NORTHERN TECHNICAL COLLEGE.

DISTANCE LEARNING.

PROGRAM: DIPLOMA IN ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

SUBJECT: ELECTRONICS

MODULE No.:81-11B

MODULE TITLE: SEMICONDUCTORS

SUBTITLE: SEMICONDUCTOR CHEMISTRY

PN JUNCTION DIODE
LIGHT-EMITTING DIODE
FILTERS
THE ZENER DIODE

COPYRIGHT: This document shall not be reproduced in any form without express
permission of the NORTEC © Chisanga Mubanga. August 2012.

Page 1
 TABLE OF CONTENTS:

1. Foreword……………………………………..... Page. 3

2. Objectives……………………………………… Page. 4

3. Semiconductor chemistry……………….…….. Page. 5

4. PN junction diode…………………..………… Page. 16

5. Light-Emitting Diode…………………….…… Page. 36

6. Filter circuits……….... ………………………. Page. 42

7. The Zener diode………………………………. Page 48

8. References………………….…………………. Page 58

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FOREWORD:

Dear Student,
Welcome to this module in Electronics. Electronics has become indispensable in our
lives. From the time you woke up today up to now, there are many electronic gadgets
that you dealt with knowingly or not. Possibly you listened to the radio or used your
cell-phone this morning. These gadgets are electronic gadgets. Imagine you are
watching your t.v. or listening to your radio and suddenly there is too much power
from Zesco and this results in your t.v. or radio to be damaged and when you turn on
it does not switch on. What do you do under the circumstances? Replacing the item by
way of buying or if you take it for repairs it will cost you more than you yourself
repairing it. This module will help you understand the composition and properties of
the electronic components so that in due course you will be able to maintain and
repair electronic equipment.

The Electronics for your program is done in level 2. Under this module, you are
ideally looking at diode making and application. Apart from this you will look at
transistor fabrication and application.

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OBJECTIVES:

After studying this module you will be able to:

1. Explain what a conductor, insulator and semiconductor is.

2. Describe PN junction diode and it properties

3. Explain the need for filter circuits and perform calculations

4. Use a zener diode as a voltage regulator

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 SEMICONDUCTOR CHEMISTRY

CONTENT:

UNIT 1 Conductors, Insulators and Semi conductors.

Conductorsare materials that allow electric current to flow through them. For you to
turn a bulb on, electric current has to flow from the switch through wires to the bulb
and the bulb switches on. A wire is an example of a conductor. All metallic materials
are conductors but the level of conductivity varies from one kind of material to
another. Water also is a conductor of electricity.

Insulatorsare materials that do not allow electric current to flow through them.
Examples of these include plastics and wood.

Semi-conductors are materials that exhibit properties of both insulators and

conductors. This means that at one particular time the material will be behaving as a
conductor and at another it will be behaving as an insulator. An example of this is a
diode. Have you ever heard of this component?

I would now like you to state which category the items mentioned below belong to,
i.e. conductor, insulator or semi-conductor.
Book,……………….., Rubber……………..Spoon…………………,
Glasspane…………….Shoe………………..Razor blade…………….Shirt…………

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UNIT 1.2 Semiconductor Materials in the Periodic Table.

In Unit 1 we looked at conductors, insulators and semi-conductors. Our main focus

now will be on semi-conductors. We will look at where they are located in the
periodic table. You will recall from your school days that a periodic table is a table
that lists all the elements in nature that have been discovered and are arranged
according to atomic number. We shall just cut out a portion of the table comprising
elements in group III,IV and V and this is what is what you can see in the table shown
below:

III IV V
B5 C6 N7
Al13 Si14 P15
Ga31 Ge32 As33
In49 Sn50 An51

You can see that elements in group III are boron(B), Aluminium(Al),Galium(Ga) and
Indium(In). Group IV consists of Carbon(C), Silicon(Si) Germanium(Ge) and Tin
also known as Strontium(Sn)and lastly GroupV is made up of
Nitrogen(N),Phosporous(Ph),Arsenic(As) and Antimony(An).
Use glue to stick this in your memory: semi conductors occurring naturally belong to
elements in groupIV.
Of the natural semiconductors, only silicon and germanium are widely used because
of their superior properties. One major advantage they have is that even at room you
will notice that they start to conduct electric current and you can only detect this using
appropriate equipment. A semi-conductor will behave either as a conductor or as an
insulator depending on the energy levels being experienced at that particular moment.
The more energy you apply to the semi-conductor the more readily it conducts, the
less energy the less it conducts meaning it becomes more of an insulator.

