||Jai Sri Gurudev||

ADICHUNCHANAGIRI UNIVERSITY
B G Nagar, Mandya-571448

AN INTERNSHIP REPORT ON

“INDUSTRIALTRAININGAT BUILDING CONSTRUCTION AND SITESUPERVISION”

Submitted in partial fulfillment for the award of the degree of

BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING IN CIVIL ENGINEERING

Submitted by
YASHWANTH A M
21CVE433

INTERNSHIP CARRIED OUT AT

“VEER ARCHITECTS AND ENGINEERS”

Internal Guide: External Guide:

Mr. AKSHAY KUMAR H S Mr. RAVISHANKAR H V
Assistant Professor Site Engineer
Dept. of Civil Engineering Veer Architects And Engineer
BGSIT , BG Nagar RC Road, opposite to Mission
Hospital, Hassan-573201

BGS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
BG-NAGAR 571448
 ||Jai Sri Gurudev||

ADICHUNCHANAGIRI UNIVERSITY
BGS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
BG-Nagar 571448

CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the internship work entitled “INDUSTRIAL TRAINING AT BUILDING
CONSTRUCTIONAND SITE SUPERVISION” carried out by Mr. YASHWANTH A M.
(USN:21CVE433) a bonified student in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of the
degree of BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING IN CIVIL ENGINEERING, BG Nagara during the academic
year 2023-2024. It is certified that all the corrections/ suggestions indicated for Internal Assessment have been
incorporated in the report deposited in the departmental library. The report has been approved as it satisfies the
academic requirements in respect of the Internship prescribed for the said Degree.

Signature of the Internal guide Signature of the Internship Co-ordinator

Mr. AKSHAY KUMAR H S Mrs. KAVYA B M
Assistant Professor Assistant Professor
Department of Civil Engineering Department of civil Engineering
BGSIT, BG Nagar BGSIT, BG Nagar

Signature of HOD Signature of Principal

Dr. T MAHADEVAIAH Dr. B N SHOBHA
Professor & HOD Principal
Department of Civil Engineering BGSIT, B G Nagar
BGSIT , BG Nagar
EXTERNALVIVAVOICE

Name of the Examiner Signature with Date

1

2
COMPANYINTERNSHIPCERTIFICATE
 DECLARATION

I Am YASHWANTH A M, pursuing a Bachelor of Engineering in Civil Engineering, seated

university number 21CVE433 , in BGSIT, BG Nagara hereby declare that the technical seminar

report on “INDUSTRIAL TRAINING AT BUILDING CONSTRUCTION AND SITE

SUPERVISION” carried out for the partial fulfillment of the requirement for the award of Degree in

Bachelor of Engineeringin Civil Engineering. This Internship report has not been submitted for the award of

any other degree or any fellowship.

YASHWANTH A M
(21CVE433)
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to express my profound gratitude to his divine soul Jagadguru Padmabushana Sri Sri
Sri Dr. Balagangadharanatha Mahaswamiji and his Holiness Jagadguru Sri Sri Sri Dr.
Nirmalanandanata Mahaswamiji for providing me an opportunity to do my academics in this
esteemed Institution.

I express my sincere gratitude and indebtedness to VEER ARCHITECTS AND ENGINEERS for
their guidance, keen interest, and advice rendered during the internship period.

Special thanks to Mr. RAVISHNKAR H V, site Engineer, VEER ARCHITECTS AND ENGINEERS,
for lending me help and all the endeavors related to my work.

I express my gratitude to Dr. B N SHOBHA, Principal, BGS Institution of technology, ACU, BG-
Nagar, for his support and motivation and for providing excellent facilities and academic ambiance.

I extend my sincere thanks to Dr. T. MAHADEVAIAH, Professor and Head, Department of Civil
Engineering, BGSIT, and also our guide for providing me with invaluable support and guidance
throughout my internship work.

I would like to thank my internship coordinator Mrs. KAVYA B M, Assistant Professor, Dept. of
Civil Engineering, BGSIT for in valuable support and suggestions.

I would like to thank my internal guide Mr. AKSHAY KUMAR H S, Assistant Professor, Dept
of Civil Engineering, BGSIT for in valuable support and suggestions.

Finally, I take an opportunity to extend my earnest gratitude and respect to my parents, friends,
Teaching and non-Teaching staff, and all those who have helped us directly or indirectly in
completing this internship work.

Regards

YASHWANTH A M
(21CVE433)
Detailed study of construction of residential building

CONTENT

CHAPTER NO PARTICULARS PAGE NO

CHAPTER 1 COMPANY PROFILE 6-7
1.1 Introduction 6
1.2 Profile of the organization 7
1.3 Company vision and mission 7

CHAPTER 2 TASK PERFORMED 8

CHAPTER 3 MATERIALS USED IN CONSTRUCTION 9

CHAPTER 4 COMPONENTS OF BUILDING 10
CHAPTER 5 FOUNDATION 12-15
5.1 Introduction 12
5.2 Site marking 13
5.3 Excavation 13
5.4 Laying of PCC bed after excavation 14
5.5 Placing of mat and column reinforcement 14
5.6 Size stone work for foundation
5.7 Plinth beam
CHAPTER 6 BRICK MASONRY
CHAPTER 7 CENTERING AND SHUTTERING
CHAPTER 8 STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS OF THE BUILDING
8.1 Beams
8.2 Columns
8.3 Slabs
8.4 Stairs
8.5 Lintel
8.6 Chejja
CHAPTER 9 9.1 Plastering
9.2 Ceiling

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9.3 Painting
9.4 Earthing
9.5 Electrical wiring and connections
CHAPTER 10 SITE VISITS
CONCLUSION
REFERENCE

