REPORT
Pakistan: Ideology, Constitution & Society
UNIVERSITY OF MANAGEMENT AND TECHNOLOGY
TOPIC .
PAKISTAN AND WORLD AFFAIRS
(1980s-2004)
Presented to; MA’AM QURAT UL AIN
Participants
Ghulam Mohi ud din F2024105031
Muntaha Afzal F2024105028
Aqdas Naz F2024105027
Areej Mehmood F2024105025
Abeer Mehmood F2024105008
Adil Hayee Khan F2024105011
Bilal Hassan F2024105050
Ahmed Shafique F2024105014
INTRODUCTION
The Russian occupation of Afghanistan in 1979 was the first step towards
Pakistan’s evolution into a powerful country in the international political arena. As
a front line state, Pakistan had to bear large volumes, accepting millions of Afghan
refugees and aiding in harsh joint efforts against the Soviet occupation. After the
Cold War, however, new challenges and opportunities emerged and the country
found itself maneuvering in the unipolar system which was led by the US.
Now, Pakistan continues to formulate its international policy with environment
changes in mind. Pakistan’s strategic partnership with China has been bolstered
while still trying to sustain a complicated partnership with the US. Additionally,
amid the ongoing Middle Eastern conflicts, Pakistan has attempted to foster closer
ties with Iran and Saudi Arabia. There is no doubt that the active development of
Islamabad’s foreign policy in this multi-dimensional political environment will
enhance the regional and world security situation.
In addition, Pakistan's status as a frontline state has repercussions on its politics
and economy. The nation has always attempted to maintain cordial relations with
various global key players, while coping with internal security issues and social
economic advancement. The war on terror and Pakistan’s own efforts to combat
terrorism add further complexity to the nation’s foreign policy framework. For
Pakistan to remain united and prosper, it is important that the country formulates
strategies that take into consideration its relations with regional and global powers
and the nation itself.
Likewise, the global terrain that changes as a result of resurgent nationalism,
formation of new alliances and new global issues presents advantages and
difficulties for Pakistan. While trying to gain more leverage in regional and
international politics, the country also needs to respond to the new reality and
implement an appropriate foreign policy that considers its interests, beliefs and
relations. This will enable Pakistan to deal with the intricacies that characterize the
post-Cold War period and rise as a powerful, stable and self-assured nation in the
international sphere.
SOVIET INVASION OF AFGHANISTAN
The Soviet military intervention in Afghanistan on December 27. 1979 was an
event of far-reaching geo-political ramifications Pakistan viewed is
development as violation of independence and sovereignty of a neighboring,
non-aligned, and Muslim state by a superpower. As Pakistan's relations with the
Soviet Union were often marred by strains, 4 felt threatened by the idea of
having to put up with a massive Soviet military presence in the neighborhood,
dreading direct military pressure or a more active Soviet support to the dissident
elements in Baluchistan and NWFP.
Pakistan's role in the conflict would also have significant geopolitical
implications. The country's support for the Afghan resistance helped to foster
strong ties with the United States and other anti-Soviet nations. However, it also
contributed to the growth of Islamist militancy within Pakistan, as well as the
proliferation of small arms and narcotics trafficking. Despite these challenges,
Pakistan's support for the Afghan resistance would ultimately contribute to the
Soviet Union's withdrawal in 1989, marking a significant turning point in the
Cold War. The legacy of this conflict continues to shape Pakistan's foreign
policy and domestic politics to this day.
Pakistan demanded the withdrawal of Soviet troops from Afghanistan and
supported the Afghan groups, described as Afghan Mujahideen, in their bid to
dislodge the Soviets from Afghanistan. It allowed them to function from
Pakistani territory and accommodated over 3 million Afghan refugees who
poured into Pakistan within a year of Soviet military intervention in
Afghanistan.
Revival of Pak-US relations
The Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in 1979 was the catalyst that altered the
dynamics of Pakistan and the United States. With the Cold War heating up, the
US militarily and economically supported Pakistan considering its geography
and willingness to support the anti-Soviet cause. Pakistan was in need of aid too
and the US bolstered their relations by signing a reconstruction aid package of
3.2 billion dollars against an affirmation to the US of 1.5 billion dollars as
military aid. The aid was a step further encouraging US-Pak relations as well as
enhancing Pakistan's defence.
