being mapped onto the evolving mental structure, and

shifting is being done to create a new substructure. According to Gernsbacher, these

largely automated, unconscious processes use "memory nodes" as building blocks for

the development of comprehension. The information in the input, the comprehender's

world knowledge, and their language knowledge all work together to activate these

memory nodes (Walter, 2007).

6. Researchers have been studying many areas for teaching pupils to read and

understand texts for a long time. According to Cromley and Azevedo (2007), a

considerable percentage of American pupils have trouble understanding what they

read. They discovered that 26 percent of eighth graders scored below basic on the

NAEP reading assessments. As noted by Taylor, Pearson, Clark, and Warpole (2000),

reading comprehension training is frequently not given much attention in the

classroom. Finding a method for enhancing reading comprehension might result in

lesson plans that can be incorporated into the reading curricula at various grade levels.

The framework could be implemented in the various subject areas to help students

comprehend a wide range of texts if it were shown that a combination of particular

interactive reading techniques applied regularly at particular stages of reading

instruction increased reading achievement levels in comprehension. Finding an

interactive reading technique that can be applied from the very beginning of reading

will help teachers improve their pupils' reading comprehension abilities as they

advance through the educational system.

7. The researcher found that the students’ reading comprehension was influenced by

using of reader response strategy and students who have a high reading interest more

suitable to used reader response strategy than students who have low reading interest.

(Irma Yunita, 2018)

8. The studies indicate that the contributions of metacognitive strategies of students’

reading comprehension is significant. Findings also reveal that teachers play pivitol

role to develop reading comprehension abilities among students at all levels. The
results will be a guideline to design syllabus that include metacognitive strategies in

learners’ reading comprehension.( Channa & Nordin, 2014 )

9. Students with 50%-74% correct answers are categorized under “near mastery

level.” While the category “low mastery level” is for students with a score of 49% and

below. The students were categorized based on the reader category of Imam (2014).

In terms of reading comprehension skill result, it shows that only 7% of the total

respondents are classified as Mastery Level readers. The result is trifling compared to

the 49% near mastery level and 44% poor mastery level.( Caraig & Quimbo, 2022 )

10. The results of reading comprehension levels:70% are outstanding in literal level

55% are satisfactory in inferential level and 42% are fair in critical-evaluative level.

There is no significant difference on the levels of Reading Comprehension between

the two sections. (Munsod-Fernandez, 2021)

11. The result revealed the students performed better in the content areas of scanning,

point of view, and literal compared to the norm group. However, students were rated

low average in the following content areas: synonyms, literal, inferential,

reorganization, summary cloze, references, labels, and tables. The CEM Reading Test

Level 3 revealed that the students’ sub-test scores, percent correct scores, and

standard score only ranged from low average to average. It also revealed that there are

32.88% of students who were classified in the range of low average to very poor level

of reading comprehension. (Astrero, Selmo, Dumlao, Domingo, Nasuli, Eugenio &

Guevarra, 2024)
12. The findings of students HOTS on students reading comprehension divided

remembering text with strongly agree scale 58,4%, understanding supporting sentence

with strongly agree 50,2%, applying decoding process with agree scale 49,2%,

analyzing main ideas with

13. According to a study conducted by Faizah et al. (2016), the findings of policy

research supported by the Ministry of Education and Culture indicated that

there was a notable deficiency in the reading abilities of youngsters.

14. According to BS Accountancy (FABM 1) (2021) that the students are

experiencing struggles in comprehension which is vital in understanding their lessons.

As an illustration, consider how they analyze and resolve accounting-related

problems, which are always written in English or discussed in English. As a result,

pupils' struggles with reading comprehension may have an impact on their academic

achievement.

15. To achieve a comprehensive understanding of a text, students must employ

comprehension skills prior to during, and subsequent to the act of reading. Teachers

must also diligently observe and document the tactics employed by pupils, as well as

those that are not utilized, in order to effectively foster the development of their

reading abilities (Tinapay et al., 2023).

16. Based on the preliminary study conducted at the school, it was found that most of

the students got some problems in reading comprehension. They had low reading

comprehension. They did not understand how to analyze English texts. Therefore,

they did not enjoy reading English texts and were not interested in reading activities.

(Husnayaini, 2019)

17. Reading comprehension in English is one of the important keys for the students to

be better in learning. Comprehension always attends to what's coded or written with

inside the texts, however it additionally depends upon the reader's background

experiences, purposes, feelings, and desires of the moment. The identical aspect is

going to the pupils wherein additionally they want to apprehend the text given (Yee &

Zainuddin, 2018)

18. According to Peter, there are external factors that influence the students in reading

comprehension are reader environment. The environment factors can also influence

the students in mastering and in learning English. Home and school are the two kinds

of learners’ environment that can influence their learning reading achievement. House

environment cannot be neglected because parents play an important role in the home.

The school environment also can be a cause of students learning difficulties in reading

comprehension, such as school with lack of learning media (Westwood, 2008)

19. Bales, K. (2018). Three separate processes make up reading comprehension:

digesting the text (decoding the words by sounding out the syllables), comprehending

what was read, and making connections between the text and prior knowledge.
20. Bales K. (2018). Children should be exposed to a wide vocabulary and be

continuously acquiring new terms because vocabulary knowledge is essential for

reading comprehension.

