wa

6-2 Science Revision

Notes

Excel in PSLE Science, and make your parents proud!

Prof: 6-2=4, 6-3=3, 4>3, so 6-2 > 6-3

⚗️🧪🧫🧬 1
6-2 Science Revision Notes ~ 2023
© 2023~Class of 6-2

Table of Contents
Table of Contents..............................................................................................................2
Preface............................................................................................................................. 3
Credits.............................................................................................................................. 4
Diversity of Materials by Brandon and Jacob................................................................... 5
Matter And Its Three States by Jayan and Brandon.........................................................9
Water And Changes in States by Emmanuel and Le Xing............................................. 20
The Water Cycle by Emmanuel, Darius and Max........................................................... 24
Heat and Temperature by Min Zhi, Asher, and Adrian....................................................28
Cells: The Unit of Life by Lexing and Yue Yee................................................................31
Electrical Systems by Haoyu, Max and Ean................................................................... 35
Light and Shadows by Joshua Zhang and Yiming..........................................................41
Digestive System by Jie Hong and Colin........................................................................46
Human Circulatory and Respiratory System by Jie Hong and Colin.............................. 47
Plant Parts and Functions by Meng Hao........................................................................ 50
Plant Transport System by Meng Hao............................................................................ 53
Life Cycles by Darius and Conrad................................................................................. 53
Reproduction in Plants by Asher, Jacob and Jace......................................................... 55
Reproduction in Humans by Meng Hao..........................................................................61
From Parents To Young (Hereditary) by Meng Hao, Lexing........................................... 64
Energy by Zach, Jace, Maoyu, Haoyu............................................................................65
Food Chains & Food Webs by Jayan, Jiaqi, Yue Yee.....................................................68
Forces by Zhirou, Conrad, Adrian, Zach.........................................................................72
Magnets by Jiaqi, Gideon............................................................................................... 75
Ecology by Joshua Zhang, Min Zhi, Yiming....................................................................81
Adaptations by Maoyu, Ean, Elias.................................................................................. 93
Man And His Environment by Zhirou, Elias, Gideon.......................................................99
Cited Sources............................................................................................................... 109
The End!....................................................................................................................... 127

⚗️🧪🧫🧬 2
6-2 Science Revision Notes ~ 2023
© 2023~Class of 6-2

Preface
These Science Revision Notes will have everything you
will need to revise for your PSLE by the end of the June
holidays.
[citation needed]

Each topic is covered in detail, to the point where you

need not touch any other science revision book in your
entire P6 life but these notes.
[citation needed]

You will not regret reading these Science Revision Notes.

We promise. Best of all, it's free. Exclusively for the eyes
of 6-2. Copyrighted.
It’s the 6-2 guarantee.

~ 6-2
Teaching Group of 2023

⚗️🧪🧫🧬 3
6-2 Science Revision Notes ~ 2023
© 2023~Class of 6-2

Credits
This could not have been possible without the help of
Asher Ng An Sheng, Brandon Tiong Guo Tai, Deng Maoyu,
Hou Min Zhi, Jace Lim Jia Xu, Lee Meng Hao,
Wong Zi Hao Ean, Xu Ruiheng Jacob, Darius Loh,
Emmanuel Goh An Swee, Joshua Zhang Huai Zhi, Lim Jayan,
Sim Yue Yee, Sun Le Xing, Tan Wei Kang Max Evan,
Wang Jia Qi, Wu Yiming, Adalbert Colin Tan,
Adrian Anggakusuma, Conrad Lee Ka Yoke, Fang Zhirou,
Gideon Emmanuel Koh, Lee Jia-En Elias, Tay Jie Hong,
Zach Lucas Lim En Yi and Zhang Haoyu,
Thank you for contributing to these Science Notes.
____________________________________________________

Special thanks to the team of co-editors and editors:

Deng Maoyu, Gideon Koh, Sun Le Xing, Tay Jie Hong, Elias Lee,
and Conrad Lee.
____________________________________________________

Very special thanks to Mrs Ng, who gave us the notes and
motivation required to complete this project.
____________________________________________________

⚗️🧪🧫🧬 4
 6-2 Science Revision Notes ~ 2023
© 2023~Class of 6-2

Diversity of Materials by Brandon and Jacob

What are Materials?

1. A material is something which an object is made of.
2. Materials can be natural or man-made.
3. Natural materials can come from animals, plants or minerals.
4. Man-made materials are artificially made.
5. One type of material can be used to make different kinds of objects. For example,
metals can be used to make spoons, keys and forks.
6. A combination of materials can be used to make an object.

There are 7 main types of materials (tested in the syllabus):

1.​ Wood
2.​ Rubber
3.​ Fabric
4.​ Glass
5.​ Metal
6.​ Ceramic
7.​ Plastic

Materials have different properties which could be useful in different situations.

Materials, does it have that property?

Wood Rubber Fabric Glass Metal Ceramic Plastic

Waterproof Yes No Yes No No No No

Transparency No No No Yes No No Depends

Strength Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes

Flexibility No Yes Yes No No No Depends

Ability to float Yes No No No Depends No Yes

in water

⚗️🧪🧫🧬 5
6-2 Science Revision Notes ~ 2023
© 2023~Class of 6-2

How does the property of the material affect how it is used?

Different properties allow for different uses of the material. For example, let’s say you
need to find a material suitable for an umbrella. What properties would you look out for?
Which material has all the properties? (You may refer to the table above)

Some common misconceptions:

Only fabrics are materials — No. There are six more types of materials.
Only building materials are materials — No. There are different materials not used in
building (e.g. rubber, paper, cloth)
Solid is another word for hard (in terms of science). — No, solids are a state of matter.

Some key ideas:

Property of materials

Practice Questions

1.​ The canopy of an umbrella and the raincoat are made of material X that has an
important property which makes it suitable for use.

​ ​ ​ ​

1a. What could material X be? [1 mark]

_____________________________________________________

1b. What is the property of material X that is important for its use? [1 mark]

_____________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________

⚗️🧪🧫🧬 6
6-2 Science Revision Notes ~ 2023
© 2023~Class of 6-2

2.​ Mr Tan is planning to buy a fish tank for his new home. In the table shown below,
put a tick (✔) against those properties that he should consider when deciding on
the right material for the fish tank.​

Properties of materials Tick (✔)

(a) Flexibility

(b) Waterproof

(c) Strength

(d) Ability to float or sink in

water
(e) Allow most light to pass
through

Answers

Question Answer Notes/Explanations

1a Plastic Plastic is a waterproof material.

1b It is waterproof/flexible. Umbrellas and raincoats need to

be waterproof to shield you from
the rain.

2a Fish tanks do not need to be

flexible, as they are simply for
displaying the fish. Not like you
want to bend your fish tank.

2b ✔ Fish tanks have to contain water,

thus it has to be waterproof.

⚗️🧪🧫🧬 7
6-2 Science Revision Notes ~ 2023
© 2023~Class of 6-2

2c ✔ Fish tanks have to be strong to

hold water and not break easily
and release all its contents.

2d Fish tanks aren’t supposed to be in

water in the first place.

2e ✔ Fish tanks have to be transparent

for us to see the fishes within it.

⚗️🧪🧫🧬 8
6-2 Science Revision Notes ~ 2023
© 2023~Class of 6-2

Matter And Its Three States by Jayan and Brandon

What is Matter?
1. All living and non-living things are made up of matter.
2. Matter is anything that has mass and occupies space.
3. Non-matter does not occupy space and does not have mass.
4. Examples of matter include a chair, a table and people.

5. Examples of non-matter include light and shadows.

6. Matter has mass. Mass is the amount of matter contained in a body or an object.
7. The mass of an object can be measured using a beam balance of and electronic
balance.
8. Mass is measured in kilograms, kg in short.

In the syllabus, there are three different states of matter: Solid, liquid and gaseous.

The table below shows the difference between the three states.

Solid Liquid Gaseous

Volume Definite; cannot be compressed Not definite; can be

compressed

Shape Definite, cannot Not definite; can be changed

change

Atomic Structure Atoms are tightly Atoms are less Atoms are further
packed, patterned tightly packed, no away from each
regular other, no regular
arrangement arrangement

⚗️🧪🧫🧬 9
6-2 Science Revision Notes ~ 2023
© 2023~Class of 6-2

Volume

You should know what volume is, as you have learnt it in Maths, but just in case you
were playing with your spinning pen during the lesson, here’s the definition of it. Volume
is the amount of space occupied by an object. Since you were sleeping during
Maths lesson, we will remind you how to calculate the volumes of a few objects.

Shape Formula for volume Notes

Cube length³ A cube’s breadth and height is the same

as its length, hence the quick formula.

Cuboid length x breadth x height All cubes are cuboids.

Cylinder circular base area x height The area of a circle is π x radius².

Sphere 4 𝑥 π 𝑥 𝑟³ You can skip this formula, it is too

3
complicated and out of syllabus.

Mass

Mass is a measure of the amount of matter in an object. The units g and kg are
frequently used. 1 kg is equivalent to 1000g.

101 Guide to Measuring the Amount of Matter

Get an instrument for measuring mass, such as a weighing scale.

Place your object in the correct place.
Look at the reading. That’s the mass.

Classic Problem:

⚗️🧪🧫🧬 10
6-2 Science Revision Notes ~ 2023
© 2023~Class of 6-2

You need to collect stones for making a road, and you want smaller stones so the road
will be more stable. You find 5 little rocks in your garden, but can’t tell which one is the
smallest, so how do you find out?

●​ Fill part of a measuring cylinder with water, enough to submerge the stones you
found. Take down the amount of water you poured in.
●​ Lower the stone such that it is fully submerged in the water of the measuring
cylinder.
●​ Take down the water level now.
●​ The volume of the stone is the difference between the amount of water filled and
the new water level, and record this number.
●​ Repeat this for the other stones.
●​ The stone with the smallest number is the best for building your road.

How matter changes state

Matter is able to change from one state to another by gaining or losing heat. The chart
below shows how this happens.

Gains heat Gains heat

Solid ⇄ Liquid ⇄ Gas

Loses heat Loses heat

When matter is changing state from solid to liquid and from liquid to gas, when it gains
heat, its temperature does not increase until it has fully changed state. The heat energy
is “used” to change state.

When matter is changing state from liquid to solid and from gas to liquid, when it loses
heat, its temperature does not increase until it has fully changed state. The energy loss
is “used” by the particles to change state.

Definitions of the Different Processes Where Matter Changes

State

Melting: A process where a solid changes into a liquid at a fixed temperature.

Boiling: A process where a liquid changes into a gas at a fixed temperature (aka. Boiling
point/100°C).

⚗️🧪🧫🧬 11
6-2 Science Revision Notes ~ 2023
© 2023~Class of 6-2

Evaporation: A process where a liquid changes into a gas at any temperature.

Condensation: A process where a gas changes into a liquid at any temperature.
Freezing: A process where a liquid changes into a solid at a fixed temperature (i.e.
freezing).
Melting: A process where a solid changes into a liquid at a fixed temperature (i.e. the
melting point).
Sublimation: A process where a solid changes into a gas at a fixed temperature directly,
without passing through the liquid state.
Deposition: A process where a gas changes into a solid at a fixed temperature directly,
without passing through the liquid state.

Expansion and Contraction of Matter

When matter gains heat, it expands; when matter loses heat, it contracts. This concept
is used to design many thermometers—the liquid inside expands when it is hotter, and
contracts when it is less hot, changing the liquid level.

Many such thermometers have constrictions that allow the liquid level to stay constant
for a longer time, so the reading is more accurate.

Common misconceptions

When an object expands, it increases in mass and volume — Not fully correct. When an
object expands, its volume increases, as it takes up more space. However, its mass
does not increase but remains the same, as the amount of matter contained in that
object remains the same.

When an object contracts, it decreases in mass and volume — Not fully correct. When
an object contracts, its volume decreases, as it takes up less space. However, its mass
does not decrease but remains the same, as the amount of matter contained in that
object remains the same.

Mass is weight — No. Mass is the amount of matter contained in an object, and is
measured in kilograms. However, weight is the amount of gravitational force acting on
an object. Mass can be measured by taking your weight divided by the amount of
gravitational force acting on the object. The number you see on the weighing scale is
not your weight but your mass.

⚗️🧪🧫🧬 12
6-2 Science Revision Notes ~ 2023
© 2023~Class of 6-2

The volume of a substance does not change as it changes in state — No. It does as
heat has to be gained or lost in order for changes in state and heat gain and loss
causes expansion and contraction.

If there are two objects of the same size but of different materials, they will have the
same mass — No. Different materials have different densities.
The freezing point is not the same as the melting point — No. Both are the same.

Freezing and melting take place at 0°C — No. Although freezing and melting do take
place at 0°C for water, it is incorrect to say that freezing and melting take place at 0°C
otherwise.

Quick question: Which has more mass, 2 kg of feathers or 2 kg of bricks? Trick

question—both are 2 kg.

Some key ideas:

Definitions and properties of matter

Practice Questions

1.​ A man had some substance K in the solid state. He heated it and the change in
temperature of substance K is shown below.

⚗️🧪🧫🧬
1a. At 6 min, what state of matter was his substance K in? [1 mark]

13
6-2 Science Revision Notes ~ 2023
© 2023~Class of 6-2

_____________________________________________________

1b. At which minute was substance K in liquid state? [1 mark]

_____________________________________________________

1c. Identify the boiling point of substance K. [1 mark]

_____________________________________________________

1d. At the 10th minute, what process was substance K going [2 marks]
through? Define the process.

_____________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________

2. A person had four different substances at 28°C. The table below shows the
information he found.

Substance Could it be Could it change Did it occupy

compressed? shape? space?

H No Yes Yes

I Yes Yes Yes

J No No No

K No No Yes

2a. In the table, light was misidentified as a “substance”. [2 marks]

Which one, H, I, J or K, is light? Explain why.

_____________________________________________

⚗️🧪🧫🧬 14
6-2 Science Revision Notes ~ 2023
© 2023~Class of 6-2

_____________________________________________

_____________________________________________

_____________________________________________

_____________________________________________

_____________________________________________

2b. Which one of the substances, H, I, J or K, was a gas? [2 marks]

Explain why.

_____________________________________________

_____________________________________________

_____________________________________________

_____________________________________________

2c. What is the difference between H and J? [1 mark]

_____________________________________________

_____________________________________________

2d. The person had a syringe and put two of the [1 mark]
substances in the syringe. He was unable to push the
plunger down. Identify which two substances were in
the syringe.

_____________________________________________

⚗️🧪🧫🧬 15
6-2 Science Revision Notes ~ 2023
© 2023~Class of 6-2

3. A student turned a plastic cup upside down and pushed it into a container of
water. His observation is shown in the diagram below:

Water should not have entered the cup when it was pushed down. However,
when the student pushed the cup down, water entered the cup instead.

3a. What was wrong with the student’s cup?​ ​ ​ [2 marks]

Explain why it allowed water to enter.

​ _________________________________________________

​ _________________________________________________

⚗️🧪🧫🧬 16
6-2 Science Revision Notes ~ 2023
© 2023~Class of 6-2

​ _________________________________________________

​ _________________________________________________

​ _________________________________________________
​
​ _________________________________________________

​ _________________________________________________
3b. The student got a cup which had no problems. He was [1 mark]
​ able to let water not enter the cup. What could he
conclude from this experiment?

​ _________________________________________________

​ 3c. What else does the student need to conclude to confirm [1 mark]
​ that air is matter?

​ _________________________________________________

​
4. Parry set up an experiment as shown below. At the start of the experiment, the
water level in the beaker was marked at X. When he dropped a metal ball into
the beaker of water, the water level rose to Y.

What does this experiment show? [2 marks]

⚗️🧪🧫🧬 17
6-2 Science Revision Notes ~ 2023
© 2023~Class of 6-2

​ _________________________________________________

​ _________________________________________________

5. The diagram below shows two containers of air, each with

500cm³ of air.

5a. What was the volume of air in container X after 300 cm³ of [2 marks]
air was released from it?

​ _________________________________________________

​ _________________________________________________

​ After the air was released, the appearance of the set-up was as shown below.

⚗️🧪🧫🧬 18
6-2 Science Revision Notes ~ 2023
© 2023~Class of 6-2

​ 5b. Give an explanation for what you see above. [2 marks]

_________________________________________________

​ _________________________________________________

​ _________________________________________________

​ _________________________________________________

Question Answer Notes/Explanations

1a Substance K was in the solid It was mentioned that substance K

state. [1 mark] was in the solid state, and at 6 min,
it had not changed state yet.

1b 11 min/12 min/13 min [1 mark] 8 min/9 min/10 min [0 marks]

Substance K was melting during
that time.
11/12/13 [0 marks] No units.

1c 46°C [1 mark] The temperature remained

constant though it was getting
heated, and substance K was
previously a liquid, so you can tell
that it is boiling.

1d Substance K was melting at 34°C. Substance K was melting at 34°C.