Pakistan was able to become an important ally to the us and supporting role to
mujahideen during the Soviet Afghan war, which enabled Pakistan to acquire F-
16s and M1 Abrams tanks and many more states of the art equipment.
The first six-year assistance package (1981-87) amounted to US $ 32 billion,
equally divided between economic assistance and military sales. The US sold 40
F-16 aircraft to Pakistan during 1983-87 at a cost of US $12 billion outside the
assistance package. Pakistan paid this amount in cash partly from its resources
and partly from the funds provided by friendly Arab states.
The second six-year assistance package (1987-93). amounted to US $ 4.2
billion. Out of this US $ 2.28 billion were allocated for economic assistance in
the form of grants or loan that carried the interest rate of 2-3 per cent. The rest
of the allocation (US $ 1.74 billion) was in the form of credit for military
purchases. The new relationship with the US. increased its presence and
influence in Pakistan.
Despite a close Pakistan-US cooperation on Afghanistan, they diverged on
Pakistan's nuclear program, although the United States downplayed this issue
and ignored Pakistan's stride in the nuclear field in order to keep Pakistan on
board for the Afghan war.
Pakistan-China relations
Pakistan China relations were subject to major changes during the post Cold war
period, in particular since the 1980. After the Soviet Union's pullout from
Afghanistan in 1989, Pakistan faced a critical juncture and had to reinvent its
foreign policy in a fast changing international milieu. As a reliable ally, China
always figured as Pakistan's important ally when it came to navigation of the post
Cold War environment. China and Pakistan strengthened ties in a strategic way and
Pakistan in particular received substantial economic and military support from a
China.
Growing size of the economic collaboration became a major factor in driving
Pakistan- China relations during this period of time. But in the 1980s when China
began to grow as a major source of economic activity, Pakistan attempted to
rekindle trade and investment relationship. Since they became two countries, they
signed a lot of economic agreements for example, a bilateral trade treaty in 1986
and a joint declaration on economic cooperation made in 1990. The implication of
these pacts was that they prepared the ground for huge Chinese investments into
Pakistan’s infrastructure, energy and telecommunications sectors.
Defense cooperation during the 1990s was also important in Pakistan and China
bilateral relations. During the 1980s, China emerged as the main arms supplier to
Pakistan who, in turn, became of the principal suppliers of military equipment to
frontline venues like the Middle East, Africa, and South Asia, including advanced
fighter jets, tanks and other weaponry. The two nations also teamed up on defense
industrialization, with China helping Pakistan build its own defense industry. Part
of this reason was to share the suspicion of Indian advances in military conditions
and how India needed to keep that balance of strength in the region.
The relationship between Pakistan and China had transitioned into a close and
strategic war alliance as the 20th century was coming to its close. The two
countries had also established a working relationship ranging from economic,
defense, and diplomatic. Although interests and a common view for regional
stability and prosperity were expected to propel this alliance to grow in the 21
century, but finally it did.
Pakistan and The OIC
The post Cold War period in Pakistan’s relationship with the Organization of
Islamic Cooperation witnessed plenty of changes especially after 1980s. Following
the Soviets pullout from Afghanistan in 1989, Pakistan was in the forefront of
efforts for Islamic unity in the hope of gaining international support for the Afghan
mujahideen. The establishment of OIC (1969) as an important forum was a means
for Pakistan to articulate what were its concerns and interests. In line with fixing
this shortcoming, Pakistan actively participated in OIC discussions and used the
forum to draw attention to the Afghan situation, and to obtain support for the
Muslim community.
Pakistan kept a positive engagement with the OIC, which it used to speak for its
priorities and principles in the 1990’s. Notwithstanding Pakistan, the OIC
remained staunch on Palestine and Kashmir as well as Afghanistan, with Pakistan
being a much needed voice in support of OIC's mission to promote Islamic
solidarity. In this context significant achievement was the Islamabad Declaration of
1993, whereby the OIC reconfirmed its will to strengthen Islamic cooperation and
solidarity.
Pakistan also carried forward cultural exchanges, people to people exchange and
economic partnership among member states through its OIC involvement. Internal
politics and ideological leanings also played a role in shaping Pakistan's dynamics
with the OIC. Under Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif, who took office in 1990, the
administration put a lot of emphasis into the development of Islamic principles and
unity. This ideological commitment allowed Pakistan to support the OIC because
the government wished to use the organization to progress its Rajna ideology of a
more cohesive Islamic community. Islamabad's support of the OIC stance on
Kashmir enormously helped keep Islamabad's ally relationship intact. Pakistan's
foreign policy towards the OIC had come to be a central aspect of it's foreign
policy by the time the 20th century approached its end.