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LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE NO PARTICULARS PAGE NO
1.1 Company logo 01
4.1 Components of building 11
5.1 Figure show Site marking 11
5.2 Excavation 12
5.3 PCC bed 12
5.4 Mat and column reinforcement 13
5.5 Size stone work 13
5.6 Plinth beam 14
7.1 Centering and shuttering 14
8.1 Reinforced concrete beam 16
8.2 Types of loads on beams 19
8.3 Singly reinforced beam 20
8.4 Doubly reinforced beam 22
8.5 Reinforced concrete column 23
8.6 Load transfer mechanism in columns 24
8.7 Casting of slabs 24
8.8 One way slab 24
8.9 Two way slab 26
8.10 Basic components of stairs

8.11 Basic components of stairs 27

8.12 Staircase

8.13 Lintel

8.14 Chejja

9.1 Ceiling

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LIST OF TABLES

TABLE NO PARTICULARS PAGE NO

1.1 Details of the company 10
2.1 Schedule of Training 15

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CHAPTER 1
COMPANY PROFILE

Fig 1.1 Company Logo

Table 1.1-Details of the company

Company Name VEER ARCHITECTS & ENGINEERS
RC Road, opposite to Mission hospital
Address HASSAN – 573201
Phone Number 7760191562
Website Veer [Link]

Email ID [Link]@[Link]

1.1 INTRODUCTION
The Internship Programme aims to provide opportunity to students to consolidate their theoretical
foundation through practical experience. A major component of this experience is the formation of a
professional attitude.

The students are expected to develop their personality and capacity to adapt to, and handle, challenging
situations in the real business world. Through the internship program, the students should be able to
acquire transferable skills such as communications skills, interpersonal skills, technical skills, teamwork
skills, management skills and problem-solving skills. Last but not least, the students can explore their
interest in future career development.

It will also provide us the following opportunities:

a) Apply theoretical knowledge in industrial application.
b) Practice ethical and professional work culture.
c) Provide opportunity for students to work with industrial practitioners.
d) Implement Health Safety Environment (HSE) practices at workplace.

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1.2 PROFILE OF THE ORGANIZATION

VEER ARCHITECTS & ENGINEERS is one of the start-up company started in the year 2014. Now the
company running with 4 ongoing projects in Hassan and also in Outskirts of Hassan. This company has
given key contributions in the areas of development and it is giving the quality work with reasonable
rates.
VEER ARCHITECTS & ENGINEERS was started as a collaborative architectural practice by architect
Ravish A in the year of 2014, he has shared common design philosophy and vision. Since their practice
from the outset was speculative. It was imperative to have a firm that designed as studio.
VEER ARCHITECTS & ENGINEERS is one of the start-up consultancies and contracting company in
Karnataka that is executing construction work for some of the most significant projects in the Hassan
City. The company is continuing to alter the structural landscape through several other prestigious
projects in the residential and commercial as well; commitment to excellence in quality was personified
through, they have relentlessly explored and seized construction opportunities across various business
verticals.
The design process looks to transcend the obvious and to create a more pleasurable and sensorial
experience, buildings that celebrated life and thereby made strong statements. Statements that created a
sense of identity not only for themselves but also their users. Our technical commitment enables us to
arrive at innovative solution in response to our client budgets, schedules and program objectives and our
experience permits us to discover creative ways to hill fill our client expectation. He is eager to face the
challenges of our world and our time and ready to ask the questions that hold others back. His thirst for
innovation and quest for creative solution to complex issues helps set out a path that leads to new heights
and continued Success.

1.3 COMPANY VISION AND MISSION

VISION:

1. VEER ARCHITECTS & ENGINEERS has set of vision to providing a complete engineering and
technical solution for the construction and engineering project.
2. They are trying to be the leader in client satisfaction, innovation, professionalism and superior
quality solution.
3. They are the architect of responsive, fast, cost effective and creative solution to our clients benefit,
compensation and their critical needs.

MISSION:

1. VEER ARCHITECTS & ENGINEERS aim to provide the highest possible standard of quality
and service in the construction industry, superior understanding of client needs and the
environment in which our clients operate, give clients the best possible satisfaction.
2. Delivering value to our shareholders through maximizing market share and returns.
3. Forming long term relationships of value with our clients, using quality construction and
engineering solution and employing the best resource and latest techniques.

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CHAPTER 2

TASK PERFORMED
A major task undertaken during internship period from 04 march to 31 march 2020 was analysing the
super structure and substructure of under construction buildings. In this period, we went through the
various site which are undertaken by “VEER ARCHITECTS & ENGINEERS” and we were under
training in the use of software like AutoCAD, Revit Architecture. I was assigned to work on designs of
some residential building and as well as on site.

Table 2.1-Schedule of training

Date Nature of Project

04-03-2024
05-03-2024
Basic concepts about construction work
06-03-2024
07-03-2024
08-03-2024
Minimum dimensions and material basics
09-03-2024
10-03-2024 Holiday
11-03-2024
12-03-2024 2D plan using AutoCAD
13-03-2024
14-03-2024 Site marking
15-03-2024
Excavation Work (Site Visit)
16-03-2024
17-03-2024 Foundation Work (Site visit)
18-03-2024 Holiday
19-03-2024
Bar bending for footing and columns (Site Visit)
20-03-2024
21-03-2024
Brick Masonry (Site Visit)
22-03-2024
23-03-2024 Beams and Columns Casting (site Visit)
24-03-2024 Holiday
25-03-2024 Slab Casting (site visit)
26-03-2024 Chejja and Lintels (site visit)
27-03-2024 Stairs (site visit)
28-03-2024
Plastering and Ceiling (site visit)
29-03-2024
30-03-2024 Painting (site visit)
31-03-2024 Centring and Shuttering (site visit)
01-04-2024 Flooring and Tiling (site visit)
02-04-2024 Electric and Plumbing work (site visit)

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CHAPTER 3

MATERIALS USED IN CONSTRUCTION

Aggregates: Aggregates are coarse particulate rock-like material consisting of a collection of particles
ranging in size from < 0.1 mm to > 50 mm. It includes gravel, crushed rock, sand, and recycled concrete,
slag, and synthetic aggregate.
Aggregate is a granular material, such as sand, gravel, crushed stone, crushed hydraulic-cement concrete,
or iron blast-furnace slag, used with a hydraulic cementing medium to produce either concrete or mortar.
Types of aggregates include coarse aggregate and fine aggregate. The aggregate of each type is further
sub-divided into many types and classification based on its size. The technique of Sieve Analysis is used
for gradation of aggregate for use in concrete and for other applications.