What do you think the other advantage could be? The two materials are widely
available naturally.
If I may ask, what do you call the numbers appearing as superscripts next to the
elements in the periodic table? These are the atomic numbers alluded to in the first
paragraph of unit2.

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 Do you know the
name given to Yes Profesori!
elements in From my Chemistry
group III lessons, I think I do.
They are
calledTrivalentelemen
ts.

Tetravalent
Good! What elements
about groupIV

Yes Sir!

Excellent! groupIV
are called tetravalent
Lastly Group 5
elements are known
as pentavalent

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Unit1.3 Atomic Structure Of Silicon and Germanium

In this unit we will be looking at the atomic structure of silicon and germanium.
Atomic structure refers to the way particles of an atom are arranged.

What is an atom? You will recall from your science that an atom is the smallest
particle of an element. If for example you draw the smallest circle you can see with
your naked eye, there will be millions of atoms inside the circle so you can imagine
how small these things are.
Why atomic structure for silicon and germanium? So that we see the arrangement of
the particles it is composed of. The two elements have become the backbone of
almost all technological advancements you don‟t even need to look far; maybe just in
the room in which you are there is a radio, a t.v. set or even a cellphone. You could be
studying in a room which is lit using an energy saver bulb. All these items use semi-
conductors and so the need to study this structure.
Now below are the atomic structures of the two elements.

From the diagram you can see that every atom has a nucleus which is located at the
centre and this nucleus is surrounded by electrons which move in orbits or shells
around the nucleus.
As you can see silicon has 14 electrons and germanium has 32. Let us start by
analysing the way electrons are arranged in all the elements. The first shell for all
atoms can only take a maximum of two electrons, the next a maximum of 8 and the
third can take 18. There is a simple formula we use to determine how electrons will be

placed in the orbits which is 2n2 (two n squared) where n represents the shell number.

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You count the shells beginning from the smallest or inner-most ring going out. So the
inner most ring will be shell 1. So when you get the 1 and replace it in „n‟ in the
formula your answer is 2 meaning the first shell has 2 electrons. For the second shell
replace 2 in the formula and your answer is 8. For shell 3 the answer is 18.

So for silicon which has 14 electrons the first and second shell take up 10 electrons,
the remaining 4 go in the last shell. Germanium with 32 electrons, the first, second
and third shells take up 28 electrons, last four go into the fourth shell. Don‟t confuse
yourself by thinking you are supposed to have 64 electrons in the 4th shell. 64 is just
the maximum number that can be accommodated but it can be less. So when you
calculate the maximum number of electrons required for the shell the balance is taken
to the next shell.

SELF EVALUATION EXERCISE.

1. Give 4 examples of insulators.
2. Give reasons why silicon and germanium are preferred in the
manufacture of semi-conductors
3. State the number of electrons silicon and germanium.
4. Draw the atomic structure for silicon

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Unit1.4. N-type Semiconductor Basics

Let us now look at how we can improve the electrical properties of semi conductors.
In most cases I may be mentioning silicon instead of semiconductor, this is because it
is more widely used as compared to Germanium. Now, when you have silicon or
germanium in its purest form, it is called an intrinsic semiconductor.
In other words an intrinsic semiconductor is one without impurities.

