southern technical university

Basra engineering technical college

fuel and energy engineering department

Name of student: shahad hassan Dawood

training place:south refineries company
stage 2
Introduction:
During the summer training program at the South Refineries Company in July
2024, I had the privilege of delving into the intricate world of crude oil
distillation and refining operations. This training was a blend of theoretical
learning and hands-on experience, providing a holistic understanding of the
processes involved.

The journey began with a thorough exploration of the distillation towers, where
we learned about the theoretical aspects of distillation and the various operations
that occur within these towers. This foundational knowledge was complemented
by practical visits to observe the actual equipment in action. We toured the tanks,
pumps, and furnaces, gaining insights into their functions and design. Witnessing
the flame inside the furnace and understanding the construction of the steel pipes
used in the system were particularly enlightening experiences.

Beyond distillation, the training encompassed other essential refining processes

such as hydrogenation and gasoline improvement. We were introduced to the
control unit, where we learned about the devices used for measurement and
remote control in operations. The methods for recording readings and monitoring
the processes were also thoroughly explained.

This training would not have been as enriching without the guidance and support
of Mr. Abdel Zahra, the engineer who supervised our training. His expertise and
dedication were instrumental in enhancing our learning experience. I extend my
sincere gratitude to him for his invaluable contributions to our professional
development.
Composition and Classification of Crude Oil
Crude oil is a complex mixture of hydrocarbon compounds and other components. The
primary constituents of crude oil are organic hydrocarbon compounds, which include
paraffins, naphthenes, and aromatics.

Paraffins are saturated hydrocarbons with the general formula CnH2n+2. They can exist in
crude oil in various states, including gaseous (e.g., methane, ethane), liquid (e.g., hexane,
heptane), and solid (e.g., paraffin wax). These compounds are known for their stability and
are a significant component of many crude oils.

Naphthenes, also known as cycloalkanes, are saturated hydrocarbons with a ring structure.
They have the general formula CnH2n and are typically found in liquid form within crude oil.
Naphthenes contribute to the density and viscosity of crude oil and are crucial in the
production of lubricants and other refined products.

Aromatics are unsaturated hydrocarbons with one or more benzene rings in their structure.
These compounds, such as benzene, toluene, and xylene, are present in varying amounts in
crude oil. Aromatics are valuable in the petrochemical industry for producing a wide range of
chemicals and materials.

In addition to these organic compounds, crude oil contains inorganic compounds, including
sulfur, nitrogen, oxygen, and trace metals. These inorganic components can exist in various
forms, such as hydrogen sulfide (H2S), mercaptans, and metal complexes. The presence of
these compounds can affect the refining process and the quality of the final products.

Crude oil is classified based on its physical and chemical specifications, although many of
these methods have limited use. One common classification is based on the nature of its
components:

1. Naphthenic Crude Oil: Rich in naphthenes and aromatics, with lower paraffin content. This type of
crude oil is typically heavier and more viscous.
2. Paraffinic Crude Oil: High in paraffins, with lower naphthenes and aromatics. This type of crude oil is
usually lighter and less viscous.
3. Mixed-Based Crude Oil: Contains a balanced mixture of paraffins, naphthenes, and aromatics.

Another widely used classification system is based on the American Petroleum Institute (API)
gravity, which measures the density of crude oil relative to water. The API gravity scale
classifies crude oil as follows:

 Light Crude Oil: API gravity greater than 31.1°

 Medium Crude Oil: API gravity between 22.3° and 31.1°
 Heavy Crude Oil: API gravity between 10.0° and 22.3°
 Extra Heavy Crude Oil: API gravity less than 10.0°

Understanding the composition and classification of crude oil is essential for optimizing
refining processes and producing high-quality petroleum products.
Key Equipment in Distillation Units

Distillation units in refineries rely on several critical pieces of equipment to efficiently separate and refine crude
oil. These include tanks, pumps, heat exchangers, ovens, and distillation towers. Let’s start with the tanks and
their classifications based on the expected pressure of the tank contents.

Tanks

Tanks used in refineries are essential for storing crude oil and its derivatives. They are classified based on the
expected pressure of their contents:

1. Atmospheric Tanks: These tanks are designed to operate at atmospheric pressure. They are typically
used for storing liquids that do not require pressurization. Atmospheric tanks often have a fixed roof or a
floating roof. A fixed roof is a permanent structure, while a floating roof floats on the surface of the
liquid, rising and falling with the liquid level to minimize vapor space and reduce evaporation losses.
2. Low-Pressure Tanks: These tanks are designed to handle slightly higher pressures than atmospheric
tanks. They are used for storing liquids that may generate low vapor pressures. Low-pressure tanks can
also have fixed or floating roofs, depending on the specific requirements.
3. Medium-Pressure Tanks: These tanks are built to withstand moderate pressures and are used for
storing liquids that produce higher vapor pressures. They are often equipped with safety features to
handle the increased pressure and may have insulated surfaces to maintain the temperature of the
contents.
4. High-Pressure Tanks: These tanks are designed for high-pressure applications and are used for storing
highly volatile liquids. They are typically constructed with robust materials and safety mechanisms to
handle the high pressures. High-pressure tanks are often connected to compressors and condensation
devices to return volatiles to the tank.