Geneva Accords on Afghanistan
The Agreement on the Settlement of the Situation Relating to Afghanistan
(Abbreviated as the Geneva Accords, their official names, after all), were a
set of international agreements that were signed on 14 April 1988 in Geneva,
Switzerland. From 1979, the Soviet-Afghan war had raged on, and the
Accords put a significant stop to it. Afghanistan and Pakistan negotiated the
agreements and the Soviet Union and the United States were guarantors.
These Accords were supposed to bring a close to the conflict, and to create a
schedule for the withdrawal of Soviet troops from Afghanistan.
Soviet troops withdrawal from Afghanistan: An important part of the Geneva
Accords included agreement on this. The Accords provided that the Soviet
Union would have to pull out its troops within the same nine months, this
process to start May 15, 1988. In recompense, the United States and other
Western powers acquiesced to ceasing to supply military support to the
mujahideen, the anti-Soviet fighters. The commission was also set up to
oversee the withdrawal process and make sure all sides played by the book
according to the Agreements.
The signing of the Geneva Accords had not resolved the situation in
Afghanistan. The Soviet withdrawal was completed February 15, 1989, but
the country sank into a bitter civil was, with mujahideen factions fighting for
power. In 1992 the government established by the Soviet Union collapsed
under President Mohammad Najibullah. Well intentioned though, the Geneva
Accords would not achieve lasting peace in Afghanistan.
Afghan history viewed the Geneva Accords as the start of the end of Soviet
involvement in the country. Yet, the Archords’ failure to achieve the lasting
and secure peace in Afghanistan is a lesson that we should not be easy with
the war conflict resolution.
Post-withdrawal problem
The beginning of new era of instability and chaos in the region kicked off
when the Soviets withdrew from Afghanistan in 1989. When the Soviet
troops left, the Afghan mujahideen (the people fighting the Soviet
occupation), turned on each other and started shooting off their guns, leading
Afghanistan into a barbaric civil war. As the Soviets withdrew, a warlords
and factions rushed to fill the power vacuum and vie for control of a country,
not for the first or last time. As a result of that, another decade lurched by
with intense fighting, destruction and human suffering.
The problem of the Soviet withdrawal was not restricted to Afghanistan.
Pakistan, which had taken in millions of Afghan refugees while the country
was under the Soviets, was caught between a rock and a hard place in dealing
with the ruin of the conflict. The Afghan refugees that had taken asylum in
Pakistan refused to go to their own country, pressing for fear of persecution
and violence. These tensions brought up a great deal of social, economic and
cultural tensions in Pakistan that the country was just failing at dealing with
after massive influx of refugees. To these were also added the large numbers
of Afghan refugees living in Pakistan, who helped grow the extremist
ideologies and terrorist networks.
During the post withdrawal period, the Taliban would rise in Afghanistan,
marked consequences for the region and beyond. Once a force for stability
when they emerged in the early 1990s, the Taliban were first viewed as
bringing order and security to a war torn country. But they soon revealed
themselves as a repressive ideology and their extremism led onto a path of
widespread human rights abuses and supporting on suit terrorist organizations
such as al-Qaeda.
Insurgency in Kashmir
A moment that was key to Kashmir in the region's history was the start, in
1989, of the insurgency. Afghanistan was already being rocked by the Soviet
invasion in 1979 which had spawned similar Islamic movements throughout
the region. Rampant militancy in Kashmir had been fed for decades by
political discontent and human rights abuses. In Jammu Kashmir Liberation
Front (JKLF) had begun armed struggle against the Indian rule.
There was a plethora of grievances — political, economic and social — that
fueled the insurgency in Kashmir. The economy of the region was stagnant
and unemployment was high. This served to alienate even further the local
population from the Indian government's heavy handed response to the
insurgency through human rights abuses and enforced disappearances.
Besides the demand for Jihad, another layer to the conflict was Pakistan's
support—moral and material—of the Kashmiri separatists.
To improve its image by moving the insurgency into Pakistani territory soon
made Kashmir a major flashpoint in India’s relations with Pakistan. The
region teetered on the brink of war as cross border shelling and skirmishes
became common place. Both sides have been warned by the international
community, including the United States, to show restraint.