[1 mark] Melting is a process when [1 mark] Melting is a process when
a solid changes into a liquid at a a solid changes into a liquid. [0 or
fixed temperature. [1 mark] ½ mark if you are generous] It is
important to state that melting
happens at a fixed temperature.

2a Substance J was light. [1 mark] Misconception: Light is matter.

According to the table, J was the
only thing that did not occupy
space, and light is not matter and
does not occupy space. [1 mark]

2b Substance I was a gas. [1 mark] Gases can both change shape and
Gases can be compressed and be compressed.
can change shape, and the table
showed that substance I could be
compressed and could change

⚗️🧪🧫🧬 19
6-2 Science Revision Notes ~ 2023
© 2023~Class of 6-2

shape. [1 mark]

2c Answer 1: J is light.
H is matter while J is not matter.
[1 mark]
Answer 2:
H occupies space while J does
not occupy space. [1 mark]

2d H and K. I cannot be compressed, and J is

not matter.

3a There was a hole at the bottom The concept that matter occupies
of the student’s cup. [1 mark]. space is tested here.
This allowed air in the cup to
escape from the container and
water to take its place. [1 mark]

3b Air occupies space. [1 mark] Air has mass. [0 marks] No, this
cannot be proven from the
experiment.

3c Air has mass. [1 mark]

4 The metal ball has a definite There was a difference in water

volume [1 mark] and occupies level when the metal ball was
space. [1 mark] dropped into the beaker of water.
This shows that the metal ball took
up space in the container which
caused the water level to rise.

5a The volume of air in container X Gases have no fixed volume, so

remains the same, at 50cm³. [2 when air is released, the volume of
marks] air in container X stays the same.

5b Air has mass. After 300cm³ of air Gases do not have a fixed volume,
was released [1 mark] from but they have a fixed mass. Thus,
container X, the container’s mass after 300cm³ of air was released,
decreased since it had less air. [1 the amount of matter in container X
mark] decreased and became lighter.

⚗️🧪🧫🧬 20
6-2 Science Revision Notes ~ 2023
© 2023~Class of 6-2

Water And Changes in States by Emmanuel and

Le Xing

What is water?

Water is very important for living things. All living things need water. Water can be used
for many life processes. (See The Water Cycle)

Water is useful for life processes. Water is a compound made of two hydrogen
molecules and one oxygen molecule. In plants, water is used in photosynthesis to make
glucose. In any cell, water can be used to give shape to the cell. Water is used to make
energy (and live).

What are the three states of water?

Water can be in three states: Solid, liquid and gas. Water is most commonly found on
Earth as a liquid. Water freezes at 0 degrees Celsius and it is called ice. Water boils at
100 degrees Celsius and is called steam after it changes state after it boils. Water
evaporates at any temperature between 0 and 100 degrees Celsius into a gaseous form
called water vapour.

Purposes of the different states of water

Water: (See above)

Ice: Ice is very cold. Humans use ice to cool down things. Like the ice in a cup of cold
water. (I just realised - isn’t this just using water to cool down water?)

Steam: One use of steam is to make electricity. Steam is denser than air. When steam
rises, it can spin a turbine. The turbine is connected to a generator that also spins. It
then makes electricity to do things like power your washing machine. (Also, you could
connect the inside of the washing machine directly to the turbine and still make your
clothes clean. But if you do that and something happens to you, your clothes or the
washing machine… Well then you deserve that (-_-) )

⚗️🧪🧫🧬 21
6-2 Science Revision Notes ~ 2023
© 2023~Class of 6-2

Heat loss – Freezing (Liquid to solid state)

-Temperature is a measure of how hot or cold something is. It is measured in degrees
Celsius.
-The freezing point of water is the temperature at which the liquid (water in this case)
changes from a liquid state to a solid state due to heat loss.
-The freezing point of water is zero degrees celsius.

Heat loss – Condensation (Gas to liquid)

-Condensation is the change in the state of water from a gas to a liquid due to heat loss.
-Steam is hot water vapour. Like water vapour at any other temperature, it condenses
when it meets a cooler surface.

Heat Gain – Melting (Solid to liquid)

-Melting is the change in the state of water from a solid to a liquid due to heat gain.
-The temperature at which ice melts is called its melting point.

Extreme heat gain - Sublimation (Solid to gas)

Fun fact: Water can also sublimate below 0 degrees Celsius at a surrounding pressure
of less than 612 pascals. Pascals is the unit for measuring pressure.

⚗️🧪🧫🧬 22
6-2 Science Revision Notes ~ 2023
© 2023~Class of 6-2

-​ Sublimation is the change in the state of water from a solid to a gas due to the
solid being exposed to high amount of energy (namely heat energy)
-​ Occurs very rarely

What differentiates the different states?

(Refer to Matter and Its Three States)

The lower the temperature of anything, the less its atoms move around. When the
temperature of water hits 0 degree Celsius, its atoms move so slowly it becomes solid.
When water hits 100 degree Celsius, it disperses so much it becomes a gas.

Common misconceptions
When water evaporates, the white thing we see is steam.
When water evaporates, the white thing we see is water vapour/steam condensing into
tiny water droplets, not steam.

Water and ice are two different materials.

Water and ice are the same thing, just in different states

When ice is melting into water, the temperature is not going up so no heat energy is put
into the system.
When ice is melting into water, heat energy being put into the system is used for melting
the ice, not increasing the temperature.

⚗️🧪🧫🧬 23
6-2 Science Revision Notes ~ 2023
© 2023~Class of 6-2

Some key ideas:

Definitions (again), direction of heat gain and loss, comparatives: cooler surface

The Water Cycle by Emmanuel, Darius and Max

The water cycle is not, in fact, a bicycle. [citation needed]
Instead, it is the continuous movement of water from the earth, to the sky and back to
the earth. It can occur because water is able to change into the 3 main states of matter
— solid, liquid and gas. Here’s a nice picture:

⚗️🧪🧫🧬 24
6-2 Science Revision Notes ~ 2023
© 2023~Class of 6-2

The 3 parts of the water cycle are evaporation, condensation, and then precipitation.
Evaporation refers to the groundwater collected in water bodies gaining heat energy
from the sun and evaporating into water vapour, rising into the air. (since hot air rises
and thus water vapour in the hot air will also rise, see Heat and Temperature) This water
can evaporate from the ground and water bodies. (e.g. lakes, reservoirs, rivers and
oceans) Living things (such as plants and animals) also release water vapour into the
air through respiration.
Condensation: Warm air cools as it rises. Hence, the water vapour in it cools and
condenses into tiny water droplets, which gather to form clouds. When the water
droplets get too big…
Precipitation! The clouds release the water as either rain, snow, sleet, hail, frost or even
graupel. (see below for an explanation of these different types of precipitation) Most
(78%) of the rain that falls lands in the oceans to restart the cycle anew, but some will
fall onto land and then flow into water bodies as surface runoff.

Explanation:
Sleet is rain that falls from clouds but freezes before it reaches the ground.
Graupel appears when snow falls in the form of a ball instead of soft flakes. This
happens when snow is melted and precipitation forms around the snow crystal.
Snow is made up of snowflakes. When the temperature drops below 0 degrees Celsius,
the water droplets in the clouds freeze to form ice crystals. The ice crystals collide with
one another and more water vapour condenses and freezes on them, making
snowflakes.
Hail is frozen rain or hailstones that fall from the sky, usually during summer
[Link] temperature at the top of clouds is low, so water droplets freeze
when they are carried to the top. Air movements inside the clouds carry the frozen water
droplets up and down many times. Each time they rise, another layer of ice forms
around them. This continues until the frozen water is too heavy to be carried by the air.
They will then fall to the ground as hailstones.
Frost occurs when the temperature of the ground is below freezing. The air above the
ground gets very cold and the water vapour in the air freezes into tiny crystals, forming
a sparkling white coat of frost on the ground and on trees. (this kind of sounds like
precipitation but not really.)

Anyways, let’s talk about clouds! Clouds provide us with mostly rain, snow or hail, which
are forms of fresh water. Clouds also help to reduce the effect of the Sun’s direct rays
on the earth.

Importance

⚗️🧪🧫🧬 25
6-2 Science Revision Notes ~ 2023
© 2023~Class of 6-2

The water cycle is important since all living things need water to stay alive. It is also the
only natural way to refresh water and ensures a constant supply of fresh water for all
living things on earth. The water cycle cleans water since when water evaporates, all
the dirty things are left behind. Then water rains back down as pure water (plus a bit of
acid)

Why we need water

Humans need water to carry out basic functions such as living. If we do not have clean
water, we will not be able to live. And many living things like living. Water often gets dirty
and is not safe for drinking.

In humans, water is vital. It makes up about 75% of the human body and is used in
several organ systems. In the digestive system, water is needed to digest food, absorb
digested food and to pass out waste. In the respiratory system, water is needed for
gaseous exchange between the lungs and inhaled air. In the lungs, the air sacs (alveoli)
are surrounded with a thin layer of water. Oxygen dissolves in this layer of water before
entering the bloodstream. Carbon dioxide also dissolves in this layer of water before
being released into the alveoli to be exhaled. In the circulatory system, water is needed
in the blood to carry oxygen and digested food to different parts of our body. It also
carries carbon dioxide and other waste away from the rest of our body.

Plants also need water. Water is a vital ingredient in photosynthesis along with carbon
dioxide. With light energy, plants can produce oxygen, a vital gas for life.

Water is also a very good coolant. It has a very high specific heat capacity which means
it takes a lot of energy to raise the temperature of water by 1 degree celsius. As a result,
water can absorb a lot more energy without heating too much.
Example: Let’s say we have a material with a specific heat capacity that is very low. If
we use it in a generator (let’s say nuclear), the generator will make a lot of heat energy
which will heat the material up a lot. Water can absorb this energy from the material and
not heat up as much as the material in the generator. If we didn’t use water as the
coolant, it is possible that the generator gains too much heat and goes BOOM.
(Remember that it was a nuclear generator, folks.) Oh and it’s cheap, that’s why it's
used as an industrial coolant.

Water is sometimes referred to as the “universal solvent”. This means that it can
dissolve a lot of other materials. This is the primary reason why the salt in the ocean is
not just floating on the water but instead is dissolved into the water.

⚗️🧪🧫🧬 26
6-2 Science Revision Notes ~ 2023
© 2023~Class of 6-2

⚗️🧪🧫🧬 27
6-2 Science Revision Notes ~ 2023
© 2023~Class of 6-2

Heat and Temperature by Min Zhi, Asher, and Adrian

Definitions
Heat is a form of energy.
Temperature is a measurement of the amount of heat in an object.

Sources of heat
Things that produce heat are known as heat sources.
Some examples include:
●​ The sun
●​ Burning wood, coal
●​ Some electrical appliances e.g. oven, stove, hair dryer, electric iron
●​ Some sources of light such as light bulbs (that are turned on) and candles (that
are lit)
COMMON MISCONCEPTION: Not all items that give off heat or light are heat sources.
See the table below for more information.

Heat Source Non-Heat Source

-​ Potentially unlimited source of heat -​ Eventually, the temperature of the

-​ The temperature of the item in item in question will equalise with
question will not equalise with that that of its surroundings.
of its surroundings

Measuring Temperature
PART I: Using our sense of touch
This is simple - just touch the object you want to measure the temperature of. Be
warned that this should not be done if you are in a scientific lab, as doing this usually
removes most of your hand (and body, depending on what you touched).
On a serious note, measuring temperature with your hands is (very) inaccurate because
the temperature that our hands feel is relative to the surrounding temperature. Also,
they do not have a certain unit to abide by, so we can only guess the temperature from
past experiences. Do not touch anything that is excessively hot or cold :)

PART II: Using Thermometers

A thermometer is an instrument that gives an accurate measurement of temperature.
To measure temperature with an authentic thermometer, make sure the metal tip of the
thermometer is in physical contact with the thing you want to measure. (Most of the

⚗️🧪🧫🧬 28
6-2 Science Revision Notes ~ 2023
© 2023~Class of 6-2

time, liquids). A more modern thermometer was used during COVID-19 to measure
temperature without contact, by measuring the amount of infrared radiation (body heat)
your body is producing.
The most common types of thermometers are oral-digital thermometers, laboratory
thermometers (alcohol/mercury), and temperature sensors with data loggers.
This method usually provides reliable results (instant with the data logger).

How is heat transferred?

Heat is always transferred from matter of higher temperature to matter of lower
temperature until both objects reach the same temperature.
For example:
●​ When a pot of water is heated up on a fire, the water gains heat from the fire.
●​ When the pot of hot water is placed in a cold room, the heat from the water is
transferred to the cooler surroundings.
Metals gain heat faster than other materials.

COMMON MISCONCEPTION - Metals always have a lower temperature (even though

they are at the same temperature) than other materials because metals feel colder.

THIS IS WRONG! Metals feel colder than other materials even though they are at the
same temperature because metals conduct heat faster, thus they transfer heat away
from your warmer body faster than other materials. The same thing applies when the
materials are warmer than your body temperature, as metals will transfer heat to your
body faster than other materials that are poorer heat conductors.
Also, never say that a material is a worse conductor of heat. Always say “poorer” and
“better”.

Heat vs Temperature
COMMON MISCONCEPTION - Heat is the same as temperature.
THIS IS WRONG! Heat is not the same as temperature! Heat is a form of energy, but
temperature is a measurement of the degree of hotness of an object, as stated in the
header.

Effect of Heat on Matter

When matter is heated, it expands. When matter is cooled, it contracts. Simple stuff.
Most of the time, gases expand and contract more and faster than solids or liquids, and
metals tend to expand and contract more than other materials.
When something expands or contracts, it still has the same mass, but gains or loses
volume respectively.

⚗️🧪🧫🧬 29
6-2 Science Revision Notes ~ 2023
© 2023~Class of 6-2

Note on bimetallic strips:

These are made of 2 stips of different metals
fused together. The 2 metals have different rates
of expansion, causing the strip to bend when
heated.
Example: (NOT RELATED TO THE IMAGE)
bimetallic strip A has the metal with the faster rate
of expansion on the bottom. It will bend towards
the bottom of the strip when heated.
In this image, the brass expands faster than the steel. When the strip is heated, it bends
as shown. When it is cooled, it bends in the opposite direction.
In the image, the steel on the bottom expands and contracts slower than the brass, so it
bends upwards when heated, and downwards when cooled.

Common Questions

1.​ Difference between heat and temperature.

2.​ Drawing graphs about changes in temperature over time.
3.​ Relationship statements about how [IV] affects the temperature, or vice versa.
4.​ Linked to energy conversion (see Energy) and state changes (Matter and its 3
states)
5.​ Expansion and contraction (very fixed answering template, example below)
-​ The (thing) gained/lost heat and expanded/contracted,
increasing/decreasing its volume.
6.​ Matter and 3 states conversion, like this:
-​ Warmer water vapour came into contact with the cooler inner/outer
surface of the (thing), lost heat, and condensed to form tiny water droplets
(this is just an example)
-​ The ice cubes gained heat from the hot fire and melted to form water,
which gained more heat from the fire and evaporated to form water
vapour.
7.​ Why do railroad tracks buckle in the hot summer?
-​ The railroad tracks gained heat from the hot Sun, expanded, increasing in
volume, and pushed against each other, causing them to buckle.
That is all.

⚗️🧪🧫🧬 30
6-2 Science Revision Notes ~ 2023
© 2023~Class of 6-2

Some key ideas:

Templates for questions

Cells: The Unit of Life by Lexing and Yue Yee

Some diagrams that you can refer to:

Alright, so the drawing of the cell on top is an animal cell. The one on the bottom is a
plant cell.

Parts and functions of each cell:

Nucleus:
-​ Contains genetic material passed down from parents to young.

⚗️🧪🧫🧬
-​ Controls all activities in the cell, such as cell repair

31
6-2 Science Revision Notes ~ 2023
© 2023~Class of 6-2

-​ Allows the cell to undergo cell division, enabling more cells to be created or
replace dead or damaged cells.

Cytoplasm:
-​ Where chemical reactions or activities take place in the cell
-​ Allows substances to be transported within the cell
-​ Is mostly made of water
Cell membrane:
-​ Selectively permeable
-​ Controls the movement of substances into and out of the cell. It allows only
some substances to enter the cell.
Chloroplast:
-​ Contains chlorophyll which traps light, allowing the cell to make food for the plant
through photosynthesis. They are only found inside of plant leaf cells, or
microorganisms.
Cell wall:
-​ Fully permeable and allows most substances to pass through
-​ Supports the cell and helps the cell to maintain its regular shape
-​ Prevent the cell from bursting when too much water (or liquid) enters the cell

Special Cells
-​ Root hair cell does not contain chloroplasts. They are shaped like a normal root
cell with an elongated part sticking out. It increases the exposed surface area of
the root to the nutrients in the soil so that a greater rate of absorption can
happen.
-​ Mature red blood cell does not contain a nucleus. They do not need a nucleus as
their only purpose is to transport Oxygen, digested food to all parts of the body
and Carbon Dioxide, waste materials from all parts of the body.