All these tanks are large, with capacities exceeding one hundred and fifty thousand barrels. They can be
installed above ground or underground, although underground installations are more expensive.

Pumps

Pumps are crucial for moving fluids through the distillation unit. They ensure the continuous flow of crude oil
and its fractions between different stages of the refining process. Pumps must be reliable and capable of
handling various fluid properties, including viscosity and temperature.

Heat Exchangers

Heat exchangers are used to transfer heat between different process streams. They play a vital role in preheating
crude oil before it enters the distillation tower and in recovering heat from the distillation products. Efficient
heat exchangers improve the overall energy efficiency of the distillation unit.

Ovens

Ovens, or furnaces, are used to heat the crude oil to the required temperature for distillation. The heated crude
oil is then fed into the distillation tower. Ovens must provide uniform heating and maintain precise temperature
control to ensure optimal separation of the crude oil components.

Distillation Towers

Distillation towers are the core of the distillation unit. They separate crude oil into its various fractions based on
boiling points. The towers are equipped with trays or packing materials to enhance the contact between the
rising vapor and the descending liquid, facilitating efficient separation. The design and operation of distillation
towers are critical for achieving high-purity products. Understanding the function and design of these key
pieces of equipment is essential for optimizing the distillation process and ensuring the efficient operation of a
refinery.
Distillation Towers at South Refineries Company

Introduction

During my summer training at the South Refineries Company, I had the opportunity to gain hands-on
experience with various distillation equipment and refining operations. This page focuses on the two
main types of distillation towers: the tray tower and the packed tower. It includes an explanation of their
mechanisms, efficiency variations, and practical insights gained during the training.

Types of Distillation Towers

1. Tray Tower Tray towers, also known as plate columns, are designed with a series of trays or plates
stacked vertically. These trays facilitate the contact between the rising vapor and the descending liquid,
promoting mass transfer and separation of components.

 Mechanism of Reflux Condensation: In a tray tower, the vapor rises through the column and contacts
the liquid on each tray. The liquid flows across the tray and over a weir to the next tray below. Reflux,
which is the condensed overhead vapor, is returned to the top of the column to enhance separation.
This reflux liquid flows down the column, contacting the rising vapor on each tray, which improves the
efficiency of the separation process.
 Efficiency: The efficiency of tray towers generally increases with the column radius. This is because
larger diameters allow for better vapor-liquid contact and more effective mass transfer.

2. Packed Tower Packed towers are filled with packing materials that provide a large surface area for
vapor-liquid contact. These materials can be random packing (e.g., Raschig rings) or structured packing
(e.g., corrugated sheets).

 Mechanism of Reflux Condensation: In a packed tower, the liquid flows down through the packing
material while the vapor rises. The packing provides a large surface area for the vapor and liquid to
interact, promoting mass transfer. Reflux in packed towers also involves the return of condensed
overhead vapor to the top of the column, enhancing separation.
 Efficiency: The efficiency of packed towers tends to decrease as the column radius increases. This is due
to the difficulty in maintaining uniform liquid distribution across larger diameters, which can lead to
channeling and reduced mass transfer efficiency.

Practical Insights from Training

During the training, I had the opportunity to observe both types of towers from the inside and outside.
The supervising professor provided detailed explanations of the operations and the types of trays used in
tray towers.

 Types of Trays: The main types of trays used in tray towers include sieve trays, valve trays, and
bubble cap trays. Each type has specific design features that influence its performance:
o Sieve Trays: These trays have perforations that allow vapor to pass through, creating bubbles in
the liquid layer.
o Valve Trays: These trays have movable valves that open and close based on vapor flow,
providing better control over vapor distribution.
o Bubble Cap Trays: These trays have caps that cover the perforations, directing the vapor
through slots and into the liquid layer, creating bubbles.

 Basis for Tray Arrangement: The arrangement of trays inside the tower depends on the desired
separation and the properties of the feed mixture. Factors such as vapor and liquid flow rates,
pressure drop, and the nature of the components being separated are considered when designing
and arranging the trays.
Detailed Overview of the Refining Process

Introduction

The refining process is a complex series of chemical engineering procedures designed to convert
crude oil into valuable products such as gasoline, diesel, jet fuel, and other petrochemicals. in This
page delves into the working mechanisms, types of reactions, auxiliary factors, and forms of reactors
used in the refining process.

Working Mechanism

The refining process begins with the distillation of crude oil into various fractions based on their
boiling points. These fractions are then further processed through various refining units to produce
the desired end products.

