MODULE 2

LESSONS LEARNED FROM PREVIOUS /

RECENT EARTHQUAKES

COURSE MATERIALS
Among the vital lessons learned from previous earthquake, specifically the 1985 Mexico
City and 1989 Loma Prieta (San Francisco) earthquake are the following:

1. Structures Designed According To An Existing Code May Still Fail

The I-880 Cypress Street viaduct before the 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake
was roughly 2.0 kms long and carried an average of 200,000 vehicles a day. It was
completed in 1957 and presumably was designed in accordance with the building
codes at that time. Yet about 1.6 kms of the viaduct collapse.
(Also is the case of the three layer freeway in Kobe Japan. It collapses
during the 1993 Kobe earthquake).

2. Site-Soil-Structure Interaction Determines The Behavior of the Structure

The focus of the 1985 Mexico City earthquake was 350 km southwest of the
city at a depth of approximately 16 to 20 km. Shallow earthquake, like this one are
potentially most damaging. The earthquake waves traveling the long distance
resulted in high frequency components being filtered out leaving only the low
period waves to continue to Mexico City.
The significant shaking of the earthquake lasted as much as 2 to 3 minutes.
This damaged some buildings to an extent sufficient to lengthen their periods.
Some buildings which had shorter periods than that of the earthquake, after being
damaged, had periods long enough to be at or near resonance with the
earthquake, which because of the duration of the earthquake resulted in severe
damage or collapse of the buildings.
The thick highly compressible soils underlying Mexico City resulted in long
natural periods (approximately 2 to 3 seconds) of ground shaking. This was also
approximately the period of the attenuated waves arriving at the site. In addition,
the ground shaking at sites with thick highly compressible soils greatly amplified
the ground motion.
 It is of interest to note that the majority of buildings which collapsed or which
were severely damaged ranged in the height between 5 to 20 stories. Buildings
below 5 stories (which have very short periods) and above 20 stories (which have
long periods) survived this particular earthquake with little or no damage at all. This
point out the significant effect of the natural period of vibration of structures, in
relation to the natural period of the earthquake vibration.
Quite apart from the resonance effects is the liquefaction potential of the
soil. No liquefaction was noted in Mexico City. However, in the City of Lazaro
Cardenas, almost at the

epicenter of the 1985 Mexico City earthquake, many liquefaction sites were found
with serious settlement. Similar effects were noted in the Marina district of San
Francisco due to the 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake./

3. The Characteristics Of The Structure Determine its Vulnerability To

Earthquake Damage.
Structures with serious irregularities in stiffness, mass or both are
vulnerable to earthquake damage. These irregularities may either in the horizontal
or vertical plane of the structure or both.
When the irregularities occur in the vertical direction, the energy of shaking
is concentrated in the shear resisting elements of the weaker story. When
irregularities occur in the horizontal direction, torsion takes place.
Drift (lateral displacement of one story relative to the stories above and
below) has to be accounted for.
➢ If there are brittle elements (glass, concrete hollow block partitions,
etc.) enclosed by the building frame, structural details must be
provided such that drifts can be accommodated without damage
to the brittle elements.]
➢ Sufficient separation must be provided between adjacent buildings
to prevent pounding between them. This effect can be disastrous
if the floor levels of the adjacent buildings are not the same. This
leads to the shorter building’s floor colliding with the columns of
the adjacent building ad in any cases fracturing these columns.
➢ The drift must be sufficiently small so that during non-destructive
earthquakes or during strong winds, the movement of the
structures will not be sufficient to cause discomfort to its
occupants.
 ➢ Structural details are of prime importance. Many times the
members are properly designed but the implementing details (e.g.
in reinforced concrete – anchorage lengths of bars, spacing of ties,
etc. and in structural steel – connections, lateral supports, etc.) are
not followed.

4. Trained Rescue Teams With Rescue Equipment Must Be At Hand For Post
Rescue Operations
Although a number of examples of people surviving more than a week in
the debris of collapsed buildings have been noted, survival of large number of
people buried in the debris is highly dependent on their being extracted as fast as
possible.

5. Structures Which Have Survived Major Earthquakes Need To Be Assessed

For Undetected Damage
As previously mentioned, structures which have undergone a major
earthquake often have a longer periods of vibration after the earthquake. This is
indicative of loss of stiffness resulting from possible damage.

6. Structures Designed Under Older Building Codes Need To Be Reassessed

In The Light Of Contemporary Knowledge
The bulk of structures either heavily damaged or collapsed in both Mexico
City and San Francisco were those which were designed by older codes and which
were not retrofitted to conform to contemporary knowledge or were only partially
retrofitted.

