D RIVERS

The Hydrological Cycle

The hydrological cycle is the sum total of all processes in which water
moves from land to ocean surface to the atmosphere and back in the
form of precipitation. The hydrological cycle comprise of outputs and
inputs.

The hydrological cycle begins with the evaporation of water from the
surface of the ocean. As moist air is lifted, it cools and water vapor
condenses to form clouds. Moisture is transported around the globe until
it returns to the surface as precipitation. Once the water reaches the
ground, one of two processes may occur; 1) some of the water may
evaporate back into the atmosphere or 2) the water may penetrate the
surface and become groundwater. Groundwater either seeps its way to
into the oceans, rivers, and streams, or is released back into the
atmosphere through transpiration. The balance of water that remains on
the earth's surface is runoff, which empties into lakes, rivers and streams
and is carried back to the oceans, where the cycle begins again.
 Terms associated with the hydrological cycle

Evaporation

Evaporation is the change of state in a

substance from a liquid to a gas. In
the hydrological cycle, the substance
concerned about is water.

For evaporation to take place, energy

is required. The main form of energy
which causes evaporation is the
energy from the sun. High rates of
evaporation occur in areas where the
temperature is high.
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Condensation

Condensation is the process whereby water vapour is changed into a liquid

state. In the atmosphere, condensation may appear as clouds or dew. It
occurs when air is cooled to dew point or when air becomes saturated by
water vapour evaporated.

Precipitation

Precipitation is the deposition of

moisture on the earth surface from the
atmosphere. It include snow, rain, sleet,
hail etc. Precipitation results when tiny
condensation particles, through collision
and coalescence, grow too large for the
rising air to support, and thus fall to
the Earth.
Interception

Interception is the capture of rainfall by plant cover which prevents

direct contact with the soil. However, if rain continues the capacity of
the leaves to retain water may be exceeded. This may result is water
dripping from the leaves to the ground referred to as drop flow.

Leaves which allow for

drop flow are commonly
called drip tips.

Further, water which

are intercepted may
flow down the branches
and stems of the&
vegetation called stem S
flow.

Surface runoff

Surface runoff is the process where water flow

over the surface of the earth. This process occurs
two ways where the soil is saturated (cannot
absorb any more water) and when the precipitation
rate exceeds infiltration rate. Surface runoff may
evaporate or may flow into the rivers, lakes oceans.
Infiltration

Infiltration is the process by which water on the earth surface sinks

(move downwards) into the top soil layer. The infiltration rate refers to
the speed at which water may enter the soil.

Percolation

Percolation is the process where water

move downward through the soil into
the water table. Note: Percolation
occurs within the soil layer and it is
different from infiltration.

Infiltration rate is influenced by soils, vegetation cover and the intensity

of the rainfall.

•
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Soils may be permeable and impermeable. Permeable surfaces (also
known as porous or pervious surfaces) allow water to infiltrate into
the soil. Impermeable/impervious surfaces are solid surfaces that
do not allow water to penetrate, forcing it to accumulate and flow
on the surface. Therefore, environments with permeable allow for
high levels of infiltration whereas impermeable slow decreases
infiltration.
• The presence of vegetation allow
for high levels of infiltration.
Roots penetrate the soil holding
and creating many micropores
which results in water to
infiltrate. However, the lack of

P--Im vegetation allow for low levels of

 infiltration as the roots are not present to create micropores within the
soil. Therefore, as micropores are note present, the infiltration rate is
decreases while surface runoff increases.

• The intensity of rainfall

affects the infiltration rate.
Low intense rainfall like
drizzle and light rainfall allow
for high rate o erosion as the
droplets land on the surface
without high levels of impact.
D droplets do not bounce but arrive gently on the
Therefore, these
surface which allow for increase infiltration. However, very intense
rainfall decreases the rate of infiltration. The intense rainfall allow
for large droplets which splashes on the surface of the earth due to
the increase velocity. As the raindrop splashes, these bounce and do
not settle but runs on the surface as runoff. This occurrence limits
infiltration. :" light

Transpiration it

Transpiration is the process by which water is lost in the form of water

vapour from the micropores of the plants.

Through-flow

Through-flow is the
process of water
flowing through the
unsaturated soil
Baseflow laterally.

Baseflow is the process where water flow within the zone of saturation
and re-emerges into rivers, lakes, ponds etc. Groundwater contributes to
base flow.
Groundwater flow

Groundwater flow is the deeper movement of water through underlying

permeable rock below the water table.
Surface storage

Surface storage is the temporary

storage of water in lake, ponds
and depression in the surface of
the earth.

Evapotranspiration

Evapotranspiration consist of the processes of evaporation and

transpiration. It is the diffusion of water from vegetation and water
surface to the atmosphere. It is the sum of the evaporation rate and
the transpiration rate in an environment.