1. Distillation: Crude oil is heated in a furnace and fed into a distillation column where it is separated
into different fractions such as naphtha, kerosene, diesel, and heavy gas oils.
2. Conversion Processes: These processes convert heavier fractions into lighter, more valuable
products. Key conversion processes include:
o Cracking: Breaking down large hydrocarbon molecules into smaller ones.
o Reforming: Rearranging hydrocarbon molecules to improve the quality of gasoline.
o Hydroprocessing: Removing impurities such as sulfur, nitrogen, and metals.

Types of Reactions

Several types of chemical reactions occur during the refining process:

1. Cracking Reactions: These include thermal cracking, catalytic cracking, and hydrocracking.
o Thermal Cracking: Uses high temperatures to break down large hydrocarbons.
o Catalytic Cracking: Uses a catalyst to lower the temperature required for cracking.
o Hydrocracking: Combines hydrogen with cracking to produce cleaner products.

2. Reforming Reactions: These involve the rearrangement of hydrocarbon molecules to

increase the octane number of gasoline.
o Dehydrogenation: Removal of hydrogen from hydrocarbons.
o Isomerization: Conversion of straight-chain hydrocarbons to branched-chain hydrocarbons.

3. Hydroprocessing Reactions: These include hydrotreating and hydrodesulfurization.

o Hydrotreating: Removes impurities by reacting them with hydrogen.
o Hydrodesulfurization: Specifically targets sulfur removal.

Auxiliary Factors

Several auxiliary factors influence the efficiency and effectiveness of the refining process:

1. Catalysts: Catalysts are crucial in many refining processes, such as catalytic cracking and
hydroprocessing. They enhance reaction rates and selectivity.
2. Temperature and Pressure: Optimal temperature and pressure conditions are essential for
maximizing reaction efficiency and product yield.
3. Feedstock Quality: The composition and quality of the crude oil feedstock significantly impact the
refining process and the quality of the final products.
4. Reactor Design: The design and configuration of reactors play a vital role in the efficiency of the
refining process.
Forms of Reactors Used

Various types of reactors are employed in the refining process, each designed for specific reactions
and processes:

1. Fixed-Bed Reactors: Used in processes like hydroprocessing, where the feedstock flows over a
stationary bed of catalyst.
2. Fluidized-Bed Reactors: Commonly used in catalytic cracking, where the catalyst is in a fluidized
state, allowing for better contact with the feedstock.
3. Moving-Bed Reactors: Used in processes like catalytic reforming, where the catalyst moves
through the reactor along with the feedstock.
4. Tubular Reactors: Employed in processes like steam reforming, where the feedstock flows through
tubes packed with catalyst.
Hydrogenation and Improvement of Gasoline

Introduction

The processes of hydrogenation and gasoline improvement are crucial in refining to enhance fuel quality and
meet stringent environmental standards. This page provides a detailed overview of each process, their
purposes, mechanisms, and the quality standards used to evaluate the final products.

Hydrogenation Process

Purpose: Hydrogenation is primarily used to remove impurities such as sulfur, nitrogen, and unsaturated
hydrocarbons from petroleum fractions. This process improves the stability and quality of the fuel, making it
suitable for further refining and end-use.

Mechanism of Action:

1. Feed Preparation: The feedstock, typically naphtha or other light fractions, is mixed with hydrogen gas.
2. Reactor: The mixture is fed into a fixed-bed reactor containing a catalyst, usually composed of metals like
nickel, molybdenum, or cobalt on an alumina support.
3. Reaction: Under high pressure and temperature, hydrogen reacts with the impurities:
o Desulfurization:
o Denitrogenation:
o Saturation of Unsaturated Hydrocarbons:
4. Separation: The hydrogenated product is separated from the hydrogen sulfide, ammonia, and other by-
products.

Gasoline Improvement Process

Purpose: The improvement of gasoline, often referred to as gasoline reforming, aims to increase the octane
number of the fuel, enhancing its performance in internal combustion engines. This process also reduces the
content of undesirable components.

Mechanism of Action:

1. Feed Preparation: The feedstock, typically naphtha, is preheated and mixed with hydrogen.
2. Reactor: The mixture is fed into a series of reactors containing platinum-based catalysts.
3. Reforming Reactions:
o Dehydrogenation: Converts naphthenes to aromatics, increasing the octane number:

Isomerization: Converts straight-chain hydrocarbons to branched-chain hydrocarbons,

improving combustion properties:

o Hydrocracking: Breaks down larger molecules into smaller, high-octane components:

4. Separation: The reformed gasoline is separated from hydrogen and other by-products.

Quality Standards

The quality of the final gasoline product is evaluated based on several standards:

1. Octane Number: A measure of the fuel’s ability to resist knocking during combustion. Higher octane
numbers indicate better performance.
2. Sulfur Content: Lower sulfur content is preferred to reduce emissions and comply with environmental
regulations.
3. Aromatics Content: Controlled to balance performance and environmental impact.
4. Volatility: Measured by the Reid Vapor Pressure (RVP), indicating the fuel’s evaporation characteristics.
5. Distillation Range: Ensures the fuel vaporizes and burns efficiently across a range of temperatures.
 tanks

Type of pump
Heat exchanger