CHAPTER – 1
INTRODUCTION
Ground improvement incorporates various methods employed for modifying the properties of the
soil to improve its engineering performance. Ground improvement techniques are used for a variety
of engineering works like the construction of roads and air field pavements. The main objective is to
increase the strength or stability of soil and to reduce the construction cost by making the best use
of locally available materials.
For the stabilization of soil in waste generated waste materials which cause huge disposal problem
can be effectively used. Marble waste is one such waste product. The marble waste is generated
from cutting and polishing of marble stone. The amount of marble slurry produced every year is in
the range of 5-6 million ton. The marble waste powder has very high lime content and were reported
by many researchers which aids in Stabilisation. Plasticity was reduced by 20 to 33% and
unconfined compressive strength and CBR increased by 30 to 46% and 27 to 55% respectively. The
highest unconfined compressive strength and CBR was achieved at 8% marble waste. Marble waste
was added in 5%, 10%, 20% and 30% by weight. The optimum moisture content ranges between
16.5% and 15.5%. Waste marble waste addition to the soil increased the unconfined compressive
strength values from 110kpa(5%addition) to 220kpa(30%addition).
The effect of marble waste addition in varying proportions (10, 20, 30, 40, 50%) on the properties
of black cotton soil. The liquid limit value showed a decrease from 57.67% to 33.9% and shrinkage
limit value increased from 8.06% to 18.39% .The differential free swell was decreased from 66.6%
to 20.0% an increase in unconfined compressive strength values by the addition of marble waste in
varying percentages (5, 10, 15, 20, 25%) to expansive soil. An increase from 93kN/m² at 0% marble
waste addition to 215 kN/m² at 15% marble waste addition were observed.
1.1 SOIL:
1.2
1.2
Soil is the outermost layer of the earth’s crust. Depending on where you are on Earth, the layer of
soil may be several inches thick or many feet deep. Soil is a complex material that supports life. It
may take a thousand years for just 1 inch of soil to form. Therefore, msoil properly for the benefit of
future generations is critical. Soil is made of mineral matter, organic matter, water and air. Living
organisms are also present in soil. Mineral matter begin as rock, and soil generally has mineral
particles of different sizes.. In good soil, water makes up about 25 percent of the soil, and air makes
up about 25 percent of the soil.
1.3 MINERAL MATTER:
1.4
1.4
Mineral matter is inorganic material. Mineral matter began as rock. Soil generally has mineral
particles of different sizes. These particles are labelled sand, silt, or clay, based on their size. Sand is
the largest soil particle. Silt is the mid-size soil particle. Clay is the smallest soil particle.
1.5 PORE SPACES:
1.6
1.6
Pore spaces are the gaps between solid soil particles. They are occupied by water or air. The amount
of water and air found in the soil fluctuates constantly. When the soil is wet, the amount of water
occupying pore spaces is greater than the amount of air. Conversely, when the soil is dry, the
amount of air is greater than the amount of water.
1.7 LIVING ORGANISMS:
1.8
1.8
An abundance of life can be found in soil. Earthworms, insects, bacteria, fungi, and other organisms
inhabit soil. Bacteria and fungi play an important role in breaking down organic matter to release
nutrients. Earthworms, ants, crawfish, moles, and other organisms tunnel through the soil improving
the soil tilth. Tilth is the ease with which soil can be worked. Tilth enhances drainage and improves
air exchange
1.5 TYPES OF SOIL:
Clay soil
Chalky
Loamy
Peaty
Red soil
Sandy
Silty
1.5.1 CLAY SOIL:
Clay soil has excellent water storage. Its holds into plant nutrients and is great for vegetables, etc…
1.5.2 CHALKY:
This low moisture soil is typically found over limestone beds and chalk deposits.
1.5.3 LOAMY:
Loamy soil is a combination of sand, silt and clay. It’s a favourite among farmers, to its high
calcium and PH levels. You can grow just about anything in this soil type.
1.5.4 PEATY:
Dark brown or black in color, this soil type has a high water content that is great for crops that
require a lot of moisture.