Actual evapotranspiration is the amount of water that is actually

removed from the surface by evaporation and transpiration.

Potential evapotranspiration is a measure of the ability of the

atmosphere to remove water from the surface through evaporation and
transpiration.
 Water Table

The water table is defined as the boundary between water-saturated

ground and unsaturated ground.

Below the water table, rocks and soil are saturated (full) of water. This
zone is referred to as the saturated zone. The area above the water
table which is not saturated is referred to as the unsaturated zone
(vadose zone).

: ·

The above diagram, represent the water

table. It is important to note, in the dry
season the water table drops while in
the wet season the water rises. Why?
less rainfall=water table drops, more
rainfall=water table rises

The water table fluctuates throughout

the seasons.
Drainage Basin

A drainage basin or catchment area is the region or are which is drained

by a river and its tributaries. The boundary of a catchment area is
commonly know as a watershed.
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Tributary vs Distributary
Definitions:

Source-the point at which a river originates it begins

Mouth-the point at which a river enters an oceanD
Confluence-the point at which a river joins or flows into water forming
a single channel ·

A stream which allow water to flow away from the main river system is
referred to as? Distributary
 ·
mmmectbasins Drainage Density Total length/ total area

Drainage density refers to the frequency of streams on the land/drainage

basin. In other words, drainage density is the length of all streams
divided by the drainage basin area. It is measured in km/km2.

low moderate high

Characteristics of low and high drainage density

• Low drainage density

1. The main river consist of few tributaries
2. Gentle slopes, water moves slower throughout the basin
3. Flood is risk is low
4. Soils are permeable, soils are unsaturated & precipitation is low
• High drainage density
1. The main river consist of several tributaries
2. Steep slopes, water moves faster throughout the basin
3. Flood is risk is high
4. Soils are impermeable, soils are saturated & precipitation is high

Drainage Patterns

A dendritic drainage pattern resembles the branches of the tree. These

patterns develop over homogenous soil type.

A trellised drainage pattern resembles a rectangular grid where

tributaries join at right angles. These develop over alternating bands of
soft and hard rocks.
A radial drainage pattern resembles that of a spokes of a wheel. The
streams spread out in all directions from an elevated central area (peak).
For example, on volcanoes and conical hills radial drainage exists.

A parallel drainage pattern occur where slopes exist. The streams run
parallel to each from the top to the Botton slope. These are form due
to the layers of more resistant and less resistant rocks.

• State the type

• Density (many/few)
• State if the area is well
drained or not….see swamps,
marshes, ponds, wetlands
• Direction of flow
 Rivers
A river is important for the movement of water on earth. River aid in
the formation of many landforms on the earth’s surface. The river
perform three essential functions which include; erosion, transportation
and deposition.

Erosion

Erosion is defined as the process by which soil and sediments are

removed and transported by wind, ice, water etc.

There are four types of river erosion:

• Abrasion (corrasion)
• Attrition
• Hydraulic action
• Solution (corrosion)

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Abrasion (corrasion): is the wearing away of the river bed and banks by
the river’s load. The borders and pebbles are dragged along the river’s
bed as the velocity of the flow increases. As the boulders are dragged,
they abrade, sandpaper, dig the river bed and bank thereby displacing
soil and rocks.

Attrition: is the wearing away of the load transported by a river.

Sediments, particles and pieces of rock collide and bounce into each
other thereby resulting in these materials becoming rounded, smooth or
even breaking into several parts. *Think about smacking two husk
coconuts*- do these husk coconuts retain its original form?
Hydraulic action: is the force of water colliding against the river bed and
banks resulting in cracks, joints, and crevices to widen. Overtime, these
cracks will widen and break off contributing to the river’s load.
Along with hydraulic action , a process referred to cavitation occurs.
Cavitation is the process where air bubbles trapped within cracks, joints
and crevice of rocks on the river bed and banks, pop or explode. The air
bubbles upon popping or exploding release high levels of intense pressure
in an outward direction. This pressure results in cracks to become wider
and unstable.

Solution (corrosion): the minerals of

rocks are dissolved slowly by the
water in the river.

Transportation

Transportation of the river load occurs after erosion. Materials (the

river’s load) of different sizes are transported from one point to another.
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There are four types of transportation process. These include traction,
saltation, suspension and solution.
Traction-large boulders are rilled along the river bed. This process
requires the highest amount of energy for the boulders to be
transported. If there is a decrease in energy the boulders will be
deposited.

Saltation- smaller boulders and pebbles bounce along the river bed
(leap frog patterns). This process occurs as a consequence of
fluctuations in the energy of the river. Moderate levels of energy are
require for this process to occur.

Suspension-fine particles such as silt are transported within the flow of

the river. Sand, silt, clay, vegetation and other material may be
transported by suspension. These require less energy to transport
energy.

Solution- sediments are dissolved in the water. This process require little
or no energy.