So, we note the difference between animal cells and plant cells:
-​ All plant cells have a cell wall.
-​ Some plant cells have chloroplasts.
-​ Some microorganisms have chloroplasts but not cell walls. However, they are still
more similar to the plant cell.
-​ All animal cells do not have a cell wall.
-​ All animal cells do not have chloroplasts.

⚗️🧪🧫🧬 32
6-2 Science Revision Notes ~ 2023
© 2023~Class of 6-2

Misconceptions:
-​ You have to inject genetic material to the nucleus even if you want to modify
another cell part. (e.g. If you want the cell to be less selectively permeable, you
do not modify the cell membrane, but the nucleus.)

Biological Drawing of a cell:

A cell wall is labelled as a line to the exterior parts of the cell.

A cell membrane is labelled as a line to the interior parts of the cell.
A nucleus is labelled as a large, coloured dot.
Chloroplasts are labelled as smaller, coloured dots that appear in plant cells only.

Take note: The drawing must:

-​ Be done in pencil
-​ Occupy at least ⅔ of the space given
-​ Have labels of each cell part EXCEPT the vacuole as it is not part of the syllabus.
-​ Be clearly visible
-​ Have no rough lines (disconnecting lines).
-​ Contain a title of the diagram or name of the cell
(See the picture below for referencing)

⚗️🧪🧫🧬 33
6-2 Science Revision Notes ~ 2023
© 2023~Class of 6-2

Some key ideas:

Photosynthesis and definitions

Practice questions:

1(a) State 1 difference between a plant cell and an animal cell. [1]

1(b) A scientist wants to modify the cell membrane such that it allows more substances
to pass through. Which cell part should he inject the genetic material? [1]

1(c) Why do some plant cells not have chloroplasts? Give one example of such a cell.
[2]

1(d) Explain why an animal cell, after being put in a dish of water for 10 minutes, bursts.
[1]

Answers:

1(a) A plant cell has a cell wall but an animal cell does A plant cell has
not have a cell wall. (1) chloroplasts but an animal
cell does not have
chloroplasts. (0) Not all
plant cells have
chloroplasts

1(b) The Nucleus. (1) Cell membrane (0)

Any other cell part (0)

1(c) Some parts of the plant are underground and not … do not need
exposed to sunlight (½). Hence, the cells in that chloroplasts to undergo
part do not need chloroplasts which contain photosynthesis (-1 mark)
chlorophyll to trap light and make food through Did not specify what
photosynthesis (1). An example is the root hair happens during
cell (½). photosynthesis.

1(d) An animal cell has no cell wall to support the cell Did not mention the
and give the cell its shape, causing the cell to function of cell wall (0).
burst when too much water enters (1).

⚗️🧪🧫🧬 34
6-2 Science Revision Notes ~ 2023
© 2023~Class of 6-2

Electrical Systems by Haoyu, Max and Ean

The basics:
Electricity is a form of energy and can be used in electrical equipment to produce other
forms of energy such as heat, light and sound.
The path that electricity flows through is the electric circuit.
Note: Electricity always takes the path of least resistance through a circuit. If a circuit
has equally resistant paths, electricity will go through all of them.

A simple electrical circuit is made of batteries, wires, a load (e.g. a bulb) and a switch.

Battery
A battery is a source of energy. It has a positive and a negative end. When the two ends
are connected together, a closed circuit is formed and electricity can flow through the
circuit.

⚗️🧪🧫🧬 35
6-2 Science Revision Notes ~ 2023
© 2023~Class of 6-2

Note:
Batteries DO NOT store electrical energy, they store chemical potential energy which is
converted to electrical energy in the wires.

Wires
A wire is made for an electrical current to flow through and is usually made of copper as
it is cheap and is a good conductor of electricity. They are also covered with insulators
of electricity such as rubber or plastic.

Switch
A switch is used to control the flow of electricity in a circuit. When the switch is closed,
the circuit is complete and electricity can flow through the circuit. When the switch is
open, the circuit is also open and so electricity cannot flow through the circuit.

Loads

A load is a device that uses electrical energy to do work

A commonly tested load is the bulb, a.k.a. a light-bulb, which turns electrical energy into
light energy i.e. producing light.

Diagram of a bulb (we drew it so sry for any bad drawings :) )

⚗️🧪🧫🧬 36
6-2 Science Revision Notes ~ 2023
© 2023~Class of 6-2

The casing and metal tips of the bulb are connected to different [Link] watch out for
sneaky circuit drawings where the bulbs are not connected properly! (i.e. both are
connected to casing or tip) (Same for batteries)

Note:
When they ask you why the bulb did/did not light up, write:
The circuit was open/closed so electricity could not/could pass through the circuit and
light up the bulb.

Open and closed circuit

When all the components of an electrical circuit are connected to each other, a closed
circuit is formed. Electricity flows from the negative end of the batteries, through all the
circuit components and to the positive end of the battery.

When all the components of an electrical circuit are not properly connected to each
other, an open circuit is formed.

⚗️🧪🧫🧬
Series and parallel circuits

37
6-2 Science Revision Notes ~ 2023
© 2023~Class of 6-2

A series circuit is a circuit with two or more appliances and only one path for electric
current to flow through. A parallel circuit is a circuit where there is more than one path
for electricity to flow through.
Here’s a table for the advantages and disadvantages of each type of circuit. Who
knows? It might just come out for exams!

Series circuit Parallel circuit

advantages The power source will last 1. The other component

longer will still work even when a
component is
broken/removed
2. The bulbs will be
brighter

disadvantages 1. The bulbs will not be as The power source will not
bright last that long
2. The other component
will not work when a
component is
broken/removed

diagram

Electrical conductors and insulators

Materials that allow electric current to flow through easily are conductors of electricity.

⚗️🧪🧫🧬
Materials that don’t are insulators of electricity

38
6-2 Science Revision Notes ~ 2023
© 2023~Class of 6-2

Most metals are good conductors of electricity

Most materials other than metals are insulators of electricity
Note:graphite is a non metal that conducts electricity.(might come up in exam 2 trick
students)

🚨important exam stuff🚨

Circuit diagrams:

Different symbols to represent different circuit parts:

component drawing

battery

⚗️🧪🧫🧬 39
6-2 Science Revision Notes ~ 2023
© 2023~Class of 6-2

Open switch

Closed switch

bulb

wires

Also, when drawing your circuit diagrams, ensure that:

-​ There are no short circuits
-​ There are no gaps
-​ The circles in the switches are not shaded

⚗️🧪🧫🧬
-​ You use a ruler and pencil for your drawing

40
6-2 Science Revision Notes ~ 2023
© 2023~Class of 6-2

-​ All components are not placed at corners

-​ The diagram is more than ⅔ of the space given

There are other components tested, but you do not need to memorise them, as their
function and symbol in the circuit diagram is explained in the question. These other
components include:
●​ two/three/four/etc. way switches
●​ Buzzers? (speakers)
etc.

Common PSLE Questions

Factors affecting electric current in a circuit

Arrangement of batteries/bulbs
Number of batteries/appliances

Some key ideas:

Closed/open circuit, current flows through ___

Light and Shadows by Joshua Zhang and Yiming

Light and its sources
1.​ Light is a form of energy(Light energy) which enables us to see things.
2.​ A light source is any object that is able to give off light on its own. Light
sources can be natural or artificial
3.​ Natural light sources
a.​ Sun
b.​ Star
c.​ Firefly
d.​ Lightning
4.​ Artificial light sources
a.​ Torch
b.​ Electric bulb

⚗️🧪🧫🧬
c.​ Flame from burning fuels

41
6-2 Science Revision Notes ~ 2023
© 2023~Class of 6-2

5.​ THE SUN IS OUR MAIN (PRIMARY SOURCE) OF LIGHT IN THE DAY
6.​ The Moon is not a source of light. It reflects light from the Sun into our eyes so it
looks bright.

Properties of light:
1.​ Light travels in a straight line
a.​ For objects that are blocked by other objects(e.g. In the classic apple at
the top of the tube and the eye at the bottom of the tube example aka the
periscope), we can make use of reflective surfaces such as mirrors as the
light reflected from the object is reflected by the mirrors into our
eyes at a straight path and angle
b.​ This property allows shadows to be formed. (Blocked by materials that
do not allow light to pass through)

2.​ Light can be:

a.​ Reflected
i.​ Light can be reflected off surfaces into our eyes which enables us
to see objects. In other words, the path of light is:
Light→object→eyes

Below is a visual representation of the above concept:

⚗️🧪🧫🧬 42
6-2 Science Revision Notes ~ 2023
© 2023~Class of 6-2

ii.​ Objects that have smooth and shiny surfaces reflect more light
than objects with rough and dark surfaces
b.​ Transmitted
i.​ When light passes through a surface
c.​ Absorbed
i.​ When light is absorbed by a surface
d.​ Refracted
i.​ Bending of light as it passes from one medium to another
caused by change in speed.
e.​
3.​ Roughness/Smoothness of surface

​
a.​ Light reflects off smoother surfaces at regular angles
b.​ Light reflects off rough surfaces at different angles in different directions

⚗️🧪🧫🧬
How Shadows are formed

43
6-2 Science Revision Notes ~ 2023
© 2023~Class of 6-2

As mentioned before, light travels in straight lines. Shadows are formed when light is
blocked by an object(e.g. wall, person etc) as light cannot bend.
A shadow will always form on the opposite side of the light source and the shape of the
shadow is similar to the shape of the object blocking the path of the light.
Different types of materials will produce different kinds of shadows as they allow
different amounts of light to pass through them. These materials can be(albeit very
generally) classified into 3 types: Transparent, Translucent and Opaque. The section
below will discuss more on the materials.
Different types of materials and how much light can pass through
them
Type of material Amount of light that Type of shadow Examples of such
can pass through it produced by materials
material

Transparent All or most light Little or no Glass, Air

shadows

Translucent Some light Light shadows Frosted glass,

Tracing paper

Opaque No light Dark shadows Wood, Metal

Changing shapes and sizes of shadows

The size of the object depends on the position of the object itself, the light source and
the screen(the place where the shadow is formed).
When the object is nearer to the light source, a bigger shadow is formed on the screen.
When the object is further from the light source, a smaller shadow is formed on the
screen.
When the object is further from the screen, a bigger shadow is formed on the screen.
When the object is nearer to the screen, a smaller shadow is formed on the screen.

You can actually draw the above effects out. To save your lazy hands the grunt work, I
have put the visual representations below:

⚗️🧪🧫🧬 44
6-2 Science Revision Notes ~ 2023
© 2023~Class of 6-2

Closer to screen=smaller shadow

Closer to light source=bigger shadow

Farther from light source=smaller shadow

The Sun and its shadows (Classic question)

1.​ The position of the sun as seen on earth changes at different times of the day.
This affects the lengths and positions of shadows formed on Earth.

⚗️🧪🧫🧬 45
6-2 Science Revision Notes ~ 2023
© 2023~Class of 6-2

2.​ The Sun is the highest in the sky at noon and lowest in the morning and evening,
thus the shadows of objects at noon are the shortest

Some key ideas:

Definitions

Digestive System by Jie Hong and Colin

How the digestive system works
​ The digestive system works together with the circulatory and respiratory systems
to give you the energy to allow you to perform daily activities (e.g. running, walking).
The digestive system breaks down food into simpler substances to be absorbed into the
bloodstream where the circulatory system then transports the digested food via the
blood to other parts of the body. All the undigested food is then released through the
anus.

The Digestive system - Parts and their functions

●​ Mouth
○​ The mouth has teeth which help to break down food into smaller pieces
(not simpler substances) by cutting the food. This increases the surface
area of the food exposed to the digestive juices, increasing the rate of
digestion. The mouth also contains saliva which helps with this process.
Some digestion occurs and begins here.
●​ Gullet
○​ The gullet is a tube used to transport the pieces of food from the mouth to
the stomach. No digestion occurs here
●​ Stomach
○​ The stomach is an organ where digestive juices are released to break
down the small pieces of food into simpler substances. Some digestion

⚗️🧪🧫🧬
occurs here

46
6-2 Science Revision Notes ~ 2023
© 2023~Class of 6-2

●​ Small intestine
○​ The small intestine digests undigested food and the digested food is then
absorbed into the bloodstream where it gets transported to other parts of
the body by the circulatory system. Digestion is completed here.
●​ Large intestine
○​ The large intestine absorbs the remaining water from the undigested
food into the bloodstream as well. Misconception: Digestion is
completed in the large intestine. Correct concept: Digestion is completed
at the small intestine. All remaining substances are digested there. The
large intestine only absorbs water from the undigested food.
●​ Rectum
○​ The rectum is just before the anus and it holds your undigested food
(poop) until it is time to release it.
●​ Anus
○​ The undigested food from the body is released through the anus as poop
(scientifically the correct term is faeces)

Some key ideas:

Digested food absorbed into bloodstream

Human Circulatory and Respiratory System

by Jie Hong and Colin

The parts and functions of the Circulatory System

●​ Blood
○​ Blood is used as a medium to transport various substances throughout the
body.
○​ Blood flows through thin tubes called blood vessels.

●​ Blood vessels
○​ Blood vessels include arteries and veins. Arteries carry blood away from
the heart and veins carry blood towards the heart.
●​ Heart
○​ The heart is a large muscle that pumps the blood mentioned before
throughout the body.
○​ It keeps the blood flowing continuously and pumps it to wherever
necessary.
The parts and functions of the Respiratory system

⚗️🧪🧫🧬 47
6-2 Science Revision Notes ~ 2023
© 2023~Class of 6-2

●​ Windpipe
○​ During inhalation, air travels from the nose, through the windpipe into the
lungs. Misconception: The air travels through the gullet into the lungs.
●​ Diaphragm
○​ The diaphragm separates the chest cavity from the abdominal cavity to
prevent lungs from being crushed when air moves out of them.
●​ Nose
○​ During inhalation and exhalation, air travels in and out of the nose.
●​ lungs
○​ The lungs contain many air sacs or alveoli which are connected by bronchi
(branches) which are passages where air can move in.
○​ In each air sac in the lungs, blood in the capillaries take in oxygen and
release carbon dioxide produced by the cells back to the air sacs. This
process is known as gaseous exchange.
○​ When we exhale, carbon dioxide is removed from the lungs via the nose
as stated above.
Composition of air
●​ The air that we breathe consists of a mixture of different gases
○​ 78% is nitrogen
○​ 21% is oxygen
○​ 0.04% is carbon dioxide
○​ The rest consists of a variable amount of water vapour and other gases

Breathing VS Respiration
●​ Breathing is taking in and giving out air
●​ Respiration is the reaction in cells when oxygen and nutrients are used to
produce carbon dioxide and energy

Breathing Respiration

Parts of the body which are Mouth, nose, windpipe, All living cells in the body
involved diaphragm, lungs

Role of oxygen Taken in as part of the air Used to break down food &
breathed in release energy

Role of Carbon Dioxide Given off as part of the air Produced when food is
breathed out broken down

⚗️🧪🧫🧬 48
6-2 Science Revision Notes ~ 2023
© 2023~Class of 6-2

How do the Circulatory, Respiratory and Digestive systems work

together?
​ The respiratory system takes in oxygen from the surrounding air and releases
carbon dioxide from the body. The oxygen is then taken into the bloodstream of the
circulatory system. The heart then pumps the blood in the bloodstream containing the
oxygen and the oxygen is then transported to other parts of the body. The digestive
system takes in the food eaten by you and breaks the food into simpler substances
and digests it. Digestion takes place in the mouth, stomach and small intestine. The
oxygen from the bloodstream is transported to the small intestine of the digestive
system. The digested food from the stomach is then absorbed and digested at the
small intestine. The absorbed food is then transported to other parts of the body
(including parts of the respiratory system like the lungs) via the blood which is
pumped by the heart.

Some key ideas:

Heart pump blood faster, energy from transpiration; Oxygen and digested food; Carbon
dioxide and waste

⚗️🧪🧫🧬 49
6-2 Science Revision Notes ~ 2023
© 2023~Class of 6-2

Plant Parts and Functions by Meng Hao

1.​ Leaves

Function: To trap light and use carbon dioxide and water to make food for the
plant using chloroplasts and to transpire and to respire.
2.​ Roots

Function: To absorb water and nutrients from the soil for the plant, anchor the
plant firmly in the soil and to store food.

Type of roots Description Examples

Storage roots Swollen root that Sweet potato

store extra food

Clasping roots Anchor to a support Ivy

Aerial roots Grow in the air orchids

⚗️🧪🧫🧬 50
6-2 Science Revision Notes ~ 2023
© 2023~Class of 6-2

Prop roots Grow above ground Banyan

and act as support
for plant

3.​ Stem

Function: To transport water and food to all parts of the plant via the food
and water carrying tubes (xylem and phloem), store food and to hold the
plant up to get more sunlight.
4.​ Flowers

Function: To attract the birds or insects for help in pollination and fertilisation
and to develop into fruits or seeds.
5.​ Fruit

⚗️🧪🧫🧬 51
6-2 Science Revision Notes ~ 2023
© 2023~Class of 6-2

Function: To protect their seeds from unfavourable conditions, store food inside
them, helps in dispersal of the seed and to facilitate germination.
6.​ Seeds

Function: To protect and nourish the embryo or young plant.