1.5.5 RED SOIL:
Red soil is a type of soil that develops in a warm, temperature, moist climate under deciduous or
mixed forest, having thin organic and organic-mineral layers overlaying a yellowish-brown leached
layer resting.
1.5.6 SANDY:
It has the largest particle among different soil particles. Generally, sandy soil is composed of 355
sand and less than 15% silt and clay.
1.5.7 SILTY:
Silt is granular material of a size between sand and clay, whose mineral origin is quartz and
feldspar.
1.6 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SOIL:
The physical properties of soils are dominant factors affecting the use of a soil which determine the
availability of o2 in soils, the mobility of water into and though soils and case of root penetration
and also the chemical and biological behaviour od soil. These depend primarily on the amount, size,
shape and arrangement of it inorganic particles, kind and amount of organic matter, the total volume
of pore spaces and the way it is occupied by water and air at a particular time.
1.7 CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF SOIL:
The chemical side of a soil is extremely important of course and is about the correct balance of the
available nutrients in the soil. This is largely determined by the organic-matter content and its
humus percentage.
1.9 RED SOIL:
1.10
Red soil is derived from weathering of ancient metamorphic rock of the Deccan plateau. Red soil is
any of a group of soil that grow in a humid temperature, moist climate under deciduous and mix
forests and that have raw mineral. Thin organic layers overlying a yellowish brown leached deposit
resting on an alluvial. Their colour is mostly ferric oxides occurring a slight coatings on the soil
particle through the iron oxide arise as hematite as hydrous ferric oxide, the colour is red and when
it happen in the hydrate system as limonite the soil become to be yellow colour. Generally the
surface soils are red while the horizon under gets yellowish colour.
1.11 ADVANTAGES OF SOIL STABILIZATION:
1.12
➤ It improves the strength of the soil, thus increasing the soil bearing capacity.
➤ It is more economical both in terms of cost and energy to increase the bearing capacity of soil
rather than going for deep foundation or raft foundation.
➤ It is also used to provide more stability to the soil in slopes or other such places.
➤ Sometimes soil stabilization is also used to prevent soil erosion or formation of dust, which is
very useful especially in dry and arid weather.
➤ Stabilization is also done for soil water-proofing; this prevents water from entering into the soil
and hence helps the soil from losing its strength.
➤ It helps in reducing the soil volume change due to change in temperature or moisture content.
1.13 DISADVANTAGES OF SOIL STABILIZATION:
1.14
➤ Cost of machinery for mixing and delivery.
➤ Risk of wet litter.
➤ Maintaining the optimum water content.
➤ Risk of dirty feathers.
➤ Danger of mould and other contamination.
➤ Additional cost.
5
1.11 APPLICATION OF SOIL STABILIZATION:
➤ Creation of winter working platforms
➤ Waterlogged sites (quick reduction in moisture content)
➤ Piling mats
➤ Embankment stability
➤ Haul road construction
➤ Car parks
➤ Lorry parks
➤Foundations for floor slabs
➤ Highway pavement construction
➤ Airport runways, taxiways and aprons
➤ Reclamation and remediation of contaminated land
1.15 TYPES OF STABILIZATION:
1.16
✔ Mechanical stabilization.
✔ Physical stabilization.
✔ Chemical stabilization.
1.12.1 PHYSICAL STABILIZATION:
In this technique more than two or three soil are blended to improve the physical properties of weak
soil.
Quite often some additives may also be added for the purpose.
✔ Cement stabilization
✓ Lime stabilization
✔Bitumen stabilization
✔ Chemical stabilization
1.12.2 LIME STABILIZATION:
Lime stabilization is done by adding lime to soil. It is useful for the stabilization of red soil. When
lime reacts with soil there is exchange of cations in the absorbed water layer and a decrease in the
plasticity of the soil occurs. The resulting material is more friable than the original red soil and is
there for more suitable as subgrade.