Deposition

Deposition is the process by which sediments transported by the river

drops out and settle on the river’s bed.

Velocity of the river determines the rate of

deposition. For example, in order for high
rates of deposition to occur the velocity of
the river must be slowed or decreasedD
significantly. However, low rates of deposition
occur as the velocity of the river is high.

In the rainy season, the rate of deposition is low due to the influx of
water in the river. However, in the dry season, the rate of deposition is
high due to low levels of water entering the river.
Which material will be deposited first if the velocity of the river
decreases? Sand, Pebbles, Rocks?

• The rocks will be deposited first. This is because the rocks are heavy
and require the highest velocity to entrain and transport it.
Therefore, a small decrease velocity result in the large boulders
being deposited.
• The pebbles will be deposited second as these are lighter in weight
and require less velocity to entrain and transport. Therefore, a larger
decrease in velocity is required to allow for deposition.
• Sand particles will be deposited last and these are transported by
the lowest velocity. A rapid decrease in velocity is required to allow
for deposition of sand particles to occur

Youthful stage The Upper, Middle & Lower Course

In the upper course

Mature stage of a river, the
velocity is the
Old stage highest as a result
of the steepD
gradient. The rate of
erosion is rapid while
deposition is lowest.
Headward and
vertical erosion are
dominant in the
upper course of the
river.

In the middle course, the velocity is less than the upper course. The
rate of erosion in the middle course is less than the upper course
course. Lateral erosion is dominant in the middle course. Deposition rate
increases slightly due to the reduction in gradient,
In the lower course of the river, velocity is the lowest. The gradient of
the lower course is gentle. Erosion is minimal while the rate of
deposition is the highest.

Landform features in the Upper Course of the River

Erosional features
1. V-shaped valley
2. Interlocking spur
3. Potholes
4. Waterfalls, plunge pools, rapids, gorges
5. Canyon

V-shaped valley

A v-shaped valley is a narrow valley with steep sloping side which

resembles the letter “v”.D

Formation of v-shaped valley

The upper course of the river flows rapidly due to the steep gradient.
Vertical erosion and abrasion is dominant resulting in the river depth to
become deeper.
Due to rapid vertical erosion, allowing for the dept of the river to D
become deeper, the sides of river become unstable. The sides of river
are weathered and eroded which eventually lead to the river’s banks to
collapse into the river.

As the river’s bank collapses and slides into the river, a v-shaped valley
feature is formed called a v-shaped valley.

After the formation of the v-shaped valley, the v-shaped valley continues
to widened. Vertical erosion is still present allowing for the depth of the
river to increase which lead to the banks becoming unstable and sliding
in.
Interlocking spurs

Interlocking spurs are high land (ridges) that projects towards the river
which alternate from both sides of a v-shape valley.

Formation of interlocking spurs

Interlocking spurs are formed in the same manner as a v-shaped valley

where the rive cuts vertically through the riverbed. However, the flow
of the river encounter layers of hard and soft rocks.

· tion

Some rocks are harder for the flow of the water to erode, therefore
the river meanders around the harder rock whilst eroding the softer
rocks.

a soft
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The meandering continues to erode through softer rocks, leaving the
harder rock projecting outward in the river creating a v-shaped valley
with an interlocking spur.

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Potholes

Potholes are circular depressions in the riverbed.

These potholes are formed where materials such as pebbles, tiny rocks
etc are transported by the river are flowing over small depressions in
the riverbed.

Water flowing over these small depressions result in pebbles and tiny
rocks to be trapped in these depression. These trapped materials in the
depression swirl around at high velocities in the depression thereby
abrading the depression. The depression over time becomes wider and
deeper, thereby forming a pothole.

t
Rapids

Rapids are sections of the river bed that steepen where the water
flows very fast. This section of the river comprises of soft and hard
rocks. The change in the gradient allow rapid, unstable, irregular,
turbulent flow.

Formation

Step 1: bands of alternating soft and hard rocks are present.

=

Step 2: as the river flows

the velocity allow for D
erosion of the softer rocks,
creating a change in the
gradient between the hard
and soft rock.

F
Step 3: the change in the gradient between the hard and soft rocks
allowing for a chaotic flow to arise referred to as a rapid.
Waterfall, plunge pool & gorge

A waterfall is the vertical flow of water over steep rocky ledge. At the
base where the waterDis flowing over the ledge a large depression is
formed known as a plunge pool.

Formation

Step 1: waterfalls form where a band of hard rock overlies soft rocks.
Water and materials flowing abrade the soft rock below creating a
depression.

Step 2: as water continues to flow over the ledge, the depressions is

abraded becoming deeper forming a plunge pool.

waterfall

S
overhang
overhang collapses
↓ - waterfall retreat -

&
-
>
hard rock hard rock hard

erosio-n >
soft
soft rock rock
soft

plutage pool plunge pool expand

Step 3: as the soft rock is eroded, hard rock project outwards.