Cement: Cement, one of the most important building materials, is a binding agent that sets and hardens
to adhere to building units such as stones, bricks, tiles, etc. Cement generally refers to a very fine
powdery substance chiefly made up of limestone (calcium), sand or clay (silicon), bauxite (aluminium)
and iron ore, and may include shells, chalk, marl, shale, clay, blast furnace slag, slate. The raw
ingredients are processed in cement manufacturing plants and heated to form a rock-hard substance,
which is then ground into a fine powder to be sold. Cement mixed with water causes a chemical reaction
and forms a paste that sets and hardens to bind individual structures of building materials.

Concrete: Concrete, an artificial stone-like mass, is the composite material that is created by mixing
binding material (cement or lime) along with the aggregate (sand, gravel, stone, brick chips, etc.), water,
admixtures, etc... in specific proportions. The strength and quality are dependent on the mixing
proportions.

Brick: Brick is a construction material in civil engineering. Brick is used to making wall, pavement and
brick structure or for the partition of room, it is used with cement sand mortar laid in line and top of each
other. Mortar has filled in the brick joint which makes the structure durable and strong.

Mortar: Mortar is a bonding agent which is generally produced by mixing cementing or binding
material (lime or cement) and fine aggregate (sand, surki, sawdust, etc.) with water. Mortar is used to
bind different building blocks like bricks, stones, etc. It can also add a decorative pattern in brick or
stone masonry.

Steel: Steel is one of the most commonly used materials in civil engineering due to its
high strength, durability and relatively low cost. It is an alloy of iron and a number of
other elements including carbon. Manufacturers produce different types of steel by varying the type
and quantity of alloy components, as well as the production process and the manner in which they are
worked.

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CHAPTER 4
COMPONENTS OF BUILIDING

Building: A building can be defined as a structure broadly consisting of walls, floors and roofs created
to provide covered space for different uses such as residence, education, business, manufacturing,storage,
hospitalization, entertainment, worship etc. Normally all buildings are constructed according to drawings
and specifications prepared by architects.
Types of Building
Depending upon the character of occupancy or the type of use, different types of buildings have been
classified in following groups:
 Residential Buildings (e.g. apartment, house, hotel)
 Educational Buildings (e.g. school, college)
 Institutional Buildings (e.g. hospital, prisons, nursing homes)
 Assembly Buildings (e.g. club room, restaurants)
 Business Building (e.g. shopping mall, market)
 Mercantile Buildings (e.g. bank, stores) Industrial Buildings (e.g. mills, gas plant)
 Storage Buildings (e.g. garages, cold storage) Hazardous Buildings
Components of buildings:
A building has two basic parts:
(i) Substructure or foundations, and
(ii) Superstructure.
Sub-structure or foundation is the lower portion of the building, usually located below the ground level,
which transmits the loads of the super-structure to the supporting soil. A foundation is therefore that part
of the structure which is in direct contact with the ground to which the loads are transmitted.
Super structure is that part of the structure which is above ground level, and which serves the purpose of
its intended use.

Fig 4.1 Components of building

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Foundation
It is the lowest part of a structure below the ground level which is in direct contact with the ground and
transmits all dead, live and other loads to the soil in a way that the soil is not stressed beyond its safe
allowable bearing capacity.
Plinth
The portion of the building between the ground surrounding the building and the top of the floor
immediately above the ground is known as plinth. The level of the surrounding ground is known as
formation level and the level of the ground floor of the building is known as plinth level (PL).
Walls
Walls are provided to enclose or divide the floor space in desire pattern. In addition, walls provide
privacy, security and give protection against sun, rain, cold and other adverse effects of weather. Walls
can be broadly divided in two categories namely Non Load Bearing Walls and Load Bearing Walls
Beams
A Beam is a structure element that is capable of withstanding load primarily by resisting bending. Beams
are primarily designed to take load coming in a direction parallel to its cross section. Apart from taking
load coming from transverse direction, beams are often designed to take significant amount of axial load
as well
Columns
Column is a structural element that transmits the weight of the structure above to other structural
elements below primarily through 'compression'. In other words a column is primarily a compression
member.
Floor
Floors are flat supporting elements of a building. They divided a building into different levels thereby
creating more accommodation on a given plot or land.
Doors
Door may be defined as a barrier secured in an opening left in a wall to provide usual means of access
building, room or passage.
Windows
A window may be defined as an opening left in a wall for the purpose of providing day
Ventilators
Ventilators are small windows, fixed at a greater height than the windows, generally about 300 to 500
mm below the roof level.
Stairs: A stair may be defined as a structure comprising of a steps connecting one floor to another.
Roofs: It is the uppermost component of a building and its main function is to cover the space below
and protect it from rain, snow, sun, wind etc.

Dept. Civil Engineering. BGSIT 10

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CHAPTER 5
FOUNDATION

5.1 INTRODUCTION
Foundation is the part of structure below the plinth level up to the soil. It is in direct contact of soil and
transmits load of super structure of soil. Generally, it is below the ground level if some part of
foundation is above the ground level, it is covered with earth filling. This portion of structure is not in
contact of air, light etc. or to say that is the hidden part of the structure. This foundation is mainly of two
types; they are Shallow and Deep foundation.