1.13 METHODS OF SOIL STABILIZATION:
1.13.1 In-Situ Stabilization:
The method involves on site soil improvement by applying stabilizing agent without removing the
bulk soil. This technology offer benefit of improving soils for deep foundations, shallow
foundations and contaminated sites. Planning of the design mix involves the selection and
assessment of engineering properties of stabilized soil and improved ground. The purpose is to
determine the dimensions of improved ground on the basis of appropriate stability and settlement
analyses to satisfy the functional requirements of the supported structure (Keller Inc.). The
technology can be accomplished by injection into soils a cementitious material such cement and
lime in dry or wet forms. The choice to either use dry or wet deep mixing methods depend among
other things; the in-situ soil conditions, in situ moisture contents, effectiveness of binders to be
used, and the nature of construction to be founded. Depending on the depth of treatment, the in situ
stabilization may be regarded as either deep mixing method or mass stabilization.
1.13.2 Deep Mixing Method:
The deep mixing method involves the stabilization of soils at large depth. It is an in situ ground
modification technology in which a wet or dry binder is injected into the ground and blended with
in situ soft soils (clay, peat or organic soils) by mechanical or rotary mixing tool (Purdah et al, 2005;
EuroSoilStab, 2002). Depending on applications, the following patterns may be produced (Figure
4); single patterns, block patterns, panel pattern or stabilized grid pattern (EuroSoilStab, 2002).
Note that, the aim is to produce the stabilized soil mass
Which may interact with natural soil and not, to produce too stiffly stabilized soil mass like a rigid
pile which may independently carry out the design load. The increased strength and stiffness of
stabilized soil should not, therefore, prevent an effective interaction and load distribution between
the stabilized soil and natural soil (EuroSoilStab, 2002). Thus the design load should be distributed
and carried out partly by natural soil and partly by stabilized soil mass (column). Typical patterns of
deep soil mixing (EuroSoilStab, 2002) Wet Mixing Applications of wet deep mixing involve binder
turned into slurry form, which is then injected into the soil through the nozzles located at the end of
the soil auger (Massarsch and Topolnicki, 2005). The mixing tool comprise of drilling rod,
transverse beams and a drill end with head. There are some modifications to suit the need and
applications. For instance, the Trench cutting Re-mixing deep method (TRD) developed by circa
Japan, in 1993 provides an effective tool for construction of continuous cut off wall without the
need for open trench. The method uses a crawler-mounted, chainsaw-like mixing tool to blend in-
situ soil with cementitious binder to create the soil-cement wall. It further consists of a fixed post on
which cutting, scratching teeth ride on a rotating chain and injection ports deliver grout into
treatment zone. Wall depths up to 45 m having width between 0.5 m and 0.9 m are achievable. The
wall quality for groundwater barrier is high with permeability between 1 x 10-6 and 1 x 10-8 cm/s
([Link]). Similar to TRD, in 1994, Germany developed the FMI (Misch-
Injektionsverfahren) machine. The FMI machine has a special cutting arm (trencher), along which
cutting blades are rotated by two chain system. The cutting arm can be inclined up to 80 degrees
and is dragged through the soil behind the power unit (Stocker and Seidel, 2005). Like TRD, the
soil is not excavated, but mixed with binder which is supplied in slurry form through injection pipes
and outlets mounted along the cutting arm (Figure 5). 15 Figure 5: The FMI and TRD-Trenching
machine for construction of deep walls (Massarsch and Topolnicki, 2005; Hayward Baker Inc.)
Figure 6: Parts of wet mixing tool showing injection of slurry into the soil (Porbaha, 2005).
1.13.3 Dry Mixing Method:
Dry mixing is clean, quiet with very low vibration and produces no spoil for disposal (Hayward
Baker Inc). It has for many years extensively used in Northern Europe and Japan. The method
involves the use of dry binders injected into the soil and thoroughly mixed with moist soil (Figure
13). The soil is premixed using specialized tool during downward
Penetration, until it reaches the desired depth. During withdrawal of the mixing tool, dry binder are
then injected and mixed with premixed soil leaving behind a moist soil mix column. In
Scandinavians countries and Sweden in particular, this method is referred to as Lime Cement
Column (LCC), whereas, in Italy, the method is termed as Trevimix and in Japan, the same
technology is called dry jet mixing (DJM) (Bruce et al, 1996; Yasui and Yokozawa, 2005).