Some key ideas:

Definitions, photosynthesis

⚗️🧪🧫🧬 52
6-2 Science Revision Notes ~ 2023
© 2023~Class of 6-2

Plant Transport System by Meng Hao

Water transport system:

1.​ The water and minerals that the plants get starts off being absorbed through
osmosis in the roots.
2.​ The water travels up the water carrying tubes to the rest of the plant.
3.​ The water goes into a leaf, where it is used for photosynthesis or escapes
through transpiration.
Food transport system:
1.​ The food is made in the leaves through photosynthesis.
2.​ The food is transported to the rest of the plant (e.g. roots, stem, flowers and fruit)
via the food carrying tubes.
*Common misconception: Food in a plant only goes DOWNWARDS.
Actually, flowers and fruit may be found above the leaves, so food CAN ALSO
GO UP THE FOOD CARRYING TUBES.

You have reached the half-way point of these notes. Take

a break if you want to (which we highly doubt as we know
you enjoy these notes and want to keep reading. You will
keep reading. YOU WILL KEEP READING.)* [citation needed] [we know

you’re tired, your eyes are killing you and you probably want to eat some ice cream]
*as if

Life Cycles by Darius and Conrad

There are 2 types of life cycles - 3 stages and 4 stages.

⚗️🧪🧫🧬 53
6-2 Science Revision Notes ~ 2023
© 2023~Class of 6-2

There are animals who have 4 stage cycles (butterflies, bees, mosquitoes, beetles, etc.)

There are animals who have 3 stage cycles (chicken, dragonflies, grasshoppers, etc.)

Unfortunately, you will have to memorise these cycles.

The most commonly tested are butterflies, cockroaches, grasshoppers, beetles,

mosquitoes, chickens, bees and dragonflies.

Life cycles are required for the continuation of the species. If the species had no life
cycle, it would die sooner or later (go extinct). The life cycles are to ensure that the
species does not die out/the continuation of the species.

Editor’s notes
-​ Some young are completely different from the adults and need different habitats
to survive in (e.g. a tadpole cannot live on land)
-​ Some organisms’ young look like them (e.g. cockroach) while some don’t (e.g.
butterfly).

⚗️🧪🧫🧬 54
6-2 Science Revision Notes ~ 2023
© 2023~Class of 6-2

Reproduction in Plants by Asher, Jacob and Jace

Introduction

Why reproduce?

Living things, such as plants and animals, need to reproduce. This is because they have
a fixed lifespan and need to form the next generation of the same species.

Put formally, reproduction is essential to the continuation of a species to ensure that

its own kind continues to exist.

Plants also reproduce. They do this by carrying out different and unique reproductive
cycles. These reproductive cycles follow predictable patterns, which can allow for
timely intervention while not disrupting the overall population of the next generation too
much to cause instability.

The ability to reproduce is an essential characteristic which allows us to differentiate

between a living and non-living thing.

Plants are indeed living things as they can reproduce. They do this using 2 main
methods: Sexual and Asexual. We will discuss this later in the “Reproduction in Plants”
section. First, we need to identify the main parts of the plants that allow them to
reproduce.

(Not this guy, though.)

⚗️🧪🧫🧬 55
6-2 Science Revision Notes ~ 2023
© 2023~Class of 6-2

Reproductive parts and functions of a flower

The reproductive parts of a flowering plant are in its flowers.

Below is a table consisting of the aforementioned reproductive parts, along with their
functions.
(This is for a bisexual flower, which we will discuss later.)
Sepals Protects the bud and supports the petals

Petals Colour and scent attracts insects to the

flower

Receptacle Supports the other parts and produces

nectar

Stamen Makes part of the flower and consists of

the anthers and filaments

Filament Supports the anther

Anthers Contain one or more pollen sacs that

produces pollen grains (contains the male
reproductive cell)

Pistil Consists of the ovary, style and stigma; is

the female part of the flower

Style Connects the stigma to the ovary

Stigma Tip that receives pollen grains

Ovary Contains one or more ovules; develops

into a fruit which protects the seeds inside

Ovule A female reproductive cell found in the

ovary. When fertilised, it forms a seed
eventually.

⚗️🧪🧫🧬 56
6-2 Science Revision Notes ~ 2023
© 2023~Class of 6-2

Reproduction in Plants

As mentioned before, plants reproduce via two different methods: Sexual and Asexual.

Sexual
Sexual reproduction involves 2 parent plants. A new individual, or another plant, is
formed when a male reproductive cell (or a gamete) is fused with a female reproductive
cell (again, a gamete). This in turn increases the genetic diversity of the population so
as to be able to survive better in unstable and changing environments.

Asexual
Asexual reproduction, on the other hand, involves only 1 parent. This usually occurs in
simple organisms and the offspring is genetically identical to the parent. Forms of such
reproduction includes binary fission, vegetative propagation from parent plants and
budding.

Reproduction in plants can be split into two main categories: Flowering plants and
non-flowering plants.

Flowering plants
The flowers in flowering plants are either unisexual or bisexual for different and unique
species of plants. The parts of a bisexual flower are in the table above. Unisexual
flowers have either, not both of, a stigma or an anther. Bisexual flowers, on the other
hand, have both. In asexual reproduction, a bisexual flower is involved and in sexual
reproduction, two asexual flowers are involved.

We will explain why in the next section.

First, we will discuss non-flowering plants.

Non-flowering plants
These undergo only asexual reproduction and, unlike flowering plants, produce spores
that are capable of germinating into young plants. Examples of non-flowering plants
include ferns, moss and pines. We will be discussing further in the next section.

Pollination

Pollination is defined as a process where pollen grains from the anther lands on the
stigma of a flower.

⚗️🧪🧫🧬 57
6-2 Science Revision Notes ~ 2023
© 2023~Class of 6-2

There are various forms of pollination. These include insect-pollinated, which include
the rose, sunflower and lotus, wind-pollinated, which include maize and grass,
animal-pollinated, which includes the cocklebur and guava and water-pollinated, which
includes the coconut. There is also explosive action, which includes peas and lupins.

Below is a table showing the characteristics of insect and wind-pollinated flowers.

Insect-pollinated flowers Wind pollinated flowers

Flowers are larger than insect-pollinated Flowers are smaller (usually) than
flowers and are brightly coloured and insect-pollinated ones and scentless with
scented. dull-coloured petals/no petals.

Flowers usually have nectar guides. Flowers do not have nectar guides.

Flowers produce nectar. Flowers do not produce nectar.

Stigma is sticky. Stigma is feathery to increase exposed

surface area to pollen grains.

Male and female parts of the flower are The male and female parts of the flower
usually located within the petals/flower. dangle (*) / hang out of the petals.

More pollen produced for wind-pollinated

flowers compared to insect-pollinated
flowers.

Below is a table classifying some plants into the different methods of pollination they
use.
Wind-pollinated Angsana, dandelion,

Animal-pollinated (Eaten) Apple, orange, lemon, chilli

Animal-pollinated (Spiky fruits) Burdock

Water-pollinated Coconut nut

Explosive Action Saga seeds, red bean, green bean, black

bean.

⚗️🧪🧫🧬 58
6-2 Science Revision Notes ~ 2023
© 2023~Class of 6-2

Fertilisation (contains non-redacted GEP-exclusive information):

Fertilisation starts when the pollen grain of one flower finds its way onto the stigma of
another flower. The gamete from the pollen grain (male reproductive cell) moves down
the style via the pollen tube. It will move towards the female gamete in the ovule
through a tiny opening called the micropyle of the ovary. There, the male gamete will
fuse with the female gamete. Fertilisation takes place, and an embryo is formed. The
ovary of the plant becomes fruit, the ovules inside becoming seeds.

Seed dispersal:
Dispersal is the process that fruits and seeds go through so that they can continue to
exist (to put it bluntly). Here are details of the different methods of pollination, as well as
characteristics of fruits and seeds dispersed by the above methods.

Wind Advantages:
-​ Can be carried far away from the parent plant
Disadvantages:
-​ Dependent on direction and strength of wind
(unpredictable)
-​ Many seeds tend to be dispersed together around the
same area hence overcrowding may set in.
Structure of fruits/seeds:
-​ Presence of light, wing- / hair-like structures (small size
does not necessarily indicate dispersal by wind). This
helps the seed to be carried easily by wind. It also
increases the seed’s buoyancy in air.

Animals Advantages:
-​ EATEN
-​ Can be carried far away from the parent plant.
-​ NOT EATEN
-​ Can be carried far away from the parent plant.
Disadvantages:
-​ EATEN
-​ Dependent on external agent of animals.
-​ NOT EATEN
-​ Dependent on external agent of animals.

⚗️🧪🧫🧬 59
6-2 Science Revision Notes ~ 2023
© 2023~Class of 6-2

Structure of fruits/seeds:
-​ EATEN
-​ Brightly-coloured, juicy/succulent flesh.
-​ Scented fruits.
-​ Seeds are usually indigestible. This allows them to
be passed out with the droppings of the animals.
Some seeds are bigger and animals spit out the
seeds after eating the fruits.
-​ NOT EATEN
-​ Presence of hook-like structures. This helps the
fruits/seeds to cling on to the body coverings of
animals.

Water Advantages:
-​ Can be carried far away from the parent plant
Disadvantages:
-​ Dependent on direction of flow of water
-​ Plant has to be near a water body.
Structure of fruits/seeds:
-​ Usually have a water-resistant outer layer (for obvious
reasons)
-​ Presence of air spaces (e.g. fibrous husk for coconut) to
allow the fruit/seed to stay afloat on water.

Explosive Action Advantages:

-​ Not dependent on any external agent for dispersal.
Disadvantages:
-​ Seeds are usually not carried far away from the parent
plant hence there may be overcrowding.
Structure of fruits/seeds:
-​ Seeds are usually enclosed in pods and are light.
-​ When the pods are mature/dried up, they will split open
along the lines of weakness, helping to scatter the seeds.

Why is it important for plants to have their seeds dispersed away

from the parent plant?
To reduce overcrowding of the plants so there will be less competition for resources.
These include water, nutrients, space, sunlight (air - to a much lesser extent, and do
NOT use in PSLE!) between the young plants and the adult plant.

Germination:

⚗️🧪🧫🧬 60
6-2 Science Revision Notes ~ 2023
© 2023~Class of 6-2

Germination will happen when the seed has enough water to grow. It can happen in the
dark as the seed does not need light to grow.
It will use food from the seed leaf. The conditions required are warmth, water and air
(oxygen).

Some key ideas:

Definitions, overcrowding (im not paid enough to do this stuff)

Reproduction in Humans by Meng Hao

Parts and functions of the reproductive system
-​ Male reproductive system:

1.​ Testis
-​ The testis makes sperm from their coiled tubes and hormones at puberty.
2.​ Penis
-​ The penis introduces the sperm into the vagina during mating.
3.​ Sperm Duct
-​ The sperm duct conveys the sperm to the vagina.
4.​ Urethra
-​ It leads the sperms outside the penis.
5.​ Scrotum
-​ A bag that protects the testes
6.​ Storage ducts
-​ Stores mature sperm temporarily
7.​ Glands
-​ To produce a fluid to nourish the sperms.

⚗️🧪🧫🧬 61
6-2 Science Revision Notes ~ 2023
© 2023~Class of 6-2

-​ Female reproductive system:

1.​ Vagina
-​ Receives sperm and also birth canal for baby.
2.​ Fallopian tube
-​ To lead mature eggs to the uterus
3.​ Uterus
-​ For the attachment and development of the embryo
4.​ Ovary
-​ To release eggs and hormones at puberty
5.​ Cervix
-​ Connects the uterus to the vagina

Sex cells
Male sex cells:
1.​ Are called sperm
2.​ Are produced from the testes
3.​ Produced from puberty to old age
4.​ Are capable of movement by themselves
5.​ Millions of sperms are released per ejaculation
Female sex cells:
1.​ Are called eggs
2.​ Are released by the ovaries
3.​ Released from puberty to menopause
4.​ Not capable of movement
5.​ Only one ovum is released in each ovulation

How does fertilisation occur?

1.​ There is mating
2.​ Sperms are introduced into the female through the vagina

⚗️🧪🧫🧬 62
6-2 Science Revision Notes ~ 2023
© 2023~Class of 6-2

3.​ The sperms swim through the uterus to the fallopian tube toward the egg
4.​ A sperm make contact with the egg
5.​ The sperm breaks through the egg membrane
6.​ Its tail drops
7.​ The egg membrane thickens to prevent other sperms from entering
8.​ The sperm’s nucleus fuses with the egg’s nucleus

After fertilisation

1.​ The egg is now a zygote

2.​ The zygote divide hundreds of times to form the embryo as it passes further
down the fallopian tube on its way to the uterus
3.​ The embryo is embedded in the uterine wall which is now thick and rich in
blood vessels
4.​ The embryo continues to divide and blood, blood vessels and heart are
among the first features to develop
5.​ A fluid filled sac, called the amniotic sac protects the embryo
6.​ The embryo gets nutrients, oxygen and antibodies from blood vessels in the
lining of the uterus called the placenta
7.​ The embryo passes waste products and carbon dioxide back to its mother
8.​ The embryo is connected the the placenta by the umbilical cord
9.​ Eventually, the cells develop into different types of tissues and organs
10.​ When all the main parts of the body and internal organs are formed, it is
called a foetus
11.​Growth continues to about the 40th week where the process of giving birth
begins

⚗️🧪🧫🧬 63
6-2 Science Revision Notes ~ 2023
© 2023~Class of 6-2

From Parents To Young (Hereditary) by Meng

Hao, Lexing
1.​ Animals reproduce to ensure the survival of their kind.
2.​ Genetic information is passed to their children via the male and female
reproductive cells
3.​ The nucleus of each cell merges to form the genetic information of the child
during fertilisation.
4.​ The features of the child is passed down to him/her by his/her parents (e.g.
tongue rolling, attached earlobe)

Note: Some traits can be passed on from parent to young, but some cannot.

⚗️🧪🧫🧬 64
6-2 Science Revision Notes ~ 2023
© 2023~Class of 6-2

Energy by Zach, Jace, Maoyu, Haoyu

What is energy?
Energy is the ability to do work or cause a change. Everything needs energy to function,
including living things which need energy to carry out various life processes. Non-living
things (e.g. machines) need energy to work.

Sources of energy
A source of energy refers to the origin where energy comes from.
Our primary source of energy is the sun, which provides us with light and heat energy.
Other sources of energy can be split into two groups, Renewable and non-renewable.
​ Renewable energy:
​ ​ Energy sources that can be replenished in a short time.
Examples: Solar energy, running water, tides, wind energy, geothermal
energy and biomass energy.
​
​ Non-renewable energy:
​ ​ Energy sources that are limited in supply.
Examples: Fossil fuels (coal, petroleum, natural gas) and uranium (nuclear
fission). There are no sources of electrical energy + Some electrical
energy will always be lost in the form of heat, sound or light energy.
If you see this you should continue reading (easter egg)

Forms of energy:
The main forms of energy are:
1.​ Light energy
2.​ Chemical potential energy
3.​ Elastic potential energy
4.​ Gravitational potential energy
5.​ Electrical energy
6.​ Heat energy
7.​ Sound energy
8.​ Kinetic energy

These can be split into potential energy, kinetic energy and others.

Potential energy

⚗️🧪🧫🧬 65
6-2 Science Revision Notes ~ 2023
© 2023~Class of 6-2

Potential energy is a form of energy that is stored in an object.

There are 3 types of potential energy. Gravitational potential energy, chemical potential
energy and elastic potential energy
Chemical potential energy is stored in:
1.​ Food
2.​ Fuel
3.​ Batteries

Note:
A battery stores ELECTRICAL ENERGY
NO. It stores chemical potential energy that is converted into electrical energy.

Gravitational potential energy is in any object that is raised above ground level of a
reference point.
The amount of gravitational potential energy an object has depends on the height of the
object at which it is above the ground or reference point (h) and the mass of the object
(m)

The formula for GPE is mgh, where m is the mass of the object that possesses GPE, g
is the acceleration due to gravity and h is the height of which the object is above the
ground level. For example, a ball which possesses a mass of 6 kg, its acceleration
9.80665 m/s2 (9.81 m/s2) and its height 9 metres from the ground, its GPE would be
529.5591J.
(GPE calculator:
[Link]

Elastic potential energy is a form of energy possessed by an elastic object (an object
that can return to its original shape after being deformed) when it is stretched,
compressed or bent.
The tighter the object is, the more EPE as more energy is used in the stretching.