Shallow foundation: Foundation which is placed near the surface of the earth and whose depth is
about 3m or less than the width of the footing. Shallow foundation is further classified into: -

• Individual footing or isolated footing

• Combined footing
• Strip foundation
• Raft or mat foundation

Individual Footing or Isolated Footing: - This is the most common type of foundation used for
building construction. This foundation is constructed for single column and is also called as pad
foundation. The shape of individual footing is square or rectangle and is used when load from structure is
carried by the column.
Combined Footing: - This is constructed when two or more columns are close enough and their isolated
footings overlap each other. It is the combination of isolated footing, but their structural design differs.
The shape of this footing is rectangle and is used when loads from structure is carried by the columns.
Spread Footing or Strip Footing: - Spread footing are those whose base is wider than a typical load
bearing wall foundation. The wider base of this footing type spreads the weight from the building
structure over more area and provides better stability. These are used for individual columns, walls and
bridge piers where the bearing soil layer is within 3m from the ground surface.
Raft or Mat Foundation: - These are the types of foundation which are spread across the entire area of
the building to support heavy structural loads from columns and walls. The use of mat foundation is for
columns and walls foundations where the loads from structure on columns and walls are very high.

Deep foundation: Foundation which is placed at a greater depth or transfers the loads to deep strata
and whose depth is greater than shallow foundation.

Deep foundation is further classified into: -

• Pile Foundation
• Drilled Shafts or Caissons

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Pile Foundation: - Is a type of deep foundation which is used to transfer heavy loads from the structure
to a hard rock stratum much deep below the ground level. Pile foundations are used to transfer heavy
loads of structures through columns to hard soil strata which is much below ground level where shallow
foundations such as spread footing and mat footing cannot be used.
Drilled Shaft or Caisson Foundation: - This is also similar to pile foundation, but are high capacity
cast-in-situ foundations. It resists loads from structure through shaft resistance, toe resistance and/or
combination of both these. Drilled shafts can transfer column loads larger than pile foundations. It is
used where depth of hard strata below ground level is location within 10m to 100m
In this project they have used Isolated or Pad Footing and the shape of the footing given is square of size
3ft X 3ft. Hence stronger is the foundation, most stable is the structure. The foundation consists of three
layers which are made of three different components they are: -
• PCC: - M20 grade concrete is used in the PCC of 6inchs thickness and width of 3ft same as that
of width of excavation. PCC is provided to transfer the load throughout from the super structure
and the other 2 layers of the substructure to the soil in wider area.
• Boulders: - irregular shaped stones are filled to a height of 1.2ft from PCC to a width of 2.6ft
hence the width of foundation is reduced by 6inches to obtain the width of the supper structure. The
stones are bonded using grout.
• Size stones: - after filling of boulders the remaining depth of excavation is filled with size
stones with the width reduced to 2ft reducing further 6inches compared to width of boulders.

5.1 Site Marking

• Site marking is one of the starting points of the construction of a residential building.

• In this activity engineer and mestri will identify pillar placements.

• Once pillar placement is identified based on the soil condition engineer will mark the area around
the pillar

5.1 Figure show Site marking

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5.2 Excavation:

5.2 Excavation

Figure showing excavation in foundation

• High level excavators are used.

• Depth of excavation is 6feet.
• Total time consumed for excavation is 8hours.
• A clean shape is given by the man workers.

5.2 Laying of PCC bed after excavation

• Thickness of PCC bed varies from 150mm to 200mm.

• The grade of the PCC used is M15 grade. In M15 grade, the mix ratio is 1:2:4(1 cement,2
sand,4 aggregates)

5.3 PCC bed

5.3 Placing of mat and column reinforcement

5.4 Mat and column reinforcement

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• Sizes of Mats changes according to sizes of columns.

• 16mm & 20mm reinforcements are used.
• They are tied with the help of stirrups & binding wires
5.4 Size Stone Work for Foundation

5.5 Size stone work

• The construction of stones bonded together with mortar is called stone masonry.
• Stone masonry footing is a structural foundation constructed to support walls.

5.5 Plinth Beam

• Plinth beam distributes the load of the wall over the foundation uniformly.

• Usually, the plinth size varies from 9 inch to 1 foot in thickness and consists of 5 number of
bars that is 3 numbers of bars at bottom and 2 numbers of bars at top

5.6 Plinth beam

Dept. Civil Engineering. BGSIT 14

Detailed study of construction of residential building

CHAPTER 6
BRICK MASONRY

Brick masonry is a highly durable form of construction. It is built by placing bricks in mortar in a
systematic manner to construct solid mass that withstand exerted loads. There are several types of bricks
and number of mortars which can be used to construct brick masonry. The bond in brick masonry, which
adheres bricks together, is produced by filling joints between bricks with suitable mortar. Special
cautions shall be practiced while mortar is mixed and placed since it greatly affect the performance and
durability of masonry structure.

Types of Brick Masonry Work

1. Brick Work in Mud

 The mud is used to fill up various joints brick masonry work.

 Thickness of the mortar joint is 12 mm.
 it is the cheapest type of brick masonry
 Employed for construction of walls with maximum height of 4 m.

2. Brick Work in Cement: This type of brick masonry is construction by laying bricks in cement mortar rather
than mud which is used in brick work in mud. There are three major classes of brick work in cement which are
summarized in Table 1.

Types of Bricks
There are different types of brick used in the construction of brick masonry which include:

1. Common Burnt Clay Bricks

2. Concrete Bricks
3. Sand Lime Bricks (Calcium Silicate Bricks)
4. Fly ash Clay Bricks
5. Engineering Bricks
6. Other Brick Types include bullnose, channel, coping, cow nose and hollow bricks.