By the turn of the century, Kashmir had paid an enormous price for the
insurgency. Middle of war, thousands of civilians, militants, and security
personnel were killed and economy at shambles. All of these had led up to
less than successful efforts by the Indian government to restore normalcy,
including holding elections.
9-11 & Fight against terrorism`
The World Trade Center attacks by 9/11 were a watershed in the global battle
against terror. Yet as far back as the 1980s, various Islamist militant groups
started appearing after the Soviet-Afghan War. Osama bin Laden began to
organize and plan attacks against Western targets as groups like Al-Qaeda
began to organize.
In the 1990s it became clear what a threat these groups were. The first major
attacks blamed on al-Qaeda were the 1993 World Trade Center bombing, and
the 1998 embassy bombings in Kenya and Tanzania. However, the
international community took all these warnings slowly in face of which the
threat of Islamist militancy still grew.
Things changed after the 9/11 attacks. The attacks were of the greatest scale
and audacity and the world and international opinion was galvanized against
terrorism. The US led war on terror, after the attacks, was designed to destroy
al-Qaeda and all of its affiliates, and bring down the global terrorist network.
During the continuing fight against terrorism, Pakistan became a key partner
of the US and other members of the international community. Pakistan had its
own experience, particularly in the early 1990s, of how militancy could be
tackled. But the country's fraught engagement with Islamist groups and the
obstreperous militancy of its own establishment would become obstacles to
the struggle against terrorism.
Muslim world and Pakistan
These were transformational years for the Muslim world, years marked by
great geopolitical shifts, the emergence of Islamism as a mass phenomenon,
all in the 1980s. Muslim opinion all over the world was galvanized into
action by the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in 1979, many perceiving the
Afghan conflict as a battle against communist occupation. Also, Pakistan on
its throat was long border with Afghanistan and helped Afghan mujahideen.
During the Soviet Afghan War, which dragged on, Pakistan became a hub for
Islamist activists and militants from throughout the Muslim world. Inspired
by the Afghan jihad many of these individuals decided to organize and start
their own militant campaigns. General Zia-ul Haq was the Pakistani
government (now rather than yesterday) and actively supported these efforts
as a bandwagon which would launch Islamic solidarity and counterbalance
the Indian influence in the area.
New Islamist movements and ideologies emerged during the 1990s, which
came of age as products of the Afghan jihad. Osama bin Laden’s al-Qaeda
started to push for global jihad against the Western powers. The complex and
volatile security environment was born from Pakistan's support for these
groups, and related Pakistan's own domestic Islamist movements.
At the end of the 20th century, the Muslim world and Pakistan were at a
crossroads. This legacy, and also the rise of Islamist militancy, was a not
insubstantial challenge to regional and global security. It also kept tense
relationships with its neighbor Afghanistan in particular and India on shaky
terms, and its domestic stability was under threat from Islamist extremism.
Conclusion
From the 1980s to 2000, Pakistan and the wider Muslim world were greatly
affected by the many dynamic geopolitical shifts that characterized that
period. The invasion of Afghanistan by the Soviet Union in 1979 unleashed a
series of events that have led to the defining characteristics of regional and
global politics of the ensuing four decades. Pakistan played a key role in
supporting the Afghan mujahideen within the US' shadow, with the United
States in its back, and communist China in its front, which not only triggered
the Soviet withdrawal, but left behind lasting security challenges too.
The dawn of this period of Pakistan- US relations was characterized by an
interest in commonality, in declaring war on Soviet expansionism, but also
marked by problems and contradictions. It also provided Pakistan the
strategic counterbalance against the US that it developed with China.
Meanwhile Pakistan lent itself to its efforts to promote Islamic solidarity and
cooperation, in appearance, in its engagement with the OIC and other
international forums.
But these were also fraught with security challenges the post-withdrawal
anarchy in Afghanistan and in Kashmir, and the growth of Islamist militancy.
The 9/11 attacks are crucial turning point in the global targeting of terrorists
and Pakistan becomes integral part of global effort in this regard. Whereas
Pakistan's own domestic stability was threatened by Islamist extremism and
Pakistan's relationships with its neighbors, including Afghanistan and India,
were tense during these developments. In this period, for the most part,
Pakistan’s position in a changing world was a complicated and difficult one.