Additional info:
hen the object has been stretched beyond its elasticity limit, it cannot return to its
original shape.

Kinetic energy

Kinetic energy is a form of energy that is possessed by moving objects. The faster an
object moves, the more kinetic energy it possesses.

⚗️🧪🧫🧬 66
6-2 Science Revision Notes ~ 2023
© 2023~Class of 6-2

Kinetic energy depends on the mass of an object (M) and the speed of the moving
object (V)
The formula is KE = 1/2MV^2

Law of conservation of energy

Energy can neither be created nor destroyed. It is converted from one form of energy to
another form of energy or transferred from one body to another.

Other forms of energy

Other types of energy are sound, light and heat energy.

Sound energy:
Sound is a form of energy that we can hear and is produced by vibrating objects

Light energy:
Light is a form of energy that enables us to see.

Heat energy:
Heat energy is energy that is transferred from one object to another as a result of a
difference in temperature. It is usually transferred from the hotter object to the cooler
object.

Note:
There is no such thing as coldness. DO NOT WRITE THAT IN YOUR EXAM. Also do
not choose any MCQ that has coldness. It’s [either:
1.​ The exam setter is stupid
2.​ The question is trying to trick you and make you lose marks so you can't get into
your preferred school, thus causing you to become depressed and “motivate” you
to study harder, so that you can do better for your O levels but in reality, it just
makes you feel stupid and sad.
But it is most likely 2 :)

⚗️🧪🧫🧬 67
6-2 Science Revision Notes ~ 2023
© 2023~Class of 6-2

Food Chains & Food Webs by Jayan, Jiaqi, Yue Yee

FOOD CHAINS:

In their natural environment, animals and their habitats make up an ecosystem.

For the ecosystem to be balanced, a food chain will form between animals.
A food chain is the transfer of energy through an ecosystem and the organisms in the
chain.

Food chains always start with the food producer. (Plant)

DEFINITIONS:

-​ Food producer. An organism (typically a green plant or a microorganism) that can

make their own food. They have chloroplasts that contain chlorophyll that trap
light and make food through photosynthesis.
-​ Food consumer. Animals are food consumers as they cannot make their own
food and rely on other organisms for food. Consumers are divided into 3
categories of animals based on their diets
1.​ Herbivore. These animals feed on plants only
2.​ Omnivore. These animals feed on both plants and animals.
3.​ Carnivore. These animals feed on animals only.
-​ Predators. Animals that hunt other animals for food in order to survive.
Herbivores are never predators (see below).
-​ Prey. Animals that are hunted by other animals for food and die. Plants are never
prey (see below).

Common Misconception: Plants at the start of the food chain are never hunted. This is
because they cannot run or escape from predators and are not counted as prey.

TRANSFER OF ENERGY:

In a food chain, the food producer always comes first. They trap about 2% of the Sun’s
energy that is on earth. They trap sunlight and make food (see cells).

The primary consumers are herbivores. They feed on the food producers

⚗️🧪🧫🧬 68
6-2 Science Revision Notes ~ 2023
© 2023~Class of 6-2

The secondary consumers are omnivores or carnivores. They feed on the primary
consumers, but note how omnivores can eat carnivores.

The tertiary consumers (aka apex predator) are carnivores (sometimes omnivores).
They feed on secondary consumers and have no natural predators (humans excluded).

There are the most amount of food producers in an ecosystem, followed by primary,
secondary and tertiary consumers. This is because energy is lost in life processes at
every stage of the food chain. At any given time, only around 10% of energy is
transferred from one organism to another in a food chain.

Use this information to answer some MCQ questions.

(e.g. Animals P, Q and R are put inside two areas, A and B. A contains P, Q and B
contains P, R. Assuming that they have no other predators and no other factors affect
their population and based on the graph below, construct a food chain between PQR.)

In the graph, there are two ways to do this question. The first being looking at the initial
numbers of each organism (assuming that the area is natural). The higher the number,
the earlier it comes in the food chain. The second way is to see the graph relationships.
Usually, the declining number represents the food producer / prey, and the rising
number represents the food consumer / predator.

FOOD WEBS:

When an animal or organism is part of more than 1 food chain, a food web is formed.
Food webs show feeding relationships between organisms of the entire community.

HOW TO DRAW:

Common Misconception: The arrows pointing at an organism means that the organism
is a food consumer / predator. Some students may think the opposite way, which is the
arrow-pointed organism being the prey/food producer, but that is incorrect.

A → B means that B feeds on A

A → B → C means that C eats B and B eats A

Another way to understand this is that the energy of A is transferred to B, which means
that this is similar to the energy conversion chain. (e.g a ball falling down from a
window: GPE → KE)

⚗️🧪🧫🧬 69
6-2 Science Revision Notes ~ 2023
© 2023~Class of 6-2

When drawing a food web, the following steps should be applied.

1.​ Always start with the food producer. (*Draw arrows with pencil and ruler.*)
2.​ Continue the food chain after connecting the FP to herbivores
3.​ After completing the food web, check and make sure that it meets the criteria of
the question.

Common Misconception: The changes in PS of predator parallels the changes in PS of

prey with some delay.
(e.g. PS of Prey increases, after 1 month, PS of Predator increases, after that, PS of
Prey decreases due to overhunting, then, the PS of Predator decreases.)

PS: Abbreviation of Population Size

BIOACCUMULATION:
Bioaccumulation is when toxins and poisons are introduced to the food web. As the
animals move up in the food chain, toxins and poisons accumulate in their bodies and
cannot be flushed out. This is due to them eating prey containing these poisons.

BIOMAGNIFICATION:
Biomagnification is when the toxins and poisons become so concentrated in the
animal’s body that they die of these substances. These incidents usually occur only in
apex predators and humans.

FEEDING RELATIONSHIPS:
There are two main relationships and five sub-relationships:

Predator-Prey Relationship: One animal benefits, the other dies.

Symbiotic Relationship - Classified into:
1.​ Mutualism: Both animals benefit
2.​ Commensalism: One animal benefits, the other is unaffected
3.​ Amensalism: One animal harmed, the other is unaffected
4.​ Parasitism: One animal benefits, the other is harmed
5.​ Competition: Both animals harmed in unintentional ways

Misconception: While detritivores feed on the dead, decaying and waste, decomposers
break them down. The role of decomposers is to break down dead organisms and
waste matter into simpler substances that are released back into the soil to enrich the
soil. This allows the soil to both become more fertile and also provide nutrients to plants.

⚗️🧪🧫🧬 70
6-2 Science Revision Notes ~ 2023
© 2023~Class of 6-2

However, detritivores help to increase fertility while not enriching the soil themselves.
They speed up the rate of decomposition after feeding. For instance, bacteria are true
decomposers whilst earthworms are detritivores.

Decomposers in a food chain are not predators. They feed on dead organisms that
cannot move by themselves and escape. Therefore, they do not hunt and are not
predators.

⚗️🧪🧫🧬 71
6-2 Science Revision Notes ~ 2023
© 2023~Class of 6-2

Forces by Zhirou, Conrad, Adrian, Zach

What are forces?
●​ A force is a push / pull exerted on other objects. They can be combined (twisting)
●​ It gives an object the energy (see Energy) to
-​ Move / Stop Moving
-​ Change Speed / Direction
-​ Change Shape / Size
What does a force have and what can it do?
●​ A force has
-​ Magnitude / Size
-​ Direction
●​ A force can
-​ Make a stationary object move
-​ Make a moving object change its speed (increase / decrease) and its
direction
-​ Stop a moving object
When opposing forces acting on an object are equal in size, the forces will cancel out.
As a result the object will not move.

Types of forces:
-​ Gravitational (Non - contact force)
-​ Magnetic (Non - contact force)
-​ Elastic Spring (Contact force)
-​ Frictional (Contact force)
I am sure you know what contact and non - contact forces are, otherwise stop reading.
It is very straightforward. Contact forces have the object and something touch, causing
the force. Non - contact forces do not require any form of contact to be implemented.

Gravitational
-​ All bodies (no matter the size) exert a pulling force on each other.
-​ Gravitational force is just the attractive force that exists between things that
have mass
More mass, more Gravitational Force.
Less distance between Earth and object, more Gravitational Force.
*NO MATTER IF OBJECT IS MOVING OR NOT , IF OBJECT HAS MASS
GRAVITATIONAL FORCE IS ACTING ON IT*
The object is on Earth for this rule, as Gravitational Force requires 2 objects

⚗️🧪🧫🧬 72
6-2 Science Revision Notes ~ 2023
© 2023~Class of 6-2

NOTE: GRAVITY IS DIFFERENT FROM GRAVITATIONAL FORCE

GRAVITY - PULL FROM CENTRE OF EARTH
GRAVITATIONAL FORCE - ATTRACTION BETWEEN ANY 2 BODIES WITH MASS
Although for P6 context they are the same, take note of this.

Magnetic
●​ Magnetic force is exerted by magnets on other magnetic materials or magnets.
●​ There are 2 types of magnetic force:
○​ Magnetic force of attraction
■​ Causes magnets to attract magnetic materials and unlike poles of
magnets
■​ Is a pulling force
○​ Magnetic force of repulsion
■​ Causes magnets to repel like poles of other magnets
■​ Is a pushing force
■​ Used as a magnet tester (refer to Magnets)

Elastic Spring
Elastic objects (such as springs and rubber bands) change shape when a force acts on
them but they return to their original shape when the force is removed.

When an elastic object is stretched or compressed, it exerts elastic spring force on the
object stretching/compressing it.

Pulling a spring causes it to stretch and become longer, while pushing on a spring
causes it to compress and become shorter.

Elastic Spring Force ACTS ON THE OBJECT, but Elastic Potential Energy is
stored in the object.

Many forces can act on an object at the same time.

For example, when you stretch a rubber band, there is Gravitational and Elastic Spring
force acting on your finger and the rubber band.

For elastic Spring force springs might come up. If (suppose)

Spring A requires a smaller force to compress
Spring B requires a greater force to compress
Then you would say that Spring B is STIFFER than Spring A.
This WILL cost you your precious marks.

⚗️🧪🧫🧬 73
6-2 Science Revision Notes ~ 2023
© 2023~Class of 6-2

Frictional Force
-​ It is a force that exists between 2 surfaces that are in contact with one another.
-​ Friction acts in the direction opposite to the direction of the moving object.
-​ Friction reduces the speed of a moving object and causes it to stop (eventually)
-​ Measured with a spring balance (Unit: Newtons)

Amount of friction depends on the type of surface (glass or sandpaper?)

Mass of object doubled = Friction doubled as well

Size of surface area IN CONTACT has no effect on Friction.

Friction is useful and harmful - able to walk without slipping (yay!)

- wear and tear (boo!)
- slows down a falling object / parachute (yay!)
- produces heat (boo!)

Lubricate surface / Use ball bearings or rollers / Streamlined shape / Polished surface
All of the above help to reduce friction.

When doing questions where friction increases, you can write that:
“The object exerted more force on the surface, so friction increased.” Life is painful sometimes when i am all alone doing this stuff

Misconceptions
Is there friction between 2 surfaces?
Depends. If the object is on a flat surface no. If the object is on a sloped surface, yes.
Magnet on a whiteboard (vertical)? Yes.

You have gone a long way reading these notes. Feel free to take a break :)

⚗️🧪🧫🧬 74
6-2 Science Revision Notes ~ 2023
© 2023~Class of 6-2

Magnets by Jiaqi, Gideon

What are magnets?

-​ An object that produces a magnetic force that pulls (attracts) other magnetic
objects.
-​ A magnet can attract metals and other magnets. A magnet only repels another
magnet.
-​ A magnet comes in different shapes and sizes and can be natural or man-made.
-​ The pull of a magnet is called magnetism.

-​ Magnets are materials and objects that produce a magnetic field that can attract
magnetic materials such as steel, iron, nickel and cobalt. (Superman Is Not
Cool)
-​ There are two types of magnets: A temporary magnet and a permanent magnet.
-​ A temporary magnet is, as its name states, a material that possesses a magnetic
field of its own and attracts magnetic materials but it is only temporary.
-​ A permanent magnet however, is permanent. Duh.
-​ A magnet has two poles (North and South, NOT EAST AND WEST) and is
strongest at the poles. Like poles repel while unlike poles attract.
Magnetism can pass through non-magnetic objects but cannot pass
through magnetic materials.

⚗️🧪🧫🧬 75
6-2 Science Revision Notes ~ 2023
© 2023~Class of 6-2

All metals are magnetic materials. This is false, as only iron, steel, nickel and cobalt
are magnetic materials. A classic example from the exam papers is for the setter to ask
about aluminium in the question. If you are confused, remember that Superman Is Not
Cool, and don’t confuse cobalt with copper.
-A magnetic material can be magnetised (TEMPORARILY) by stroking, electricity and
Induction. This means that the magnetic material will have the properties of a magnet
but only for a short duration. A magnet can also be demagnetised by hitting with a
hammer repeatedly, dropping repeatedly or heating.
-Magnetic force is affected by: a) the temperature at which the magnet is subjected to,
b) composition of the materials used to make the magnets and c) the number of
batteries arranged in series and the number of turns of wire around the magnetic object
(for electromagnets).

Magnetism is an example of a non-contact force. (See above for Forces for more)

Some practice questions:

1. The following set-ups show different ring magnets, A, B, C and D, whose like poles
are facing each other. All the magnets have the same mass.

Which one of the following statements is most likely to be correct? (2m)

1)​ Magnet A is stronger than Magnet B.

2)​ Magnet D is stronger than Magnet C.
3)​ Magnet A is stronger than Magnet C.
4)​ Not possible to tell which magnet is the strongest. ​ ​ ​ (​ )

​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​

⚗️🧪🧫🧬 76
6-2 Science Revision Notes ~ 2023
© 2023~Class of 6-2

2. Mr Tan wasted a lot of time removing the iron fillings that were stuck to his bar
magnets at the end of his lesson. What do you think he should do to prevent the iron
filings from getting stuck directly to the bar magnets? (2m)

1)​ Wet the magnets.

2)​ Smear a layer of oil on each magnet.
3)​ Wrap the magnets in aluminium foil.
4)​ Sprinkle the iron filings some distance away from the magnets.​ (​ )

3. A dishonest hawker wanted to cheat his customers by making them pay more for
their goods. He placed Object X just below the weighing scale and covered it with a
piece of cloth.

(a) What is Object X? (1m)

______________________________________________________________________

(b) Explain how Object X will increase the reading of the scale. (2m)

______________________________________________________________________

⚗️🧪🧫🧬 77
6-2 Science Revision Notes ~ 2023
© 2023~Class of 6-2

4. The diagram below shows four bar magnets attracted together.

(a) Name the pole which is marked X in the diagram. (1m)

______________________________________________________________________

(b) Object M was brought near to the pole named X and it was attracted to the magnet.
From the above observation, can we conclude that Object M is another magnet?
Explain your answer. (2m)

______________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________

⚗️🧪🧫🧬 78
6-2 Science Revision Notes ~ 2023
© 2023~Class of 6-2

Answers

Question Answer Explanation

1 3 (2m) Compare the set-up with magnets C

and D and the set-up with magnets A
and D. The repulsion is stronger in the
case of A and D than that of C and D.
Hence, we can conclude that A is
stronger than C.

2 3 (2m) Aluminium foil is a thin piece of material

AND is not a magnetic material, hence
it does not affect the attraction of iron
filings to the magnet. It will also not
attract the iron filings once it is
unwrapped from the magnet. So, the
separation will be fast. And clean.

3a A magnet (1m) This is actually quite obvious. It

explains itself. Steel is a magnetic
material, if you need a hint.
An object that creates gravitational
force to pull the steel plate down - 0m
Force can be neither created nor
destroyed!

3b The magnet will attract the The magnet will attract the plate hence
steel plate and pull it the reading will be higher - 0m. The
downwards. (1m) The weight keyword is ‘steel plate’ as steel is a
registered on the spring balance magnetic material. Without knowing
will hence be more. (1m) whether the plate is a magnetic material
or not, there is no way to prove that it
can be attracted, hence the answer is
immediately wrong.

4a South Pole (1m). North Pole - 0m

Quite self-explanatory.

4b It cannot be concluded that Anything else is not accepted.

Object M is a magnet merely
by attraction. (½ m) Attraction
is not a sure test (½ m) of
whether two materials are

⚗️🧪🧫🧬
magnets. Repulsion is the

79
6-2 Science Revision Notes ~ 2023
© 2023~Class of 6-2

only sure test of magnetism.

(1m) If Object M can be repelled
by a magnet, then we can
confirm it to be a magnet.

⚗️🧪🧫🧬 80
6-2 Science Revision Notes ~ 2023
© 2023~Class of 6-2

Ecology by Joshua Zhang, Min Zhi, Yiming

The Basics
1.​ Definition
○​ The environment of the surroundings is made up of ALL THE FACTORS
THAT AFFECT THE GROWTH, DEVELOPMENT AND SURVIVAL OF
THE ORGANISMS living in those surroundings
○​ Habitat
■​ A PLACE where a population can find all that they need to survive
and reproduce
○​ Population
■​ A group of organisms of the SAME SPECIES LIVING TOGETHER
reproducing in a particular place
■​ Consists of AT LEAST 2 organisms of the same kind
○​ Community
■​ Consists of all the populations living together in a particular habitat
■​ The populations are interdependent on one another.