Fast Facts About Earthquakes :

• Earthquakes strike suddenly, violently, and without warning at any time of the year
and at any time of the day or night.
• Smaller earthquakes often follow the main shock.
• An earthquake is caused by the breaking and shifting of rock beneath the Earth's
surface. Ground shaking from earthquakes can collapse buildings and bridges;
disrupt gas, electric, and phone service; and sometimes trigger landslides,
avalanches, flash floods, fires, and huge, destructive ocean waves (tsunamis).
• Most earthquake-related injuries result from collapsing walls, flying glass, and
falling objects.
 • Several thousand shocks of varying sizes occur annually in the United States, and
70 to 75 damaging earthquakes occur throughout the world each year. All 50 states
and all U.S. territories are vulnerable to earthquakes. Where earthquakes have
occurred in the past, they will happen again.
• California experiences the most frequent damaging earthquakes; however, Alaska
experiences the greatest number of large earthquakes—most located in
uninhabited areas.
• Earthquakes occur most frequently west of the Rocky Mountains, although
historically the most violent earthquakes have occurred in the central United
States.
• The largest earthquakes felt in the United States were along the New Madrid Fault
in Missouri, where a 3-month-long series of quakes from 1811 to 1812 included
three quakes larger than a magnitude of 8 on the Richter Scale. These
earthquakes were felt over the entire eastern United States (over 2 million square
miles), with Missouri, Tennessee, Kentucky, Indiana, Illinois, Ohio, Alabama,
Arkansas, and Mississippi experiencing the strongest ground shaking.
• The Richter Scale, developed by Charles F. Richter in 1935, is a logarithmic
measurement of the amount of energy released by an earthquake. Earthquakes
with a magnitude of at least 4.5 are strong enough to be recorded by sensitive
seismographs all over the world.
• It is estimated that a major earthquake in a highly populated area of the United
States could cause as much as $200 billion in losses.

What To Do Before An Earthquake ?

Earthquakes strike suddenly, violently and without warning. Identifying potential hazards
ahead of time and advance planning can reduce the dangers of serious injury or loss of
life from an earthquake. Repairing deep plaster cracks in ceilings and foundations,
anchoring overhead lighting fixtures to the ceiling, and following local seismic building
standards, will help reduce the impact of earthquakes.
Six Ways to Plan Ahead
1. Check for Hazards in the Home
o Fasten shelves securely to walls.
o Place large or heavy objects on lower shelves.
o Store breakable items such as bottled foods, glass, and china in low, closed
cabinets with latches.
o Hang heavy items such as pictures and mirrors away from beds, couches,
and anywhere people sit.
o Brace overhead light fixtures.
 o Repair defective electrical wiring and leaky gas connections. These are
potential fire risks.
o Secure a water heater by strapping it to the wall studs and bolting it to the
floor.
o Repair any deep cracks in ceilings or foundations. Get expert advice if there
are signs of structural defects.
o Store weed killers, pesticides, and flammable products securely in closed
cabinets with latches and on bottom shelves.
2. Identify Safe Places Indoors and Outdoors
o Under sturdy furniture such as a heavy desk or table.
o Against an inside wall.
o Away from where glass could shatter around windows, mirrors, pictures, or
where heavy bookcases or other heavy furniture could fall over.
o In the open, away from buildings, trees, telephone and electrical lines,
overpasses, or elevated expressways.
3. Educate Yourself and Family Members
o Contact your local emergency management office or American Red Cross
chapter for more information on earthquakes. Also read the "How-To
Series" for information on how to protect your property from earthquakes.
o Teach children how and when to call 9-1-1, police, or fire department and
which radio station to tune to for emergency information.
o Teach all family members how and when to turn off gas, electricity, and
water.
4. Have Disaster Supplies on Hand
o Flashlight and extra batteries.
o Portable battery-operated radio and extra batteries.
o First aid kit and manual.
o Emergency food and water.
o Nonelectric can opener.
o Essential medicines.
o Cash and credit cards.
o Sturdy shoes.
5. Develop an Emergency Communication Plan
o In case family members are separated from one another during an
earthquake (a real possibility during the day when adults are at work and
children are at school), develop a plan for reuniting after the disaster.
 o Ask an out-of-state relative or friend to serve as the "family contact." After a
disaster, it's often easier to call long distance. Make sure everyone in the
family knows the name, address, and phone number of the contact person.
6. Help Your Community Get Ready
o Publish a special section in your local newspaper with emergency
information on earthquakes. Localize the information by printing the phone
numbers of local emergency services offices, the American Red Cross, and
hospitals.
o Conduct a week-long series on locating hazards in the home.
o Work with local emergency services and American Red Cross officials to
prepare special reports for people with mobility impairments on what to do
during an earthquake.
o Provide tips on conducting earthquake drills in the home.
o Interview representatives of the gas, electric, and water companies about
shutting off utilities.
o Work together in your community to apply your knowledge to building
codes, retrofitting programs, hazard hunts, and neighborhood and family
emergency plans.