Brick Masonry Construction

Materials and Equipment Used in Brick Masonry Construction

1. Mortar Mix or Mason Mix Bricks

2. Tape measure
3. hammer
4. Hose, level, or theodolite
5. Trowel Level
6. Wheelbarrow
7. Goggles
8. Jointer
9. And other equipment according to project and personal preferences

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Brick Masonry Construction Preparations

1. Check the level of the ground using level, theodolite or transparent hose level.
2. Set the layout of the structure.
3. Trace of building axis and wall alignment using gypsum powder, chalk, or similar, marking the
trenches for foundation.
4. After that, install foundation wall, cure foundation for minimum two days before beginning of
brick masonry construction.
5. Distribute bricks in several stacks along project site to cut time and effort later.
6. Wet bricks few hours prior to the work. Not only does this avoid absorbing too much water
from mortar but also improve adherence of bricks and mortar.

Brick Masonry Construction Procedure

1. Initially, mix the mortar with water and blend it until a smooth and plastic mortar is produced.
2. After that, place the mortar on foundation line evenly using trowel (25mm thickness and one
brick wide is recommended for laid mortar).
3. Then, lay the first course of stretcher bricks in the mortar. Start with second brick, apply
mortar to the head joint end of each brick, After that shove the bricks into place firmly so that
the mortar is squeezed out of all side of the joints
4. Utilize a level to examine the course for correct height. Ensure that bricks are plumb and level.
5. Place another mortar line alongside the first course, then begin laying the second course.
6. Use the two half bricks to begin the second to ensure that the first two courses are staggered
for structural purposes.
7. To finish the second course of the lead, lay three header bricks and make sure that they are
plumb and level.
8. The third and fifth courses consists of stretchers similar to the first course. The fourth course
begins with single header, followed by stretchers. Use the level to make sure that the lead is
true on each course. Lastly, this pattern of brick laying is used till the target height is reached.

The following points should be observed in the construction of brick masonry:

 Use good quality bricks.

 Ensure that brick courses are perfectly horizontal.
 Verticality of the wall should be ensured by frequently checking with plumb-bob.
 Whenever work is stopped brick masonry should be left with toothed end.
 Use of brick bats should be avoided.
 Raising walls by more than 1.5 m in one day shall be prevented.
 Raise face joints to a depth of 12 to 20mm so as to be used as a key for plastering or pointing.
 Brick masonry should be regularly cured for 2 weeks.
 The thickness of mortar joints shall be 10 mm both horizontally and vertically.

Dept. Civil Engineering. BGSIT 16

Detailed study of construction of residential building

CHAPTER 7
CENTERING AND SHUTTERING:

Fig 7.1 Centering and shuttering

The construction of formwork takes time and involves expenditure up to 20 to25% of the cost of the
structure or even more. Design of these temporary structures are made to economic expenditure. The
operation of removing the formwork is known as stripping. Stripped formwork can be reused. Reusable
forms are known as panel forms and non-usable are called stationary forms. Timber is the most common
material used for formwork. The disadvantage with timber formwork is that it will warp, swell and
shrink.
1. Shuttering should be either of hard wooden planking 30 mm thick (or steel plates stiffened by
angle iron).
2. The shuttering shall be supported on battens, beams, props and wedges and properly cross braced
together so as to make the framework sufficiently rigid, strong and stable to support the wet
concrete and works and should not yield on working and laying concrete.
3. Beams for centering shall be carried and supported on the walls with double wedges underneath
and supported at intervals with props.
4. Props shall consist of ballies or brick pillars in mud mortar.
5. Ballie props shall rest on double wedges placed over wooden sole planks of 40 mm thickness so
as to facilitate tightening and easing of the centering and shuttering.
6. In case of brick pillars, the wooden sole plank shall be provided at the top of pillars and double
wedges inserted in between the sole plank and the beam of the centering and shuttering.
7. The shuttering shall be kept clear of wall bearing and made to rest on cross-beam or battens.
8. The shuttering shall have smooth and even surface and its joint shall be close tight and shall not
permit leakage of cement mortar, if required the joints shall be lined with craft paper or other
approved material.
9. Inner face of shuttering shall be applied with a wash of molded oil or raw linseed oil or soap
solution or other approved material to prevent adherence of the concrete.
10. For slabs and beams, small camber shall be given in the shuttering. Camber of 1cm per 2.50m
with a maximum of 4cm should be provided.
11. Centering and shuttering shall not be removed before 14 days in general (4 days for R.C.C.
columns, 10 days for roof slab and 14 days for beams).
12. Centering and shuttering shall be removed slowly and carefully without any shock or vibration by
slackening and removing the wedges gradually in such a manner that no part of the concrete is
disturbed or damaged.

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CHAPTER 8
STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS OF THE BUILDING

8.1 BEAMS
Beam is a horizontal structural element that withstand vertical loads, shear forces and bending moments.
The loads applied to the beam result in reaction forces at the support points of the beam. The total effect
of all the forces acting on the beam is to produce shear forces and bending moment within the beam, that
in turn induce internal stresses, strains and deflections of the beam.

Fig 8.1- Reinforced concrete beam

Types of Loads on Beams
1. Self-weight of the beam
2. Dead load includes point load for instance column constructed on beam, distributed load for
example setting slabs on a beam.
3. Live load
4. Torsional load
Load Transfer Mechanism in Beams
They transfer loads imposed along their length to their end points where the loads are transferred to
columns or any other supporting structural elements.

Fig 8.2- Types of Loads on Beams

Singly Reinforced Beam

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Reinforcements are provided to oppose tensile stresses due to shear and bending in beams for singly
reinforced beam sections. Practically, for singly reinforced beams, two additional bars are supplied in the
compression face of the beam so that stirrups can be tied with bars easily. These extra reinforcements are
of the nominal diameter of 8mm or 10mm.