2.​ Abiotic factors

○​ Amount/Presence of Light
■​ The amount of light affects the temperature of the surroundings
■​ Light is also very important to living organisms because the amount
of light will affect the rate of photosynthesis of plants, hence the
rate at which plants make food. How well the plants survive will
directly or indirectly affect the animals or other organisms in an
environment due to successive stages of feeding and energy
transfer. If there is less light, less food will be made, so there will be
less plants for animals to eat.
○​ Temperature
■​ Temperature affects the rate of evaporation of water. Plants and
animals tend to lose water faster as the temperature of their
surroundings increases which causes their bodies to gain heat
faster. Dehydration can also cause symptoms such as heatstroke,
tiredness, cracked skin (mostly on lips) and headaches from the
lack of water.
■​ Water bodies also gain heat faster and evaporate faster, losing heat
to the cooler air and condensing into more water droplets which
results in more rain. This rain may move away from the original

⚗️🧪🧫🧬
water body, resulting in less water for animals.

81
6-2 Science Revision Notes ~ 2023
© 2023~Class of 6-2

■​ Ice caps and glaciers might also gain heat and melt at a faster rate,
causing the rise in sea levels due to more water. The water can
drown out islands very close to sea level, including the Maldives.
○​ Amount/Presence of Water
■​ Organisms need water in order to carry out important life processes
such as respiration and photosynthesis for plants.
■​ Dissolved gases, food and waste are transported by water through
the bodies of organisms.
■​ Some organisms, a prominent example being fish, can only live and
breathe in water and not on dry land. Fishes’ gills are adapted to
absorb dissolved oxygen in the water and not oxygen in the air.
○​ Type of Soil

Type of soil Characteristics

Sandy Has many air spaces, retains little

water

Clayey Little amount of air spaces, retains

excessive amount of water

Garden Appropriate amount of air spaces,

able to retain sufficient water

3.​ Biotic factors that affect the survival of an organism in an environment

○​ Competition
■​ 2 or more organisms strive to obtain the same resources when
these are short in supply. For example, plants compete for light,
water, minerals and space, while animals compete for food, shelter,
water, and mates
○​ Predation
■​ A predator feeds on other living things.
■​ The consumption of plants by herbivorous animals is also predation
■​ The amount/abundance of prey (i.e. availability of food) is a factor
limiting the numbers of predators
■​ Predators help to control the population of prey by reducing the
population size
○​ Symbiosis
■​ Parasitism
●​ One organism benefits, the other suffers

⚗️🧪🧫🧬 82
6-2 Science Revision Notes ~ 2023
© 2023~Class of 6-2

■​ Commensalism
●​ One organism benefits, the other neither suffers nor benefits
■​ Mutualism
●​ One organism benefits, the other also benefits
4.​ Unfavourable Environments
○​ The environment in a habitat can suddenly change such that it becomes
difficult for organisms in that habitat to find food, reproduce or cope with
the environment and to survive. Reasons for the sudden change could be
effects produced by global warming, natural disasters or pollution. Hence,
the new environment is favourable for organisms living in that habitat.
○​ When the environment becomes unfavourable, organisms have to either
adapt to the conditions, move out of the habitat or die.

Pond Community
1.​ The pond is an aquatic (aquatic meaning water-related) habitat.
2.​ The pond has water.
3.​ The pond community consists not only of populations of organisms that
live in the water, but also populations of organisms living on the land near
the pond.
4.​ Floating plants
○​ Characteristics (NOTE: Answers to classic plant adaptation
questions)
■​ Roots underwater, rest of the plant above/floating on water
■​ Hairy surface - water runs off easily and will not accumulate
on the leaves, reducing weight hence keeping the plant
afloat on water. E.g. lotus leaves
■​ Flat emerged leaves - increase exposed surface area,
hence can capture more light hence greater rate of
photosynthesis hence greater rate of food production.
■​ Spongy tissues - The air in the air spaces allows the plant
to keep afloat on the water surface more easily so its leaves’
chloroplasts can trap more sunlight for a higher rate of
photosynthesis.
■​ It is ideal for ponds to have garden or slightly clayey soil
○​ Examples = Water hyacinth, water lettuce, duckweed
5.​ Submerged plants
○​ Partially submerged
■​ Characteristics
●​ Roots at the bottom of the pond

⚗️🧪🧫🧬
●​ Some parts of the plant are visible above water.

83
6-2 Science Revision Notes ~ 2023
© 2023~Class of 6-2

■​ Examples = water lotus, cattail, sedge, arrow head,

○​ Fully submerged
■​ Characteristics
●​ Entire plant in water
■​ Examples = Hydrilla, elodea, cabomba
6.​ Effects of overcrowding of floating plants
■​ Blocks sunlight - photosynthesis of submerged plants cannot
take place, so little/no food is made as plants cannot capture
enough light.
■​ Affects the entire food chain as all other animals and
organisms rely on plants for food directly or indirectly
through successive stages of feeding. The submerged plants
in that area may also be wiped out, if nothing feeds on the
excessive floating plants.
7.​ Effects of a lack of submerged plants
○​ Lack of dissolved oxygen - since plants cannot carry out
photosynthesis due to the lack of sunlight, little/no dissolved oxygen
will be produced for water organisms.
○​ Pond organisms die due to insufficient dissolved oxygen needed for
respiration.
○​ Decomposition of dead plants and pond organisms takes place,
decomposers respire, less dissolved oxygen available for other
organisms. It has become a vicious cycle which continues until
8.​ Effects of excess fertilisers on plants in pond
○​ Rapid growth of floating plants and algae. Block out sunlight, plants
cannot carry out photosynthesis due to lack of sunlight, they die.
See Effects of overcrowding of floating plants.
○​ Decomposition of dead plants and subsequent organisms due to
feeding relationships takes place, decomposers respire, algae also
respire.
○​ Decomposers compete for dissolved oxygen with the pond
organisms including algae. Respiration cannot take place as easily
due to the decreasing amount of oxygen.

Leaf litter community

1.​ Definition
○​ Leaf litter communities are made up of leaf litter and soil below the
fallen leaves.
○​ Leaf litter communities are often parts of much larger communities,

⚗️🧪🧫🧬
such as field and forest communities.

84
6-2 Science Revision Notes ~ 2023
© 2023~Class of 6-2

2.​ Characteristics
○​ Dark - dead matter and other plant material pile on top of each
other, blocking out the sunlight
○​ Warm - heat is given out during decomposition, and a layer of dead
matter helps keep it warm.
○​ Moist, with fallen leaves allowing little water vapour to escape.
○​ Little air movement
3.​ Organisms
○​ As leaf litter is food for decomposers like bacteria and fungi, as well
as some animals like agents of decomposition such as earthworms
and ants, it is home to many populations.
○​ DECOMPOSERS VS SCAVENGERS
Decomposers Scavengers

What they are Generally bacteria Animals such as

and fungi / other earthworms and
microscopic beetles
organisms

Break down No Yes

dead/decaying
matter into smaller
pieces

Break down Yes No

dead/decaying
matter into simpler
substances /
nutrients

4.​ Below is a chart showing the general relationship between organisms in

the leaf litter community:
Organism name Type of organism Interaction(s) in the
Leaf litter community

Earthworm animal They are agents of

decomposition as they
feed on leaf litter by
breaking it into smaller
pieces so it is easier
for fungi and bacteria
to decompose the
leaves. They are also

⚗️🧪🧫🧬 85
6-2 Science Revision Notes ~ 2023
© 2023~Class of 6-2

prey as they are in

turn eaten by other
animal populations.

Ant animal They are agents of

decomposition as they
feed on leaf litter by
breaking it into smaller
pieces so it is easier
for fungi and bacteria
to decompose the
leaves. They are also
prey as they are in
turn eaten by other
animal populations.

Snail animal They are agents of

decomposition as they
feed on leaf litter by
breaking it into smaller
pieces so it is easier
for fungi and bacteria
to decompose the
leaves. They are also
prey as they are in
turn eaten by other
animal populations.

Millipede animal They are agents of

decomposition as they
feed on leaf litter by
breaking it into smaller
pieces so it is easier
for fungi and bacteria
to decompose the
leaves. They are also
prey as they are in
turn eaten by other
animal populations.

Grasshopper animal They are agents of

decomposition as they
feed on leaf litter by
breaking it into smaller
pieces so it is easier
for fungi and bacteria

⚗️🧪🧫🧬 86
6-2 Science Revision Notes ~ 2023
© 2023~Class of 6-2

to decompose the
leaves. They are also
prey as they are in
turn eaten by other
animal populations.

Beetle animal They feed on leaf litter

and are also predators
as they feed on
microorganisms and
small insects.

Centipede animal Predators who feed on

millipede population

Spider animal Predators who feed on

other animal
populations such as
earthworms, ants and
grasshoppers.

Lizard animal Predators who feed on

other animal
populations such as
earthworms, ants and
grasshoppers.

Fungi fungi Decomposers which

feed on leaf litter by
digesting it as they
grow on it. They also
make leaf litter softer
and easier for some
animal populations to
eat.

Bacteria bacteria Decomposers which

feed on leaf litter by
digesting it as they
grow on it. They also
make leaf litter softer
and easier for some
animal populations to
eat.

⚗️🧪🧫🧬 87
6-2 Science Revision Notes ~ 2023
© 2023~Class of 6-2

Single plant community

●​ A single plant community is made up of a plant and many small organisms living
on it such as ferns, ants and birds etc.
●​ Much like leaf litter communities, they are often found within larger communities
such as garden communities.
Field community
Physical characteristics Plant populations Animal populations

Air moves around freely, Lallang, cow grass Earthworms, cows,

bright during the day, and millipedes, grasshoppers
dark at night, exposure to etc
sufficient sunlight

Seaside/Seashore community
A seashore community consists of land near the sea.

Animal populations Plant populations Other populations

Crab Coconut tree(on the shore) Bacteria

Clam Turtle Grass Fungi
Starfish/Sea Star Bushy pondweed Algae such as Seaweed
Seagull Mosses(on rocks)
Barnacle
Sea Urchin
Coral
Mudskipper
Snail

Rotting Log community

●​ A rotting log community is a community composed of a piece of rotting log and
the organisms living on it
●​ Characteristics
○​ Dark (in the log)
○​ Damp
○​ Warm - does not fluctuate

⚗️🧪🧫🧬
○​ Stagnant air (mostly)

88
6-2 Science Revision Notes ~ 2023
© 2023~Class of 6-2

○​ Provides shelter and protection for the various organisms on it.

●​ When fungi and bacteria decompose the log, they break down the rotten matter
into simpler substances which return to the soil as nutrients for plants to absorb
via roots.
●​ Animal populations in the rotting log community either feed on the rotting wood or
feed on other animal populations living under the rotting log.

Organism Organism type Interaction(s) in Rotting

Log Community

Earthworm animal Agents of decomposition

who feed on rotting wood,
in the process breaking it
into smaller pieces or
making tunnels within it,
making it easier for fungi
and bacteria to decompose
the rotting log. They are in
turn eaten by other animal
populations.

Termite animal Agents of decomposition

who feed on rotting wood,
in the process breaking it
into smaller pieces or
making tunnels within it,
making it easier for fungi
and bacteria to decompose
the rotting log. They are in
turn eaten by other animal
populations.

Slug animal Agents of decomposition

who feed on rotting wood,
in the process breaking it
into smaller pieces or
making tunnels within it,
making it easier for fungi
and bacteria to decompose
the rotting log. They are in
turn eaten by other animal
populations.

Millipede animal Agents of decomposition

⚗️🧪🧫🧬 89
6-2 Science Revision Notes ~ 2023
© 2023~Class of 6-2

who feed on rotting wood,

in the process breaking it
into smaller pieces or
making tunnels within it,
making it easier for fungi
and bacteria to decompose
the rotting log. They are in
turn eaten by other animal
populations.

Centipede animal Predators who feed on the

centipede population

Spider animal Predators who feed on

other animal populations

Lizard animal Predators who feed on

other animal populations

Wood Scorpion animal Predators who feed on

other animal populations

Fungi(e.g. Bracket Fungus) fungi Decomposers who feed on

the rotting log and leaf litter
by digesting it. They also
make the log softer and
easier for some animal
populations to make their
homes in the log.

Bacteria bacteria Decomposers who feed on

the rotting log and leaf litter
by digesting it. They also
make the log softer and
easier for some animal
populations to make their
homes in the log.

Forest community
●​ A forest community is a very large community made up of trees and many other
populations around it that all depend on the trees either directly or indirectly.
●​ Due to its large nature and often warm, moist conditions, the forest community is
home to many different populations of plants, animals, fungi and bacteria.

⚗️🧪🧫🧬 90
6-2 Science Revision Notes ~ 2023
© 2023~Class of 6-2

●​ A forest community is oftentimes made up of many smaller communities such as

Rotting Log Communities, Single Plant Communities, Tree communities and Leaf
Litter communities.
●​

Type of organism Examples of organism

Animal Tigers
Elephants
Foxes
Frogs
Bees
Wasps
Butterflies
Beetles
Lizards
Chameleons
Snakes
Ants
Scorpions
Dragonflies
etc.

Plant Rubber trees

Teak trees
Bird’s nest fern
Staghorn fern
Mosses
Cacao plants
Rafflesia
etc.

Fungi Toadstools
Bracket Fungus
etc.

Bacteria E. coli
etc.

Other types of communities

There are many other types of communities, such as:
●​ Tree communities

⚗️🧪🧫🧬 91
6-2 Science Revision Notes ~ 2023
© 2023~Class of 6-2

●​ Mangrove Swamp communities

●​ Garden communities

⚗️🧪🧫🧬 92
6-2 Science Revision Notes ~ 2023
© 2023~Class of 6-2

Adaptations by Maoyu, Ean, Elias

What are adaptations?

●​ Adaptations are ways for an organism to survive when its environment

becomes unfavourable. The other two things that may happen are:
○​ The organism dies
○​ The organism would move away from this environment.
●​ Exam Definition: Adaptations are CHARACTERISTICS which help an
organism SURVIVE and REPRODUCE in its natural habitat. They are also a
result of evolution. (Change in a species over a long period of time)
●​ Adaptations usually occur when a gene mutates or changes by accident.
●​ Adaptations are not permanent; Organisms have evolved over time and will
continue to change and evolve as the environment constantly changes.

What types of adaptations are there?