In order for our silicon crystal to conduct electricity, we need to introduce an impurity
atom such as Arsenic, Antimony or Phosphorus into the crystalline structure making it
extrinsic (impurities are added). These atoms have five outer electrons in their
outermost orbit or shell to share with neighbouring atoms and are commonly called
"Pentavalent" impurities. Crystalline structure refers to the way the atoms in silicon
material are arranged.

During the doping process, by the way what is doping? We hear a lot of this amongst
sports men and women, what is this thing called doping? For arguments sake we can
say that this is the taking in of drugs so that these sports men/women do not tire easily
or perform beyond expectation. In short these people are cheating and they are caught
by sports regulators after carrying out blood tests. Doping in our case will refer to the
adding of impurities to intrinsic semiconductor to enhance electrical properties.

So back to the topic, during the doping process four out of the five orbital electrons
bond with neighbouring silicon atoms leaving one "free electron" which is not bonded
and becomes mobile once electrical energy is applied (electron flow). Silicon and the
donor impurity form covalent bonds when doped. Covalent bonding is the sharing of
the sharing of outer most electrons so that the atoms achieve [Link] must be 8
electrons in the outer most orbit/shell so the silicon shares its 4 electrons with 4 from
the donor impurity. But, because the donor has 5 electrons in the outer orbit, one
electron remains free.

Since there are millions of atoms in a piece of semiconductor material, you will also
find millions of free electrons. As each impurity atom "donates" one electron,
pentavalent atoms are known as "donor impurities". Because the resulting

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semiconductor will have excess electrons (electrons are negatively charged) , the
material produced will be referred to as “N-type material or semiconductor” In
addition to this, because this material has excess electrons, these are the ones that will
be responsible for current flow in this material. In other words, electrons will
constitute current flow. The electrons in this material are referred to as majoritycharge
carriers. Holes in the N-type materials will be minority carriers. Let me illustrate this
with a diagramAntimony (symbol Sb) or Phosphorus (symbol P), are frequently
used as a donor impuritiesfor silicon while Arsenic is used for Germanium

Unit1.5P-Type Semiconductor Basics

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If we go the other way, and introduce a "Trivalent" (3-electron) impurity into the
silicon crystalline structure, such as Aluminium, Boron or Indium, which have only
three valence electrons available in their outermost orbit or shell, three covalent bonds
will be made and the fourth is incomplete resulting in what is known as a hole. A hole
simply means an electron is missing and since there are millions of atoms in a piece
semiconductor material, there will also be millions of holes. Holes are taken as
positively charged carriers

As there is now a hole in the silicon crystal, a neighbouring electron is attracted to it

and will try to move into the hole to fill it. However, the electron filling the hole
leaves another hole behind it as it moves. This in turn attracts another electron which
in turn creates another hole behind it, and so forth giving the appearance that the holes
are moving as a positive charge through the crystal structure (conventional current
flow). This movement of holes results in a shortage of electrons in the silicon turning
the entire doped crystal into a positive pole. As each impurity atom generates a hole,
trivalent impurities are generally known as "Acceptors" as they are continually
"accepting" extra or free electrons.

Boron (symbol B), commonly used as a trivalent impurity has 3 electrons in its outer
most orbit. Doping group 3 elements with silicon results in formation of "P-type"
material with the holes as "majority charge carriers" while the electrons are
"minority". The diagram below depicts the formation of P-type semi conductor using
Germanium and Galium. I should hasten to mention here that once an Intrinsic
semiconductor has been doped or has impurities, it is no longer referred to as an
intrinsic semiconductor but Extrinsic.

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Unit1.6The PN junction

In the previous tutorial we saw how to make an N-type semiconductor material by

doping it with Antimony and also how to make a P-type semiconductor material by
doping that with Boron. This is all well and good, but these semiconductor N and P-
type materials do very little on their own as they are electrically neutral, but when we
join (or fuse) them together these two materials behave in a very different way
producing a PN Junction.

When the N and P-type semiconductor materials are first joined together a very large
density gradient exists between both sides of the junction so some of the free electrons
from the donor impurity atoms begin to migrate across this newly formed junction to
fill up the holes in the P-type material producing negative ions.