Fig 8.3- Singly Reinforced Beam

Doubly Reinforced Beam
When the depth of the section is restricted due to reasons like, such as architectural reasons or basement
floors, the beam section is designed as a doubly reinforced concrete beam.
These bars shall withstand in compressive stresses and are provided with reinforcement in compression
face.
Beams, when subjected to in torsion, are provided additional longitudinal and shear reinforcement to
resist bending, and shear stresses developed due to torsion.

Fig 8.4- Doubly Reinforced Beam

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8.2 COLUMNS
Column is a vertical structural member that carry loads mainly in compression. It is assumed to be the
most crucial structural member of a building because the safety of a building rest on the column strength.
This is because failure of column would cause progressive collapse in buildings whereas such event
would not occur when other members fail. Columns transfer vertical loads from a ceiling, floor or roof
slab or from a beam, to a floor or foundation. They also carry bending moments about one or both of the
cross-section axes.

Fig 8.5- Reinforced concrete column

Types of Loads on Columns
1. Self-weight of the column multiplies by number of floors
2. Self-weight of beams per running meter
3. Load of walls per running meter
4. Total Load of slab (Dead load + Live load + Self weight)
Loads Transfer Mechanism in column
Since the columns are supported by foundation; the load relocated from the all components to the
columns. Then, it will be transferred from the column through the column necks adjacent to the footing
in the form of axial force. Moreover, Columns transfer lateral loads to foundations as well when such
loads imposed. Lastly, It will transfer moment and shear also to the footing.

Fig 8.6- Load Transfer Mechanism in columns

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8.3 SLABS
A slab is constructed to provide flat surfaces, typically horizontal, in building roofs, floors, bridges, and
other types of structures. The slab could be supported by walls, by reinforced concrete beams normally
cast monolithically with the slab, by structural steel beams, either by columns or from the ground.
A slab is a plate element having depth (D), very small as compared to its length and width. A slab is used
as floor or roof in buildings, carry distribution load uniformly

Fig 8.7-Casting of slab

What Is a One Way Slab?

According to IS 456:2000, the ratio of longer span (l) to shorter span (b) which is (L/B) greater than 2 is
known as One way slab. In practical, one way slab is supported by only two parallel beams or walls.
Normally we don’t use one-way slabs often.

Fig 8.8-One way slab Fig 8.9-Two way slab

A one way slab is defined for functions of the book as a flexural member with thickness small relative to
other dimensions, supporting (gravity) loads applied normal to and directly above its surface, a span in
one direction between parallel supports, and fortified for flexure in this direction only. For purposes of
analysis, one way slabs might be restrained to some degree in the supports or possibly unrestrained. In
general, when this code provision is intended to use to one way slabs, the term is going to be utilized in
the sense of this definition herein the is supported on two opposite sides, it is called a one way spanning
slab. In this type of slab, loads are transferred on two opposite as per the above figure. If the slab is
supported at four sides, and if Ly/Lx ≥ 2 one way spanning slab. For any slab, if Ly = Lx, the slab has a

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tendency to bend in both directions. With an increase of Ly, the tendency of bending along Ly is reduced
and that on Lx is increased.
When Ly/Lx ≥ 2, the slab bends only in X directions
When Ly/Lx ≥ 2, the slab is called a one way slab. In one way slab, the main reinforcement is
provided along Lx (Short Span).

What Is a Two Way Slab?

A two way street is a street that allows vehicles to travel in both directions. On most two way streets,
especially main streets, a line is painted down the middle of the road to remind drivers to stay on their
side of the road. Sometimes one portion of a street is two way and the other portion is one way.
The design considerations of wall supported two way slabs are similar to those pertaining to one way
slabs.
The thickness of the slab is generally based on deflection control criteria, and the reinforcements in the
two orthogonal directions are designed to resist the calculated maximum bending moments in the
respective directions at the critical sections. [Additional reinforcement may be required at the corners of
two way slabs in some cases, as explained later].
The slab thickness should be sufficient against shear, although shear is usually not a problem in two way
slabs subjected to uniformly distributed loads.
If the slab is supported at all four edges and if Ly/Lx < 2,
The tendency of the slab is to bend in both directions. Such slab is called two way slab. In two way slabs,
main reinforcement is provided along Lx as well as Ly direction

8.4 STAIRS
A stair is a set of stairs that give a means of ascending and descending between floors or landings. The
stairway is the aperture or space occupied by the stair, and the staircase is the place in the apartment or
room of the building in which the stair is located.
Basic Components of Stairs
Following are the basic components of stairs.

Fig 8.10- Basic Components of Stairs

Staircase: The enclosed area made for locating the steps in a building, the floor of which is served by
the relevant stairs, is referred to as a staircase.

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Tread: Tread is a horizontal element that forms the upper surface of a step on which one places one’s
foot. The tread material is typically the same as that used in the construction of steps.
Rise: The rise of a step is the vertical front element that connects the front of the upper tread to the back
of the lower tread.
Nosing: The projecting front edge of a tread is known as nosing. It’s the gap between the tread’s front
edge and the face of the riser directly beneath it. The nosing’s projection ranges from 3/8″ to 1 3/8″.
Step: A combination of 1 riser and 1 tread is known as a step.
Going/ Run of Step: The horizontal distance between the faces of two consecutive risers is known as
the going or run of a step. It does not include the nosing, which adds an extra projection to each step. The
total distance between the faces of the bottom and top risers measured along the travelling line is the
going of the flight.
Landing: The landing is the space between two floors where a stair can be turned. It can also be used as
a resting station in between two flights. In most cases, the landing’s width is equal to or greater than the
stair’s width.
Strings: These are the inclined members that will be used to support the steps. There are normally two
strings for each flight, one on each side. These strings can be divided into two categories:
 Open or Notched String
 Closed or Housed String

Fig 8.11- Basic Components of Stairs

Hand-Rail: A hand-rail is a unique type of rail that is usually rounded or moulded. It’s suspended
parallel to the string at a comfortable height.
Newel Post: The vertical elements, squared or moulded, that are installed at the ends of the flights to
connect hand rails and strings into the frame work are known as newel posts.
Balusters: Between the handrail and the string are balusters, which are short vertical pieces. The
balusters are further divided into two categories.
Slope or Pitch: The general inclination of the line of nosing to the floor or landing is referred to as the
flight’s slope or pitch.