1.14 CAUSES OF SOIL STABILIZATION:
1. The presence of organics. Topsoil and other plant matter can make it unstable and as it
decomposes, can make for a very unstable material especially in the presence of water.
2. The lack of compaction. Where areas are filled in to bring the elevation up, many times the
soils are not compacted in thin enough layers in order to get a uniform, highly compacted
soil which results in an unstable condition.
3. The most common reason for instability is composition the proper balance of mineral pieces,
matter, air and water. For instance, a clay soil, with the correct moisture content, can be an
incredibly stable soil, almost to the point of concrete.
Other soils are sandier and rockier and drain well. Too high of a ratio of sand, however, can make
them unstable. Rockier/sandier soils can be very stable and as they are well-draining, tolerate
moisture on occasion and do not become unstable easily.
1.15 ОВЈЕCTIVES
The main objective of the soil stabilization is to increase the bearing capacity of the soil, its
resistance to weathering process and soil permeability. The long term performance of any
construction projects depends on the soundness on the underlying soils.
Soils that are highly susceptible to volume and strength changes can cause severe roughness and
accelerate the deterioration of the pavement structure in the form of increased cracking and
decreased ride quality when combined with truck traffic. Generally, the stiffness (in terms of
resilient modulus) of some soils is highly dependent on moisture and stress state. In some cases, the
subgrade soil can be treated with various materials to improve the strength and stiffness
characteristics of the soil. Stabilization of soils is usually performed for three reasons:
1. As a construction platform to dry very wet soils and facilitate compaction of the upper
layers-for this case, the stabilized soil is usually not considered as a structural layer in the
pavement design process.
2. To strengthen a weak soil and restrict the volume change potential of a highly plastic or
compressible soil-for this case, the modified soil is usually given some structural value or
credit in the pavement design process.
3. To reduce moisture susceptibility of fine grain soils.
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
Many research works have been done on the properties of red soil and marble waste by the different
researchers for study in their suitability as a construction material in various field of civil
Engineering.
A. Roohbakhshan, B. Kalantari. (2013), This paper reports an investigation of the influence of
waste stone powder and lime on the geotechnical properties of clayey soil. The plasticity and
changes in the chemical properties of the soil with pH test when mixed with varying
proportions of waste stone powder and lime were investigated. The results show significant
reduction in plasticity and increasing in the pH value of clayey soil with increasing amount
of waste stone powder and lime. Also there is a decrease in liquid limit and increase in
plastic limit with increasing waste stone powder and lime content. The behaviour of the
geotechnical properties of the clayey soil when blended with waste stone powder and lime
indicates that these materials are a good modifier for this soil.
Roohbakhshan, B. Kalantari. (2014). This research is an attempt to investigate the effect of
Stone powder and lime on the strength, compaction and CBR properties of fine grained soil. The
basic properties: direct shear, compaction and CBR were determined first. The stone powder and
lime were added at specific percentages (10%, 20% and 30%) by weight of soil and mixed with the
optimum moisture content obtained from the compaction test. The direct shear, compaction and
CBR tests were conducted directly without curing or soaking of the specimens. The results revealed
that the addition of 30% stone powder has increased the angle of internal friction (4) by about 50%
and reduced cohesion by about 64%. The addition of 30% of lime has decreased the friction angle
and cohesion by 57% and 28%, respectively. The maximum dry density and optimum moisture
content decreased slightly by addition of 30% stone powder, however, the addition of 30% lime
decreased the maximum dry density and optimum moisture content by 19% and 13.5%,
respectively. The CBR values have increased from 5.2 to 16 and 18 by the addition of 30% stone
powder and lime, respectively. The thicknesses of flexible pavement were determined based on the
CBR values and assumed daily
Traffic volume and found to be reduced from 38 cm for soil without additives to 20 cm and 17cm
by the addition of 30% of stone powder and lime, respectively.