21. Andi Rusgandi, M. (2023). Modern reading has altered in many ways than only

how students use textbooks thanks to recent technological advancements.

22. Ali, Z. (2022). Students who want to work efficiently and effectively in any

academic setting must be able to read.

23. Zila, F. A. (2024). Students' reading strategies are among the most important

aspects affecting their reading comprehension. The implementation of suitable

procedures can successfully enhance reading abilities, whilst the employment of

inappropriate tactics may lead to poor comprehension.

24. Toyong, P. J. (2021). Reading can help students advance and succeed in a variety

of academic subjects.

25. This article presents a synthesis of intervention studies carried out from 1994 to

2004 involving older students (Grades 6–12) who face reading challenges.

Interventions focused on decoding, fluency, vocabulary, and comprehension were

considered if they assessed their impact on reading comprehension. A total of twenty-

nine studies were found and combined. Thirteen studies fulfilled the requirements for

a meta-analysis, producing an effect size (ES) of 0.89 for the weighted mean of the

differences in comprehension results between treated and comparison students.

Interventions at the word level showed an effect size of ES = 0.34 in comprehension

results when comparing treated and control students. The implications for

comprehension teaching for older readers who struggle are outlined, according to

Edmonds, M. S., Vaughn, S., Wexler, J., Reutebuch, C., Cable, A., Tackett, K. K., &

Schnakenberg, J. W. (2009).

26. Another stated these researcher Cook, P. J., Dodge, K., Farkas, G., Fryer, R. G.,

Guryan, J., Ludwig, J., ... & Steinberg, L. (2014) that policymakers should instead

concentrate on early childhood education or teen vocationally orientated training, as

there is growing concern that strengthening the academic skills of underprivileged

youth is too costly and challenging. However, considering that so few prior

interventions have addressed a potential underlying obstacle to school success—the

"mismatch" between what schools provide and the needs of underprivileged

adolescents who have lagged behind in their academic or non-academic development

—this conclusion may be premature. This study describes a randomised controlled

trial of a two-pronged intervention that offers intensive, individualised academic

remediation and non-academic supports to underprivileged youth. The intervention

aims to teach social-cognitive skills based on the concepts of cognitive behavioural

therapy (CBT).
27. The study examines how ninth-grade students employ the structural strategy, a

reading technique that emphasises adhering to the text's organisational structure to

identify key points. The problem/solution or comparison structures found in the well-

structured texts were altered in their saliency by signalling. It was anticipated that

mastery of the structural strategy would interact with signalling effects. Good

comprehenders on the Stanford Achievement Test were expected to adhere to the

structuring method, while weak comprehenders were not, regardless of signalling.

However, it was anticipated that comprehension underachievers—those with

vocabulary far above comprehension test scores—would only employ the structural

technique in the presence of signalling. The structural technique seemed to be a highly

successful retrieval mneumonic, with the majority of predictions being supported. Its

evolution over time in many discourses according to Bonnie J. F. Meyer, Brandt, D.

M., & Bluth, G. J. (1980).

28. Additionally examined were the effects of reading speed, receptive grammar, print

exposure, verbal learning and retrieval (a gauge of longer-term retention), and

visuospatial working memory. They employed working memory activities that

involved processing and storing spatial and numerical data. The number span task

created by Yuill, Oakhill, and Parkin (British Journal of Psychology, 1989, 80, 351–

361) served as the basis for one of the numerical working memory exercises. The

forward Corsi block job was used to create its visualization counterpart [Corsi,

Abstracts International, 1973, 34, 891] stated to Goff, D. A., Pratt, C., & Ong, B.

(2005).
29. Three conditions were randomly allocated to adolescents whose word-reading

abilities fell short of grade level. Intervention participants practiced reading 100

Graphosyllabic words by either reading the words as analyses wholes or by examining

the Graphosyllabic components they contained. No particular instruction was given to

the third group. When compared to controls, post-tests showed that polysyllabic

education improved students' ability to decode new words, recall word spellings, and

recall how to read words with practice. Comparing whole-word teaching to controls,

however, showed no improvement on transfer tasks. Adolescents who read at a third-

grade—equivalent level were more affected than those who read at a fourth- or fifth-

grade—equivalent level. The findings support a connection theory of word learning

and highlight the value of giving struggling readers providing guidance and

experience on how to thoroughly examine a word's Graphosyllabic components that

stated to Bhattacharya, A., & Ehri, L. C. (2004)

30. Other hand, Edmonds, M. S., Vaughn, S., Wexler, J., Reutebuch, C., Cable, A.,

Tackett, K. K., & Schnakenberg, J. W. (2009), using older students (Grades 6–12)

who struggled with reading, this article summarises intervention studies that were

conducted between 1994 and 2004. Interventions that addressed decoding, fluency,

vocabulary, and comprehension were included if they measured the effects on reading

comprehension. Nine studies were found and synthesised, and thirteen of them met

the requirements for a meta-analysis. The weighted average of the difference in

comprehension outcomes between treatment and comparison students showed an

effect size (ES) of 0.89, while word-level interventions were linked to ES = 0.34 in

comprehension outcomes between treatment and comparison students. Implications

for comprehension instruction for older struggling readers are discussed.

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