●​ There are 3 main types of adaptation;

○​ Structural only
Special body parts
○​ Behavioural only
Unique behaviours
○​ Both
●​ How do organisms adapt for survival?
○​ Adaptations for escaping from predators
○​ Adaptations for reproduction (Covered more later in the chapter)
○​ Adaptations for coping with physical conditions (abiotic) of the
environment:
■​ Temperature (LOW)
Animals
○​ Keep body temperature high
○​ Fur: traps air (poor conductor of heat)
○​ Blubber: Keep body warm
○​ Fat: Keep body warm
○​ Blood: Antifreeze chemicals
●​ Hibernation
●​ Migration

⚗️🧪🧫🧬
●​ Adaptations of the Polar Bear:

93
6-2 Science Revision Notes ~ 2023
© 2023~Class of 6-2

➢​ Eats meat because there are no plants available in

the North Pole. (NOT SOUTH POLE!!!)
➢​ Thick blubber to keep warm.
➢​ Colourless fur helps them camouflage in plain sight.
(NOT white fur)
➢​ Big, furry feet like snowshoes to help it walk in the
snow.
Plants
●​ Cone shaped trees to prevent accumulation of snow
●​ Needle-like leaves to decrease exposed surface area for
stomata to release water vapour

○​ Temperature (HIGH)

Fennec fox:
●​ Large ears to lose heat more efficiently
Camel
●​ Stores water in their blood (not the humps)
●​ An extremely long large intestine so that they can
absorb more water from their undigested food
Cactus
●​ Needle-like leaves to reduce the amount of exposed
surface area where water is lost to the environment.
(Process - Transpiration)
●​ Swollen stems to store water
Other plants
●​ Less and smaller stomata to reduce water loss
●​ Stomata that only opens at night to reduce water loss as
the temperature is much lower at night
●​ Hair-like leaves - NOT TO REDUCE THE AMOUNT OF
EXPOSED SURFACE AREA WHERE WATER IS LOST TO
THE ENVIRONMENT!!! It’s to trap AIR and since air is a
POOR CONDUCTOR OF HEAT, it reduces the rate of heat
transfer from the surroundings to the plant so that the
plant gains less heat. Since the plant gains less heat,
less water is lost via evaporation. The hair-like leaves
also REDUCE THE AMOUNT OF WIND so that water
evaporates slower to slow the water loss of the plant.
●​ White leaves to reflect sunlight so the plant gains less
heat

⚗️🧪🧫🧬 94
6-2 Science Revision Notes ~ 2023
© 2023~Class of 6-2

○​ Aquatic animals
Moist skin
Gills
Gill chambers
Breathing tube
Air bubble
Special nostrils
Lungs and blowhole

○​ Examples
Owl
●​ Eyes with special cells
Money Plant
●​ Clasping roots to help them get more sunlight
Morning Glory
●​ Twining vine to help support weak stems
Water Hyacinth
●​ Stems are swollen with air to allow the plant to stay
afloat on water to trap maximum light for
photosynthesis
Water Lily
●​ Waxy leaves that prevent water from collecting on them
Hydrilla
●​ Air spaces in leaves and stems to keep the plant upright
in the water
Swimming
●​ Streamlined body to reduce resistance
●​ Fins
●​ Webbed feet
●​ Flippers
Prop roots of mangrove plants are to provide support in the
soft, unstable mud and moving water currents from the sea
Buttress roots are large, wide roots that provide additional
support for tall trees in the rainforest

○​ Bird Adaptations
The ability to fly allows birds to cover great distances in
search of food and water. Flight also enables a bird to leave

⚗️🧪🧫🧬 95
6-2 Science Revision Notes ~ 2023
© 2023~Class of 6-2

areas of extreme hot or cold temperatures and move to a

better climate.
Feathers play a part in insulating birds from the cold.
Some birds dissipate heat absorbed from their surroundings.
Owls and nighthawks gape open-mouthed while rapidly
fluttering their throat region to evaporate water from their
mouth cavities.
Have hollow bones for flight, NOT FOR SWIMMING
○​ Adaptations for obtaining food
■​ Keen sense of:
●​ Smell
●​ Sight
●​ Hearing
●​ Touch
●​ Taste
■​ Venom
■​ Specialised teeth and mouth parts

Type of Mouth/Teeth Food they eat

Plants

Nectar

Meat

⚗️🧪🧫🧬 96
6-2 Science Revision Notes ~ 2023
© 2023~Class of 6-2

Meat

○​ Adaptations for escaping from predators:

■​ Structural:
●​ Camouflaging
●​ Thorns
●​ Poison
■​ Behavioural
●​ Hiding
●​ Living in herds
●​ Moving away quickly
■​ Structural and Behavioural
●​ Mimicry
○​ Use of body colouring (structural) or actions of
poisonous or bad tasting prey/predators to
benefit from that protection (behavioural)
○​ Enlarge themselves to discourage predators
(behavioural)
●​ Use of special body parts to discourage predators, or
escape from them
○​ Adaptations for reproduction
■​ Some adaptations are used to attract more mates for mating.
This increases the rate of reproduction of the population of that
organism, resulting in a larger population size that would be harder
to die out. This ensures the continuity of their own kind. (More of
this in other topics)

How do adaptations develop?

●​ Over time, animals that are better adapted to their environment survive and
breed.
●​ The characteristics that help a species survive in an environment are passed
on to future generations.
●​ Animals that are not well adapted to an environment may not survive.
●​ Those characteristics that don’t help the species survive slowly disappear.

⚗️🧪🧫🧬 97
6-2 Science Revision Notes ~ 2023
© 2023~Class of 6-2

●​ Adaptations are inherited, which means that it is passed down from parent to
offspring.
●​ The same species of organism would adapt differently in two different
environments.
●​ Usually, adaptations take thousands to tens of thousands of years to
develop.

⚗️🧪🧫🧬 98
6-2 Science Revision Notes ~ 2023
© 2023~Class of 6-2

Man And His Environment by Zhirou, Elias, Gideon

First, recall from the ‘Ecology’ Unit what the environment is. (For more information see
Ecology.)

Like all organisms, Man can also interact with and affect his environment. Man depends
on his environment for natural resources such as energy, food and materials.

Man’s activities can have positive or negative effects on his environment. Examples of
negative effects include activities like agriculture and industrialisation. Hence, a growing
world population means that Man’s activities can have an increasingly larger impact on
the environment.

By clearing large areas of forested land by cutting and burning to grow food (crops),
and for building (this is called deforestation), using natural materials to make new
products and creating new materials, Man is causing either positive or negative results.

Definition of deforestation: Clearing of forests on a large scale, usually by cutting or

burning to obtain natural resources like wood and fuel, or to mine for metals or
minerals. Deforestation can also happen because land needs to be freed up for
agricultural or industrial development.

As a result, organisms in the forest lose their habitats, and with no shelter or food, they
die. A decrease in the population of one kind of organism also affects the populations of
other kinds of organisms in a food web.

Deforestation causes increases in temperatures and changes in the amount and

distribution of rainfall — generally creating a drier climate. These impacts can affect soil
moisture, reducing yields in some areas and increasing flooding in others.

More On Rainfall and Deforestation

Due to deforestation, there are less trees around which would release water vapour
via transpiration. Therefore, less clouds are formed due to less water vapour in the
air. Hence, the amount of rain decreases. This makes the land more dry due to less
rainfall.

⚗️🧪🧫🧬 99
6-2 Science Revision Notes ~ 2023
© 2023~Class of 6-2

Effects On Temperature

The amount of carbon dioxide in the air increases due to less trees taking in carbon
dioxide during photosynthesis. When more carbon dioxide is trapped within the
Earth’s atmosphere, it can lead to the Greenhouse Effect and cause global warming.

Effects On Soil

With less trees holding the soil together, the soil is washed into water bodies more
easily. Aquatic organisms in the muddy water may not be able to survive.

Overall Effects Of Deforestation

●​ Habitat destruction
○​ Loss of shelter and protection, organisms become more exposed to
predators
●​ Soil erosion
○​ Soil getting less protection from rain and wind as there are no more root
holding the soil
●​ Rivers and seas get polluted by sand and silt
○​ The sand and silt are from the deforested areas
●​ Less trees and plants so more carbon dioxide in the atmosphere
○​ Leads to Greenhouse Effect
■​ Which in turn leads to Global Warming
●​ Reduced natural resources from removal of forests
●​ More plants and animals will be in the list of endangered species

The Effects Of Pollution

Pollution is the adding of harmful substances known as pollutants to the

environment. A pollutant is any substance that makes the environment dirty or
harmful to live in. Pollution may affect the land, the air and water bodies such as rivers
and oceans. Some effects are immediate, e.g. noise pollution disrupting the peace in
the neighbourhood. Some effects can only be seen in the long run, e.g. temperature
rising in the environment.

⚗️🧪🧫🧬 100
6-2 Science Revision Notes ~ 2023
© 2023~Class of 6-2

Waste ~ Pollutants or Not?

Every day, we produce large amounts of waste. If waste is not properly disposed of,
it can pollute the land, water or air. This is when waste becomes pollutants. When
waste breaks down, it gives off bad-smelling gases.

Pollution As A Whole

●​ On land:
○​ Sources of pollutants
■​ Man’s activities (Use and Throw Habit)
■​ Not properly disposed/discarded of
○​ Effects
■​ Unsightly
■​ Unpleasant smell
■​ Unhygienic
■​ Breeding grounds for pests and other animals that may spread
diseases
○​ Example
■​ [Link]/livingbygarbage
●​ In the water
○​ Sources of pollutants
■​ Untreated human waste (Sewage) from households, factories
and public places
■​ Fertilisers, pesticides, herbicides that are washed off into
waterways by rain
■​ Hazardous chemicals from factories / industries / landfills /
dumping grounds
■​ Oil spills from ships, oil tankers and motorboats
■​ Litter from households, factories, public places and ships
○​ Effects
■​ Untreated sewage contains bacteria and chemicals. Bacteria
and chemicals can poison aquatic organisms.
■​ Fertilisers in the water encourage the growth of algae on the
water surface. The algae use up most of the dissolved oxygen
in the water and prevent sunlight from reaching submerged
plants. Pesticides and herbicides can also poison aquatic
organisms.
■​ These hazardous chemicals from factories / industries /

⚗️🧪🧫🧬
landfills / dumping grounds can poison aquatic organisms as

101
6-2 Science Revision Notes ~ 2023
© 2023~Class of 6-2

well as the organisms that consume them. (Biomagnification -

See other chapters)
■​ Oil forms a layer on the water surface, preventing oxygen in
the air from dissolving in the water. The oil destroys the
water-protecting and insulation properties of the feathers of
seabirds.
■​ Litter chokes, entangles, or poisons aquatic organisms or
seabirds.
●​ In the air
○​ Sources of pollutants
■​ Factories and machines
■​ Burning of fuels releases carbon dioxide, smoke
■​ Exhaust fumes from vehicles
■​ Use of non-environmentally friendly products
●​ Aerosol sprays containing Chlorofluorocarbons
●​ CFCs are responsible for thinning the ozone layer
○​ Effects
■​ Greenhouse Effect / Global warming
■​ Health problems
●​ Asthma / lung / respiratory problems
●​ Heart problems
●​ Visibility (For haze)

The Greenhouse Effect

Certain gases such as carbon dioxide and water vapour trap heat from the sun and
make the Earth warm. This is known as the Greenhouse Effect and keeps the Earth
warm.

⚗️🧪🧫🧬 102
6-2 Science Revision Notes ~ 2023
© 2023~Class of 6-2

Too much greenhouse gases in the atmosphere leads to the surface of the Earth
getting warmer and a rise in temperature around the world is equal to global
warming.

The Good Side After All This - WHAT CAN MAN DO TO PROTECT
HIS ENVIRONMENT???

Man depends on natural resources from his environment for survival. To protect the
environment, Man needs to take actions that can have a positive impact on his
environment.

●​ Addressing negative effects of what Man does to his environment

○​ We obtain energy, materials and food from natural resources in our
environment. To prevent our natural resources from being destroyed or
running out too soon, we need to conserve them.
○​ Conservation of natural resources e.g. Practise 3Rs (Reduce, Reuse,
Recycle)
○​ Protect natural habitats and wildlife by setting up more nature parks.
○​ Reforestation:
■​ Seeds and young plants are planted in forests where deforestation
had taken place previously.
○​ Controlling and monitoring air, water and land pollution e.g. imposing
fines and setting up regulations.
○​ “Green” campaigns and projects
○​ Developing and using energy-efficient and “clean” technology e.g.
development of electric cars
●​ Minimise the damage caused by natural disasters
○​ Forest fires
■​ Try to put it out faster.

Biotechnology

Traditional biotechnology uses living organisms to make or change chemical

compounds.

Traditional biotechnologies use tools such as:

●​ Fermentation

⚗️🧪🧫🧬
●​ Brewing

103
6-2 Science Revision Notes ~ 2023
© 2023~Class of 6-2

●​ Cultures
●​ Yeast

Traditional biotechnology is used to make:

●​ Wine
●​ Beer
●​ Cheese
●​ Bread
●​ Yoghurt

Extras

Smog - Most of the smog we see is photochemical smog. This happens when
sunlight reacts with nitrogen oxides and at least one volatile organic compound
(VOC) in the atmosphere. Nitrogen oxides come from car exhaust, coal power plants,
and factory emissions. VOCs are released from gasoline, paints, and many cleaning
solvents. When sunlight hits these chemicals, they form airborne particles and
ground-level ozone ~ or smog.

⚗️🧪🧫🧬 104
6-2 Science Revision Notes ~ 2023
© 2023~Class of 6-2

Some practice questions

1. Which of the following are the results of an increase in the amount of carbon dioxide
in the atmosphere? (2m)

A. Acid rain
B. Soil erosion
C. Air pollution
D. Global warming

1)​ A and C only

2)​ A and D only
3)​ B, C and D only
4)​ A, B, C and D​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ (​ )

2. Lichens are organisms which are very sensitive to air pollution. The graph below
shows how the distance from a power station affects the number of types of lichen
growing around the power station. (2m)

Which one of the following conclusions can be drawn from the graph above?

1)​ There are fewer types of lichen growing around the power station.
2)​ Less types of lichens grow in areas further away from the power station.
3)​ As the distance from the power station increases, air pollution increases.
4)​ The number of types of lichens growing decreases when the distance from the
power station increases.​ ​ ​ ​ ​
​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ (​ )

⚗️🧪🧫🧬 105
6-2 Science Revision Notes ~ 2023
© 2023~Class of 6-2

3. In Country X, the number of cows is being controlled to prevent cows from

overgrazing the grassland. Overgrazing will directly result in: (2m)

1)​ Forest fire

2)​ Air pollution
3)​ Soil erosion
4)​ New vegetation ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ (​ )

4.

The diagram above shows a river flowing between a village and a jungle. When a dam
is built across the river, the flow of the river water is blocked.

(a) Give one negative impact of building the dam on the environment. (1m)

______________________________________________________________________

(b) Give one advantage of building the dam. (1m)

______________________________________________________________________

5. The development in science and technology has brought about some negative
impacts on the environment, such as global warming and air pollution.

(a) How does deforestation lead to global warming? (1m)

______________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________

⚗️🧪🧫🧬 106
6-2 Science Revision Notes ~ 2023
© 2023~Class of 6-2

(b) How does air pollution cause acid rain? Name one effect of acid rain. (2m)

______________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________

Answers

Question Answer Explanation

1 2 (2m) Read the above info for more.

2 1 (2m) Lichens die when there is more air

pollution.

3 3 (2m) Quite self-explanatory.

Selecting option 1 proves that
you’re genius…it’s…it’s frightening

4(a) The ecosystem is All suitable answers are

affected/Organisms living acceptable.
beyond the dam have no water
to drink and, hence, will
die/Disrupts the groundwater
table (all 1m)

4(b) Water can be easily collected by Any acceptable answer is suitable.

villagers for
consumption/Provides source of
electrical energy/Any flooding
can be controlled/Water can be
stored for future usage. (All 1m)

5(a) Deforestation causes increases

in temperatures and changes in
the amount and distribution of
rainfall — generally creating a
drier climate. These impacts can
affect soil moisture, reducing
yields in some areas and
increasing flooding in others.
(1m)

5(b) Harmful gases in smoke can Airborne diseases dissolve in the

dissolve in rainwater to form air along with evaporated acid and

⚗️🧪🧫🧬 107
6-2 Science Revision Notes ~ 2023
© 2023~Class of 6-2

acid rain (1m). Acid rain can form acid rain. The rain can cause
damage buildings and structures nuclear explosions at places which
made of metal or stone. (1m). haven’t even gone nuclear - 0m.
Anything suitable is fine, but please
don’t spout nonsense.

⚗️🧪🧫🧬 108
6-2 Science Revision Notes ~ 2023
© 2023~Class of 6-2

Cited Sources
1.​ GEP Science Notes, Worksheets and PowerPoints - [Classified information]
2.​ Marshall Cavendish P4-6 Science Textbooks
3.​ PSLE Science Sketchnotes 2nd Edition
4.​ [Link]
5.​ Marshall Cavendish PSLE Science Revision Guide
6.​ [Link]
7.​ [Link]
bstances-that-undergo-deposition/
8.​ Ultimate Science Revision Guide
9.​ Ultimate Science Workbook OEQs
10.​ Primary 6 PSLE Science Exam Package
11.​[Link]
12.​[Link] (for the symbols in the topic Electricity and question 15’s food web in
the practice paper) (it's a fun game)

⚗️🧪🧫🧬 109
6-2 Science Revision Notes ~ 2023
© 2023~Class of 6-2

Science Mock Papers

Excel in these mock papers and prove that you can pass
PSLE!

Prof: 6-2=4, 6-3=3, 4>3, so 6-2>6-3

3, so 6-2 > 6

⚗️🧪🧫🧬 110
6-2 Science Revision Notes ~ 2023
© 2023~Class of 6-2

CT Paper
__ / 40
36-40: AL1; 34-35.5: AL2; 32-33.5: AL3; 0-31.5: Prepare better!

Part 1: 11 questions, 22 marks

1. What are the similarities between a dog and a guppy?

A: Both have a 3-stage life cycle.

B: Both give birth to young alive.
C: Both are warm-blooded.
D: The young of both resemble the adult.

(1)​A and D
(2)​B and C
(3)​A, B and D
(4)​A, B, C and D ​ ( )

2. Mike grouped 8 animals into two groups. Group A: Goose, Dragonfly, Cockroach and
Chicken. Group B: Bee, Dragonfly, Butterfly and Fly.

She grouped them according to _____________.

(1)​ How they reproduce

(2)​How they breathe
(3)​The number of stages in their life cycle
(4)​The number of eggs they lay ​ ​ ( )

3. Beaker A is filled with red beans up to the 30 cm³ mark and Beaker B contains 30
cm³ of water as shown below.

⚗️🧪🧫🧬 111
6-2 Science Revision Notes ~ 2023
© 2023~Class of 6-2

What is a possible new water level of Beaker B if the red beans from Beaker A are
poured into Beaker B?