E. Ene, C. Okagbue. (2009), This paper reports an investigation of the influence of pyroclastic rock
dust on the geotechnical properties of expansive soil. The plasticity, linear shrinkage, compaction,
California bearing ratio (CBR) and shear strength characteristics of the soil when mixed with
varying proportions of pyroclastic rock dust were investigated. The results show significant
reduction in plasticity and linear shrinkage of expansive soil with increasing amount of pyroclastic
rock dust. The maximum dry density, optimum water content, shear strength and CBR all increased
with increasing pyroclastic rock dust content. Optimum CBR values were obtained with the
addition of up to 8% pyroclastic rock dust. The behaviour of the geotechnical properties of the
expansive soil when blended with pyroclastic rock dust indicates that the rock dust is a good
modifier for this problem soil.
Koteswara Rao. D, Pranav P.R.T, Venkatesh Ganja (2012), The technology of road construction is
subjected to changes to cope up with changing vehicular pattern, construction materials and sub-
grade conditions. Majority of pavement failures could be attributed to presence of pure sub-grade
conditions and expansive sub-grade is one such problematic situation. Expansive soils, because of
the specific physic chemical makeup are subjected to volume changes with changes in their ambient
environment. The losses due to extensive damage to highways running over expansive sub-grade
are estimated to be in billions of dollars all over the world. In many countries including India, these
soils are so extensive that alteration of highway routes to avoid the material is virtually impossible.
Various remedial measures like soil replacement, pre wetting, moisture control, lime stabilization,
etc., have been practiced with varied degree of success. These techniques suffer from certain
limitation in their adaptability like long time periods for pre wetting the required depth of highly
plastic clays and high cost for soil replacement. Sustained efforts are being made all over the world
on highway research to evolve more promising treatment methods for proper design and
construction of pavements passing over expansive sub-grades. Recent investigations on chemical
stabilization revealed that strong electrolytes like potassium chloride, ferric chloride can be used in
place of conventionally used lime due to their ready dissolvability in water and supply adequate
cations for ready cation exchange. Moreover, they can be applied to the ground in the form of
electrolyte solution without pulverization and mixing problems, either by ponding for shallow
Depths or ponding cum bore holes for reasonable depths. In the present work, the efficacy of
potassium chloride is studied in improving the properties of expansive soil. In order to improve the
strength properties of expansive soils treated with potassium chloride, rice husk ash, a waste
pozzolona, is also tried along with potassium chloride.
Koteswara Rao. D, Pranav. P.R.T, Anusha. M (2011), The problem with expansive soils has been
recorded all over the world. In monsoon they imbibe water and swell and in summer they shrink on
evaporation of water there from. Because of this alternative swelling and shrinkage, lightly loaded
civil engineering structures like residential buildings, pavements and canal linings are severely
damaged. It is, therefore, necessary to mitigate the problems posed by expansive soils and prevent
cracking of structures. Many innovative foundation techniques have been devised as a solution to
the problem of expansive soils. The chief among them are sand cushion technique, cohesive non-
swelling (CNS) layer technique and under reamed piles. Stabilization of expansive clays with
various additives has also attained lot of success. In this study, rice husk ash, lime and gypsum are
added to the expansive soil which resulted in considerable improvement in the strength
characteristics of the expansive soil.
Lazaro, R.C., and Moh, Z.C., (1970), Stabilization of residual soils is studied by chemically using
cement and rice husk ash. Investigation includes the evaluation of such properties of the soil as
compaction, strength, and X-ray diffraction. Test results show that both cement and rice husk ash
reduce the plasticity of soils. In term of compactability, addition of rice husk ash and cement
decreases the maximum dry density and increases the optimum moisture content. From the
viewpoint of plasticity, compaction and strength characteristics, and economy, addition of 6-8%
cement and 10-15% rice husk ash is recommended as an optimum amount.