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8.5 LINTEL
A lintel is one type of beam which is utilized to support the above wall or partition material when
openings like doors, windows, and so forth are necessary to provide a building structure. The primary
function of the lintel is to take loads originating from the high wall and transfer its heap to the side walls.
The lintel beam generally ends in the masonry wall to convey the weight carried by them to the masonry
walls, and its width is the same as the wall width. The lintel can likewise be utilized as an enlivening
compositional component.

8.6 CHEJJA

Fig 8.13-Lintel
‘Chejja’ is the projected element just above the window, which shades the opening, stops rain from
entering the room and reduces sky glare while looking out of the room. It is also known as “Sun-Shade”
that is a sloping or horizontal structural overhang, usually provided for protection from sun and rain or
for architectural considerations at lintel level.

Fig 8.14-Chejja

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CHAPTER 9

9.1 PLASTERING
Applying mortar coats on the surfaces of walls, columns, ceiling etc. to get smooth finish is termed as
plastering. Mortar used for plastering may be lime mortar, cement mortar or lime-cement mortar. Lime
mortar used shall have fat lime to sand ratio of 1: 3 or 1:4. Cement mortar of 1: 4 or 1:6 mix is very
commonly used for plastering, richer mix being used for outer walls. To combine the cost effectiveness
of lime mortar and good quality of cement mortar many use lime-cement mortar of proportion (cement:
lime: sand) of 1:1:6 or 1:1:8 or 1:2:8.
Plastering is done to achieve the following objects
1. To protect the external surfaces against penetration of rain water and other atmospheric agencies
2. To give smooth surface in which dust and dirt cannot lodge
3. To give decorative effect
Requirements of good plaster:
1. It should adhere to the background and should remain adhered during all variations of the climatic
changes.
2. It should be cheap and economical
3. It should be hard and durable.
4. It should be effectively check the entry or penetration of moisture from the surface
5. It should possess good workability
Procedure for Cement Plastering on Wall Surface:
Cement plastering is commonly used as ideal coating for external and internal surface of wall. Cement
plaster is usually applied in a single coat or double coat. Double coat plaster is applied where thickness
of plaster is required to be more than 15 mm or when it is required to get a very fine finish. The process
of applying a double coat cement plaster on wall surface consists of the following 4 steps.
Step-1 Preparation of surface for plastering
Step-2 Ground work for plaster
Step-3 Applying first coat (under coat or rendering coat)
Step-4 Applying second coat (finishing coat or fine coat)

9.2 CEILING
'Part of a building that encloses a room, protected shaft or circulation space and is exposed overhead.
NOTE: The soffit of a roof light, but not the frame, is included as part of the surface of the ceiling. An
up stand below a roof light is considered as a wall.'
Ceilings help create enclosure of and separation between spaces, they help to control the diffusion of
light and sound around a room, and help prevent the passage of sound between rooms. They have fire
resistant properties and may also accommodate building services such as vents, lighting, sprinkler heads
and so on, as well as being able to conceal other services such as ducts, pipes and wiring.

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Types of ceiling:
Exposed ceilings
In some buildings, it is possible to omit a 'finished' ceiling completely and simply expose the structural
and mechanical components of the building to the interior. This offers the advantages of economy and
ease of access for maintenance, and can also expose the thermal mass of the building.
Tightly attached ceilings
Ceilings made of gypsum, plasterboard, tongued and grooved timber and so on, may be attached tightly
to timber joists or rafters, steel joists or concrete slabs. Careful detailing is required where beams or
other obstructions protrude through the plane of the ceiling, such as vents, conduits, pipes, sprinkler
heads and so on.
Suspended ceilings
Suspended ceilings (sometimes referred to as dropped ceilings or false ceilings) are secondary ceilings
suspended from the structure above (typically a floor or roof slab), creating a void between the underside
of the slab and the top of the suspended ceiling.
Acoustical ceilings
Acoustic ceilings tend to be made from fibrous materials that absorb sound energy, unlike plaster and
gypsum ceilings. Etc.,

Fig 9.1-Ceiling
9.3 PAINTING
Paints are coatings of fluid materials which are applied as a final finish to all surfaces such as walls,
ceilings, wood work, metal work etc. The process of application of paint as a coating material is called
painting.
Ingredients of paints
Base: It is the main ingredient of paint. It hides the surface to be painted and imparts durability to the
painted surface. Commonly used bases are white and red lead, zinc.
Carrier: The carrier is a liquid which acts as a binder and helps to spread the ingredients uniformly on
the painted surface.

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Drier: Driers are metallic compounds used in small quantities for accelerating the process of drying of
paint film.
Solvent: Solvent or thinner is a liquid which thins the paint film so that it can be easily applied on the
highly solvent naphtha are commonly used as solvent.
Colouring pigments: To obtain desired colour and shades of the paint, colouring pigments are added.
Uses of Paints
 Protects the surfaces from the weathering effects of the atmosphere and actions by other liquid,
fumes and gases.
 Prevent the corrosion of metallic surface.
 Provide a smooth surface for easy cleaning.
Provide pleasing, colourful and decorative appearances to the surfaces.