(1)​30 cm³
(2)​50 cm³
(3)​60 cm³
(4)​70 cm³ ​ ( )

4. Four children are watching an ice cube melt and each gave a comment. Which child
made the wrong comment about the melting process of the ice cube?

Raj: The volume of the ice cube is increasing as it melts.

Iris: The ice cube is gaining heat.
Chris: Melting can occur only at 0 degrees Celsius.
Karen: The ice cube is changing in state.

(1)​Raj
(2)​Iris
(3)​Chris
(4)​Karen ​ ​ ( )

5. Cloud seeding involves dropping particles such as Chemical X into the atmosphere to
help produce rain. Therefore, the amount of rain produced is increased because
Chemical X increases the __________.

(1)​temperature of the atmosphere and surroundings

(2)​speed of water evaporation
(3)​number of particles to collect water vapour
(4)​amount of water vapour rising from the oceans ​ ​ ( )

6. Which of the following parts of a plant take(s) part in sexual reproduction?

⚗️🧪🧫🧬
(1)​Only the flower

112
6-2 Science Revision Notes ~ 2023
© 2023~Class of 6-2

(2)​Fruit and flower

(3)​Fruit, branch and seed
(4)​Flower, seed and fruit ​ ​ ( )

7. Two similar plants were placed into two similar jars as shown below. The set-ups
were left near a window. There was also an equal volume of water in both jars.

After 7 days, the water level in Set-up Y was lower than in Set-up X. What is/are
the possible reasons?

A: Plant A was unable to take in any water.

B: Plant B absorbed more water than Plant A.
C: More water had evaporated from the jar in Set-up Y.
D: Some water vapour in the jar in Set-up X had condensed.

(1)​B and D
(2)​C and D
(3)​A, B and C
(4)​A,B,C and D ( )

8. The table below shows the melting and boiling points of substances S, T and U
respectively.

⚗️🧪🧫🧬 113
6-2 Science Revision Notes ~ 2023
© 2023~Class of 6-2

Substance Melting Point/°C Boiling Point/°C

S 41 83

T 27 66

U 58 95

Which one of the following temperatures are the three substances, S, T and U, in the
same state?

(1)​32°C
(2)​49°C
(3)​60°C
(4)​81°C

9. What of the following statements about gravity are true?

A.​ Gravity is a force that can act at a distance.

B.​ Gravity causes objects on Earth to have mass.
C.​ Gravity makes things in the air fall to the ground.
D.​ Gravity varies with the distance the object is from the Earth.

(1)​A and B only

(2)​C and D only
(3)​A, C and D
(4)​All of the above

10. Vincent kicked a ball. The diagram below shows the path of the ball after being
kicked.

⚗️🧪🧫🧬 114
6-2 Science Revision Notes ~ 2023
© 2023~Class of 6-2

At which point(s) is gravitational force acting on the ball?

(1)​B only
(2)​A, B and C
(3)​B, C and D
(4)​A, B, C and D ( )

11. Duncan wanted to find out if the number of batteries affects the strength of an
electromagnet. Which of the following variables should he change to ensure a fair test?

A: Size of the nail

B: Arrangement of the batteries
C: Number of batteries used
D: Number of coils around the nail

(1)​C only
(2)​D only
(3)​A and D
(4)​B and C ( )

Part 2: 4 questions, 18 marks

⚗️🧪🧫🧬
​ 12. Max set up a circuit on a table top as shown below.

115
6-2 Science Revision Notes ~ 2023
© 2023~Class of 6-2

(a)​Max noticed that the magnetic ball did not move towards the
electromagnet. The magnetic ball stayed where it was.

​ (i) According to past research, it is proven that the more batteries in

series, the stronger the electromagnet. What can Max do to the
number of batteries to try to make the ball move towards the
electromagnet? Why does this method have a chance to work? [1]

​ _____________________________________________________

​ _____________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________

(ii) When the ball still did not move towards the electromagnet, Max’s
friend, David, said that it was because the aluminium bowl ‘blocked’ the
magnetic field of the electromagnet. Do you agree with David? Why /

⚗️🧪🧫🧬
Why not? [1]

116
6-2 Science Revision Notes ~ 2023
© 2023~Class of 6-2

​ _____________________________________________________
​
​ _____________________________________________________

(b)​ Max uncoiled the wires around the bar that was part of the electromagnet.
Next, he coiled the wires around the bar in the opposite way to the
original. Max says: “This time, the ball will go towards the electromagnet,
hit the aluminium bowl, and make a ‘ding’ sound. However, the ball would
go away from the magnet and hit Material X, making a ‘dong’ sound. It will
continue hitting the bowl and then Material X again and again, making
‘ding dong ding dong’ sounds repeatedly.” However, the magnetic ball
hits the aluminium bowl and stays there. Explain why this happens. [2]

_____________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________

13. Copium is a (fictional) drug that when consumed, will affect the brain of the
person. It is indigestible and accumulates in the brain. ​

⚗️🧪🧫🧬 117
6-2 Science Revision Notes ~ 2023
© 2023~Class of 6-2

(a)​How does Copium get to the brain? [2]

_____________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________

(b)​Copium is also known to be effective when the gaseous form is breathed

in. An example:

Scientific tests have proven that some Copium remains on the walls of the
lungs. Explain why a person who uses Copium has a higher breathing rate
than a person who does not use copium. [2]

_____________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________

​ (c) Copium has also been observed to harm brain cells and cause them not to
​ ​ to repair themselves. Identify the cell parts that:
​ ​ (i) allowed the Copium to enter [1]

​ ​ ___________________________________________________

​ ​ (ii) was damaged by the Copium [1]

​ ​ ___________________________________________________

⚗️🧪🧫🧬 118
6-2 Science Revision Notes ~ 2023
© 2023~Class of 6-2

14. Some children wanted to perform a puppet show. The set-up of the stage is
as shown below.

The audience sees this:

(a)​Material A was glass at first. However, the light from the light source blinds the
audience and so cannot see the puppet properly. What should Material A be

⚗️🧪🧫🧬
changed into so that the light is not too blinding for the audience? [1]

119
6-2 Science Revision Notes ~ 2023
© 2023~Class of 6-2

​ ____________________________________________________________

​ ____________________________________________________________

(b)​What property of light makes the shadow appear on the panel? [1]
​
​ ____________________________________________________________

(c) What should the children do to make the puppet’s shadow on the panel appear to
be bigger? [1]

​ ____________________________________________________________

Continued from 14. A child, Sam, conducted an experiment to find out how the
type of material affects its flexibility. The set-up is as follows:

Sam tested each material three times. He recorded distance d. Every time he finished
testing one material, he tested the next material by replacing the material in set-up, until
he finished testing every material (X, Y and Z).

His results is as follows:

Distance d

First trial Second trial Third trial Average

Material X 4.8 cm 3.9 cm 4.5 cm 4.6 cm

⚗️🧪🧫🧬 120
6-2 Science Revision Notes ~ 2023
© 2023~Class of 6-2

Material Y 9.8 cm 9.7 cm 9.9 cm 9.8 cm

Material Z 0.4 cm 0.7 cm 0.3 cm 0.7 cm

(d) The puppet keeps flopping down during the presentation. Which material
should the puppet be made with, Material X, Y or Z? Why? [2]

​ ________________________________________________________________

​ ________________________________________________________________

​ ________________________________________________________________

​ ________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

16. Look carefully at the diagram below (Kind of a food web except there is
decomposer)

⚗️🧪🧫🧬 121
6-2 Science Revision Notes ~ 2023
© 2023~Class of 6-2

a)​ What would happen to the population of the chickens after some time if the fern’s
population decreases? Why? [1]

____________________________________________________

____________________________________________________

____________________________________________________

____________________________________________________

b)​ Why is fungi not considered a predator? [1]

____________________________________________________

____________________________________________________​

⚗️🧪🧫🧬 122
6-2 Science Revision Notes ~ 2023
© 2023~Class of 6-2

c)​ More beetles are released into the habitat. What will happen to the population of
the caterpillars after some time? Why? [1]

____________________________________________________

____________________________________________________

____________________________________________________

____________________________________________________

____________________________________________________

END OF PAPER
Please check carefully!

⚗️🧪🧫🧬 123
6-2 Science Revision Notes ~ 2023
© 2023~Class of 6-2

Answer Key (With explanation)

1.​ (3)

A is correct. The dog has a life cycle like this: Foetus/Newborn, young dog, adult
dog. The guppy has a life cycle: Newborn, young guppy, adult guppy. B is
correct; the dog is a mammal, it gives birth to young alive. The guppy is a fish -
now if you thought it lays eggs, you're wrong! The guppy is a special type of fish
called Livebearers (according to the Internet). They give birth to young alive!
Livebearers include molly fish, mosquito fish and many more. C is wrong - fish
like guppies are cold-blooded. D is correct - young dogs look like adult dogs but
smaller, and the same with guppies.

2.​ (3)

Option (1) is wrong because all the organisms in the question lay eggs. (2) is
wrong because cockroaches breathe through breathing holes (spiracles) and
chickens breathe through lungs but they are both in the same group. (4) is
obviously wrong because chickens/geese lay their eggs one at a time but
cockroaches lay a lot at once but they are in the same group. Using elimination,
(3) is correct. If you don't know, bees have a 4-stage life cycle: Eggs, larva, pupa
and adult. You will not see the egg, larva and pupa stages commonly because
they are all in the hive.

3.​ (2)

Look at the beaker with beans. It has air gaps in between the beans. Thus, when
you pour the water in, you would get a volume between 30 and 60, NOT inclusive
(Obviously). Thus, you choose (2) because it is the only option that is between
30 and 60, not inclusive.

4.​ (1)

Raj’s comment: “The volume of the ice cube is increasing as it melts.” No, no, no!
Heat energy can be used to change the state of a substance OR increase its
temperature. When heat is getting transferred from the surroundings to the ice
cube, there is more heat energy. The heat heats the ice up to 0 Degrees Celsius,
its melting point. After that, all the heat energy is used to change the state of the
ice, and it stops rising in temperature temporarily. Thus, Raj is wrong.

⚗️🧪🧫🧬 124
6-2 Science Revision Notes ~ 2023
© 2023~Class of 6-2

5.​ (3)

This Chemical X is Silver Iodide, an inorganic compound. When it is dropped into

clouds, it makes more ice crystals in the cloud. Because of this, there aren't
enough cloud droplets to create raindrops. Thus, the particles are the ice crystals
and Chemical X helps make more of them. If you still don’t understand, go to
[Link]

6.​ (4)

Simple. The flower gets pollinated, the ovules get fertilised, the ovary develops
into a fruit, the fruit carries the seed(s) away from the parent plant, the seed(s)
germinate, and boom! Sexual reproduction has taken place. Therefore, the
flower, fruit and seed(s) take part in sexual reproduction.

7.​ (2)

A is wrong because the plant has roots and is alive, so using commonsense it
can absorb the water. B is wrong! The question said the plants are SIMILAR! I
know they are still two different plants, but the question setter just wants you to
assume that they are the same. Thus Plant B cannot absorb more than Plant A.
C is correct because Set-up Y’s water has exposed surface area, while Set-up
X’s water is covered by plasticine. D is correct because the water in Set-up X
might have evaporated a little but would have condensed back after touching the
cooler plasticine. So no water escaped Set-up X except through the plant.

8.​ (3)

(1) is wrong because at 32°C T has melted while S and U are still in the solid
state. (2) is wrong because at 49°C S and T have melted but U is still in a solid
state. Finally, (4) is wrong because at 81°C T has already boiled while S and U
are still in the liquid state.
9.​ (3)

B is wrong because (according to ChatGPT) “Gravity does not cause objects on

Earth to have mass. Mass is an intrinsic property of matter and is independent of
gravity. All objects have mass, and gravity acts on them due to their mass.
Gravity is what gives weight to objects, but it doesn't create mass.” Mass is the
amount of matter in an object and is not affected by gravity in simpler terms.

⚗️🧪🧫🧬 125
6-2 Science Revision Notes ~ 2023
© 2023~Class of 6-2

A is correct because gravity is a non-contact force, while C is correct because

gravity acts on the object in mid-air and pulls it down to earth. Unless the object
is an aeroplane.
Finally, D is correct because the strength of gravitational force decreases when
two objects move further apart. HOWEVER, DO NOT CONFUSE THIS WITH AN
INCREASE IN GRAVITATIONAL FORCE WHEN SOMETHING IS GOING UP A
RAMP (or down for that matter). From ChatGPT again, “Gravity follows an
inverse square law, which means that the strength of the gravitational force
decreases as the distance between two objects increases. The farther an object
is from the Earth's centre, the weaker the gravitational force it experiences. This
is why objects weigh less on the Moon, for example, because the Moon has less
mass and a smaller radius than Earth, resulting in weaker gravitational pull at its
surface.”

10. (4)

When objects which have mass are attracted to each other, then the force
between them is known as Gravitational Force. Here, the ball is attracted to the
Earth (Ground) in all of the points. Thus the answer is A, B, C and D, i.e. Option
(4).

11. (1)

​ IV: Number of batteries

​ DV: The strength of the electromagnet

​ Since C is the IV, it is the only one that should be changed. Thus the answer is
Option (1).

12(a)(i). Put more batteries in series with the first battery. (C) This works because the
more batteries in series, the stronger the electromagnet. (E - 1 mark) Thus, the
stronger electromagnet might be able to attract the magnet ball. (R - 1 mark) [1 mark -
Use CER]

12(a)(ii). I disagree with David. (C) Magnetic fields can pass through non-magnetic
objects. (E - 1 mark) Since aluminium is a non-magnetic object, the magnetic field of the
electromagnet can pass through the aluminium bowl. (R - one mark) [1 mark - Use
CER]

⚗️🧪🧫🧬 126
6-2 Science Revision Notes ~ 2023
© 2023~Class of 6-2

12(b). Since the ball closes the circuit at the start, electricity can pass through the
coiled wires, making the electromagnet. [0.5 - electromagnet gets ‘activated’] The
magnetic ball gets attracted to the electromagnet and hits the aluminium bowl. The
kinetic energy from the swinging ball gets transferred to the bowl and gets converted
into sound energy. [0.5 - attraction and sound] The ball opens the circuit as it gets
attracted to the electromagnet. [0.5 - open circuit] However, since the set-up is on the
table top, assuming that the table top is level, there is no force to bring the ball back to
hit Material X. Moreover, since the electromagnet includes a bar made of magnetic
material, the bar gets attracted to the ball. Thus, the ball stays with the electromagnet.
[0.5 - why the ball stays there]

13(a). Copium passes through the digestive system and reaches the small intestine,
where it is absorbed into the blood in the bloodstream. The blood containing the
bloodstream is pumped by the heart to the brain.

13(b). As the Copium remains on the walls of the lungs of the person who uses
Copium, the lungs of the person who uses caopium has a smaller surface area, so
oxygen will be dissolved into the blood in the bloodstream slower. The heart has to
pump faster to transport enough oxygen to and remove carbon dioxide from other parts
of the body as there is less oxygen in the blood.

13(c)(i) Cell membrane

13(c)(ii) Nucleus

14(a). Material A should be changed into tracing paper. [1 - anything translucent]

14(b). Light travels in straight lines. [1 - correct concept]

14(c). Bring the puppet nearer to the light source. [1 - moving the puppet only. Moving
the light source or the panel or the stage is wrong; they are all fixed.]

14(d). Material Y. (C) It bends the least when a 10g weight is placed on it since the
distance from the ground is the most. (E - 1 mark) Thus, it is the least flexible. This
would keep the puppet from flopping down too much as this Material Y is the hardest to
bend. (R - 1 mark)

15(a). The population of chickens would decrease. Firstly, the population of

caterpillars would decrease because of the lack of sufficient food and also because
ferns are its only source of food. [0.5 - effect on caterpillars] Next, the population of

⚗️🧪🧫🧬 127
6-2 Science Revision Notes ~ 2023
© 2023~Class of 6-2

chickens decreases because of the lack of sufficient caterpillars to eat. The chickens
rely only on the caterpillars for food. [0.5 - effect on chickens]

15(b). The fungi did not hunt and capture its food. [1 - definition of a predator] Thus,
it is not a predator.

15(c). The population of the caterpillars would decrease. More beetles means more
competition for ferns as food as both of them rely only on the ferns for food. Thus, due
to the lack of food, the caterpillars’ death rate outweighs the birth rate as more
caterpillars die from lack of food. [1 - explanation]

⚗️🧪🧫🧬 128
 ⚗️🧪🧫🧬
6-2 Science Revision Notes ~ 2023
© 2023~Class of 6-2

The End!

Go on, have a break. You deserve it - you

just read the BEST[1] SCIENCE REVISION
NOTES ever!

If your parents ask why you are taking a break

when you should be studying more, show them
these notes and its 129 pages worth of
ㅤㅤㅤinformation. They will be so proud! [citation needed]

⚗️🧪🧫🧬
1.​ ^ 6-2, 2023 “6-2 Science Revision Notes”.

⚗️🧪🧫🧬 129