Thisoverhanitcollapses an overhang. The overhanitcollapses into the plunge
pool as it weight cannot be supported.

Step 4: erosion continues and the waterfall

retreats upstream leaving behind steep sides
river sided referred to as gorge. A gorge is
a small narrow valley with steep, rocky
walls.
Canyon

A canyon is a large deep, narrow valley with steep sides.

Formation

Step 1: a river flows over a bedrock with erosive power.

Step 2: over a long period time, the river erodes the bedrock and
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verticals erode creating deep channels in the bedrock.

Step 3: an increase in erosion, create very large deep valley walls forming
a canyon.

·
 Landform features in the Middle Course of the River

(Erosional and Depositional)

1. Menader
2. Ox-bow lake
3. River cliffs and point bars
4. Terraces

Meander

A meander is a winding curve or bend in a river. Meanders are the

result of both erosional and depositional processes.

Formation

Step 1: meanders begin with the development of pools and riffles in a

straight channel which allows for the thalwegg to occur (side to side
flow).

Pools and riffles are formed by

turbulence. Eddies cause the D
D I
deposit of coarse sediment
(riffles) at high velocity points
and fine sediment (pools) at low
velocity. I0
Step 2: helical flow occurs as the
surface water flows towards the
outer banks while the bottom flows
to the inner banks. The curves in
the river start to develop as the
sides of the river begin to be
eroded. This is called meanders.

Step 3: further flow contributes to the widening of the meander to

become more s-shaped.
Point bars & Cliffs

Point bars and cliffs develop on meanders

due to lateral erosion (horizontal erosion)
and deposition. On inner banks, rapid
deposition of materials occur resulting in
the development of a point bar.

On the outer banks of the meander, river

cliffs form as erosion affects the outer
banks tremendously. Point bars and cliffs
are usually form opposite to each other.

Ox-bow lake

An ox-bow lake is a horse shoe shaped feature formed from a meander

being cut off due to erosion and deposition.

Formation

Step 1: due to erosion on the outside of a bed and deposition on the

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inside, the shape of a meander will change. Erosion narrows the neck
of the land within the meander and as the process continues, the
meanders move closer together.
· ·
ur ·

Step 2: when there is a very high discharge (usually during a flood), the
river cuts across the neck, forming a new, straight path.
Step 3: deposition will occur to cut off the original meander, leaving a
horseshoe-shaped oxbow lake.

Terrace

A river terrace is a bench-step like feature located at the sides of a

river. These terraces are located to close or far to the sides of the
river channel.

River terraces are formed either from erosion or deposition. The high
river terraces are formed due to the erosion of the outer banks.
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However, the low river terraces are formed as a result of deposition of
on the inner banks.

·
Landform features in the Lower
Course of the River (Depositional)

1. Floodplain
2. Levee
3. Braided Channel

·
4. Delta

Floodplains

A floodplain is a generally flat area of land next to a river or stream.

Formation

• During period of heavy rainfall, the river reaches bankfull discharge

where flooding occurs.
• Materials transported by the river flows over the banks. This
materials are deposited.
 • Larger materials are deposited
first closest to the banks while
smaller materials are deposited
further from the banks. This
occurs as the a river floods an
area, the velocity decreases
rapidly as it flows away from the
bank.
• The materials are deposited in
layers forming a fertile layer
referred to as a floodplain.
- -

Levees

Levees are man-made or natural embankments that prevent water from

overtopping the banks. NaturalDlevees are formed when a river overtops
its banks.

As the river overtops its bank and

flows into the floodplain, the largest
materials are deposited first.

Overtime, the continuous deposition

of the largest materials will occur
increasing the height of the
embankments. This feature is called
a levee.
Bars and Braided Channels

Bars are defined as deposited materials which accumulate overtime in

the river channel to form small islands called bars or islets. Materials
accumulate on incline area on the riverbed which eventually breaches
the surface of the water. These islets or bars may be covered by
vegetation which hold the sediments together.

A braided channel
may form as the
water flowing weaves
around islets or bars.

Deposition occur when

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the velocity of
streams decreases
significantly.
·
Deltas

A delta is a very large, low lying swampy plains, comprising of materials

which extend into the ocean at the mouth of a river.

Deltas usually comprised of one main river channel with several

distributaries flowing around islets or bars separating and then
rejoining.

Formation

• Deltas are formed when the sediments carried by a stream are

deposited due to a reduction in the velocity of the river.
• Deposition occurs as the velocity of the stream drops when it enters
a deeper body of water D such as the ocean.
• The deposited sediments along with clay particles accumulate
overtime, forming small islets and bars, forces the water of water
to separate and rejoin. This form several distributaries which allows
the water to flow out into the ocean.