9.4 EARTHING
• Earthing is the process of creating an alternative path for the flow of fault / excessive currents safely
into the ground in the presence of minimal resistance or impedance.
• The primary purpose of earthing is to reduce the risk of serious electric shock from current leaking into
uninsulated metal parts of an appliance, power tool or other electrical devices. In a properly earthed
system, such leaking / fault current is carried away harmlessly while tripping the fuse. Earthing also
provides protection from large electrical disturbances like lightning strikes and power surges. It also aids
in the dissipation of hazardous static electrical charges.
• Although most electrical systems have fuses or circuit breakers for protection against a fault current,
the human body may be fatally electrocuted by a current of less than one ampere which is well below the
point at which a fuse or breaker will operate. Earthing helps minimize such hazards from occurring.
• The earthing system is an essential part of power networks at both high- and low- voltage levels.
When installing an earthing system, all natural earth electrodes shall be used: water pipes, metallic parts
of the building, and the steel reinforcement in foundation that is connected to earth. If the earthing
resistance value laid down by regulatory enactments cannot be reached by using the natural earth
electrodes, artificial earth electrodes shall be installed. Feeding of residential buildings with voltage up to
1 kV must be ensured from a power supply with a solidly earthed system using the TN system. TN
system is a system in which there is one point that is directly connected with earth and the exposed
conductor parts of the device are connected with this point by protection wires. According to the layout
of protection wires, three TN system types are distinguished:

1) TN-C is a TN system in which the protective earth (PE wire) and neutral conductor (N wire) are
combined in full length;
2) TN-S system is a TN system in which the protective earth and neutral conductor are separate in full
length;
3) TN-C-S system is a TN system in which the functions of the protective earth and neutral conductor
are combined in one wire only at some part of the line starting from the power source

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9.5 ELECTRICAL WIRING AND CONNECTIONS

Electrical symbols are used on home electrical wiring plans in order to show the location, control
point(s), and type of electrical devices required at those locations. These symbols, which are drawn on
top of the floor plan, show lighting outlets, receptacle outlets, special purpose outlets, fan outlets and
switches.
Dashed lines are drawn between the symbols to denote which switches control specific lights or
receptacles
An "outlet” is any point in an electrical system where current is taken out of the system in order to
supply power to the attached electrical equipment. An outlet can be one of two basic types: A
“Receptacle” outlet or a “Lighting” outlet.
A receptacle outlet is one in which one or more receptacles are installed for the purpose of attaching
“plug and cord-connected” type devices, and a lighting outlet is one intended for a direct-wired
connection to a lamp holder, luminaire (lighting fixture) or ceiling fan.
Types of electrical installation and wiring methods
Electrical installation is the totality of low-voltage wires, fixing elements, supports, and other
constructions that constitute the lighting network, power system, or electric circuits of control,
signalization, and protective relaying.
Electrical installation can be subdivided in outside and inside wiring.
Outside wiring ensures supply of electricity to the building. Inside wiring is located within the building.
Inside wiring can be either exposed or hidden. Using the exposed wiring (above the plaster), wires are
fixed to the surface of walls, ceiling and beams, as well as in metal or plastic ducts, boxes or skirting
boards. Hidden wiring (under the plaster) is used in living accommodations as this is the safest option.
The main disadvantage of hidden wiring is difficult access to wires. Hidden wiring is installed in walls,
floor, lintels, and ceiling. Wires are placed in flexible metal ducts and boxes. There is also a combined
wiring option when wires are installed in cable channels. This combines the accessibility of exposed
wiring and safety of hidden wiring. Combined wiring method is used in hallways and auxiliary rooms.
Nowadays, channel wiring is another popular type of electrical installation in residential buildings. This
is a type of hidden wiring when special channels for electrical installation are placed in walls, floor, or
ceiling. This wiring method was not used during the Soviet times.
The type of electrical installation and wiring method depend on:
1) The place of installation, for example fire and explosion risk in rooms, buildings, zones;
2) Description of the walls or other parts to be built;
3) Accessibility of wiring to people and pets;
4) Voltage;
5) Expected electromechanical loads in case of short-circuit;
6) Other tensions, for example mechanical, thermal, or open flame related tensions that may affect the
wiring during installation or operation.
Installation height of switches and sockets from the floor is established by the architect or customer, as
currently there is no regulatory enactment specifying the installation height of switches and sockets from
the floor. Usually, sockets are installed 0.3 m from the floor and switches — 0.9 m from the floor. In
kitchen, sockets are installed above the worktop (kitchen appliances).Lamps, switches, sockets, and other
electrical equipment that is a part of the interior are selected by the designer together with the architect
and customer.

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CHAPTER 10
SITE VISITS

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CONCLUSION

The changing need of the construction industry as well as quick progression in the
newer technologies as to be kept in mind in order to update with the latest in the market.
Through the internship, we gained the knowledge about some new techniques employed,
in and out of the work progress. We came across modern equipment used, various
methods adopted, office.

1. Gained basic knowledge in field of construction.

2. Learned importance of proper communication btw office and work site.
3. Learned the wise use of available resources
4. The training has made my confidence more
5. Learned about safety requirements in site

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REFERENCES:

1. IS:383, Indian standards specifications for coarse and fine aggregates from natural sources for
Indian standards, New Delhi, 1970.
2. IS:10262, recommended guidelines for concrete mix design, Bureau of Indianstandards, New
Delhi, 1999.
3. IS:456, Plain and reinforced concrete – code of practice, Bureau of Indian standards, New
Delhi,2000.
TEXT BOOKS:
1. Building material and construction: 10th edition: 1984 – B.C. Punmia.
2. Building material and construction technology: 33rd edition: 2007 – Rangwala
3. The studying footing details by the reference book – Dr. Rajendra Prasad.
4. Construction technology theory and practice: 6 th edition: 2012 – M S Shetty.
Articles and Papers:
1. "The Role of a Site Engineer" by The Constructor: An online article that outlines the various
duties and responsibilities of a site engineer in the construction industry.
2. "Roles and Responsibilities of a Construction Site Engineer" by Quantity Surveyor Blog: This
blog post provides a detailed breakdown of the key tasks and skills required for a site engineer.

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