What To Do During An Earthquake?

Stay as safe as possible during an earthquake. Be aware that some earthquakes are
actually foreshocks and a larger earthquake might occur. Minimize your movements to a
few steps to a nearby safe place and if you are indoors, stay there until the shaking has
stopped and you are sure exiting is safe.
If indoors
• DROP to the ground; take COVER by getting under a sturdy table or other piece
of furniture; and HOLD ON until the shaking stops. If there isn’t a table or desk
near you, cover your face and head with your arms and crouch in an inside corner
of the building.
• Stay away from glass, windows, outside doors and walls, and anything that could
fall, such as lighting fixtures or furniture.
• Stay in bed if you are there when the earthquake strikes. Hold on and protect your
head with a pillow, unless you are under a heavy light fixture that could fall. In that
case, move to the nearest safe place.
• Use a doorway for shelter only if it is in close proximity to you and if you know it is
a strongly supported, loadbearing doorway.
 • Stay inside until the shaking stops and it is safe to go outside. Research has shown
that most injuries occur when people inside buildings attempt to move to a different
location inside the building or try to leave.
• Be aware that the electricity may go out or the sprinkler systems or fire alarms may
turn on.
• DO NOT use the elevators.
If outdoors
• Stay there.
• Move away from buildings, streetlights, and utility wires.
• Once in the open, stay there until the shaking stops. The greatest danger exists
directly outside buildings, at exits and alongside exterior walls. Many of the 120
fatalities from the 1933 Long Beach earthquake occurred when people ran outside
of buildings only to be killed by falling debris from collapsing walls. Ground
movement during an earthquake is seldom the direct cause of death or injury. Most
earthquake-related casualties result from collapsing walls, flying glass, and falling
objects.
If in a moving vehicle
• Stop as quickly as safety permits and stay in the vehicle. Avoid stopping near or
under buildings, trees, overpasses, and utility wires.
• Proceed cautiously once the earthquake has stopped. Avoid roads, bridges, or
ramps that might have been damaged by the earthquake.
If trapped under debris
• Do not light a match.
• Do not move about or kick up dust.
• Cover your mouth with a handkerchief or clothing.
• Tap on a pipe or wall so rescuers can locate you. Use a whistle if one is available.
Shout only as a last resort. Shouting can cause you to inhale dangerous amounts
of dust.

What To Do After An Earthquake ?

• Expect aftershocks. These secondary shockwaves are usually less violent than
the main quake but can be strong enough to do additional damage to weakened
structures and can occur in the first hours, days, weeks, or even months after the
quake.
• Listen to a battery-operated radio or television. Listen for the latest emergency
information.
• Use the telephone only for emergency calls.
• Open cabinets cautiously. Beware of objects that can fall off shelves.
• Stay away from damaged areas. Stay away unless your assistance has been
specifically requested by police, fire, or relief organizations. Return home only
when authorities say it is safe.
• Be aware of possible tsunamis if you live in coastal areas. These are also known
as seismic sea waves (mistakenly called "tidal waves"). When local authorities
issue a tsunami warning, assume that a series of dangerous waves is on the way.
Stay away from the beach.
• Help injured or trapped persons. Remember to help your neighbors who may
require special assistance such as infants, the elderly, and people with disabilities.
Give first aid where appropriate. Do not move seriously injured persons unless
they are in immediate danger of further injury. Call for help.
• Clean up spilled medicines, bleaches, gasoline or other flammable liquids
immediately. Leave the area if you smell gas or fumes from other chemicals.
• Inspect the entire length of chimneys for damage. Unnoticed damage could lead
to a fire.
• Inspect utilities.
o Check for gas leaks. If you smell gas or hear blowing or hissing noise, open
a window and quickly leave the building. Turn off the gas at the outside main
valve if you can and call the gas company from a neighbor's home. If you
turn off the gas for any reason, it must be turned back on by a professional.
o Look for electrical system damage. If you see sparks or broken or frayed
wires, or if you smell hot insulation, turn off the electricity at the main fuse
box or circuit breaker. If you have to step in water to get to the fuse box or
circuit breaker, call an electrician first for advice.
o Check for sewage and water lines damage. If you suspect sewage lines are
damaged, avoid using the toilets and call a plumber. If water pipes are
damaged, contact the water company and avoid using water from the tap.
You can obtain safe water by melting ice cubes.