M. Jafari, M. Esna-ashari. (2012), Mechanical properties of fine grained soils, which are subjected
to freeze-thaw condition, often change considerably, so when these soils are used as a part of a
structure or as an infrastructure, determining a proper solution is necessary. In this paper,
stabilization and fibre reinforcement are simultaneously examined as a soil modification method. A
series of unconfined compression tests was carried out to investigate the effects of tire cord waste
products on mechanical characteristics of a lime stabilized and unstabilized clayey soil subjected to
freezing and thawing cycles. Several specimens were
Prepared at three percentages of lime (i.e. 0%, 4%, and 8%) and four percentages of discrete short
nylon fibre (i.e. 0%, 0.5%, 1%, and 1.5%) by weight of dry soil. The samples were saturated and
exposed to one up to three freeze-thaw cycles before testing. The results indicated that the
compressive strength and stress-strain behaviour of specimens depend considerably on the amounts
of both fibre and lime. For stabilized specimens, the reinforcement effect of fibre was more than
unstabilized ones and also, by inclusion of fibre, 4% lime stabilized specimens indicated more
strength in comparison to the untreated and 8% lime stabilized specimens. Furthermore, the
contribution of fibre in the strength of samples increased as the number of freeze-thaw cycles was
increased.
S. Kolias, V. Kasselouri-Rigopoulou, A. Karahalios. (2005), The effectiveness of using high calcium
fly ash and cement in stabilising fine-grained clayey soils (CL,CH) was investigated in the
laboratory. Strength tests in uniaxial compression, in indirect (splitting) tension and flexure were
carried out on samples to which various percentages of fly ash and cement had been added.
Modulus of elasticity was determined at 90 days with different types of load application and 90-day
soaked CBR values are also reported. Pavement structures incorporating subgrades improved by in
situ stabilisation with fly ash and cement were analysed for construction traffic and for operating
traffic. These pavements are compared with conventional flexible pavements without improved
subgrades and the results clearly show the technical benefits of stabilising clayey soils with fly ash
and cement. In addition TG-SDTA and XRD tests were carried out on certain samples in order to
study the hydraulic compounds, which were formed.
S. Muntohar, (2005), The strength gain of stabilized soils Is not only influenced by the type and
proportion of the stabilizers and its curing time, but also by the water content needed to maintain the
reaction. The reaction of lime-RHA with soil is pozzolanic. Hence, the process will be subjected
greatly by the amount of water to react with admixtures and the proportion of the stabilizer. This
paper presents the result of a laboratory study on the unconfined compressive strength (UCS) of
soils stabilized with lime and RHA, compacted at the OMC, and at the dry and wet side of OMC.
The amount of lime required for stabilization (LRS) is determined by Eades and Grim’s Method.
The results showed that the water content determines the UCS characteristics of unstabilized and
stabilized soils. The UCS of stabilized soils decreased with increasing moulding water content, but
it is still higher than of the un-stabilized
Soils. In general, higher lime content results to a higher UCS. The maximum strength of the
stabilized soil is attained at lime/RHA ratio of ½. The UCS of the stabilized soil increased
significantly about 7-9 times to the un-stabilized UCS.
S. Muntohar. (2009), A study has been undertaken to investigate the strength of stabilized clay-soil
reinforced with randomly distributed discrete plastic waste fibres by carrying out unconfined
compressive strength and tensile-split strength test. In this study, the clay soil was stabilized with
lime and rice husk ash mixtures. The effect of the fibre length and content on the compressive and
split tensile strength was investigated. The laboratory investigation results show that inclusion of the
plastic waste fibre increased significantly both the unconfined compressive strength and tensile-split
strength of the stabilized clay soil. The fibre length plays a significant contribution in increasing the
soil strength. To contribute for any significant improvement on compression as well as tensile
strength, the fibre length should be in range of 20 mm to 40 mm. Fibre reinforcements also reduced
soil brittleness by providing smaller loss of post-peak strength.