However, because the electrons have moved across the junction from the N-type
silicon to the P-type silicon, they leave behind positively charged donor ions ( ND ) on
the negative side and now the holes from the acceptor impurity migrate across the
junction in the opposite direction into the region where there are large numbers of free
electrons. As a result, the charge density of the P-type along the junction is filled with
negatively charged acceptor ions ( NA ), and the charge density of the N-type along
the junction becomes positive. This charge transfer of electrons and holes across the
junction is known as diffusion.

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This process continues back and forth until the number of electrons which have
crossed the junction have a large enough electrical charge to repel or prevent any
more charge carriers from crossing over the junction. Eventually a state of
equilibrium (electrically neutral situation) will occur producing a "potential barrier"
zone around the area of the junction as the donor atoms repel the holes and the
acceptor atoms repel the electrons.

Since no free charge carriers can rest in a position where there is a potential barrier,
the regions on either sides of the junction no become completely depleted of any more
free carriers in comparison to the N and P type materials further away from the
junction. This area around the junction is now called the Depletion Layer.

The PN junction

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SELF EVALUATION EXERCISE.
1. Define the term intrinsic semiconductor
2. Explain formation of N-type semi conductor
3. Explain formation of P-type semi conductor
4. Explain majority charge carriers
5. Explain diffusion.
6. Explain potential barrier and depletion region.

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 PN JUNCTION DIODE, FILTERS & REGULATORS

Unit2.1The Junction Diode

If we were to make electrical connections at the ends of both the N-type and the P-
type materials and then connect them to a battery source, an additional energy source
now exists to overcome the barrier resulting in free charges being able to cross the
depletion region from one side to the other. The behaviour of the PN junction with
regards to the potential barrier width produces an asymmetrical conducting two
terminal device, better known as the Junction Diode.

A diode is a semiconductor device, which has the characteristic of passing current in

one direction only. However, unlike a resistor, a diode does not behave linearly with
respect to the applied voltage as the diode has an exponential I-V relationship and
therefore we can not described its operation by simply using an equation such as
Ohm's law.

If a suitable positive voltage (forward bias) is applied between the two ends of the PN
junction, it can supply free electrons and holes with the extra energy they require to
cross the junction as the width of the depletion layer around the PN junction is
decreased. By applying a negative voltage (reverse bias) results in the free charges
being pulled away from the junction resulting in the depletion layer width being
increased. This has the effect of increasing or decreasing the effective resistance of
the junction itself allowing or blocking current flow through the diode.

Then the depletion layer widens with an increase in the application of a reverse
voltage and narrows with an increase in the application of a forward voltage.

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Junction Diode Symbol and Static I-V Characteristics.

But before we can use the PN junction as a practical device or as a rectifying device
we need to firstly bias the junction, ie connect a voltage potential across it. On the
voltage axis above, "Reverse Bias" refers to an external voltage potential which
increases the potential barrier. An external voltage which decreases the potential
barrier is said to act in the "Forward Bias" direction.

There are two operating regions and "biasing" conditions for the standard Junction
Diode and these are:

 1. Reverse Bias - The voltage potential is connected negative, (-ve) to the P-

type material and positive, (+ve) to the N-type material across the diode which
has the effect of Increasing the PN-junction width.


2. Forward Bias - The voltage potential is connected positive, (+ve) to the P-

type material and negative, (-ve) to the N-type material across the diode which
has the effect of Decreasing the PN-junction width.

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Unit2.2Reverse Biased Junction Diode

When a diode is connected in a Reverse Bias condition, a positive voltage is applied

to the N-type material and a negative voltage is applied to the P-type material. The
positive voltage applied to the N-type material attracts electrons towards the positive
electrode and away from the junction, while the holes in the P-type end are also
attracted away from the junction towards the negative electrode.

The net result is that the depletion layer grows wider due to a lack of electrons and
holes and presents a high impedance path, almost an insulator. The result is that a
high potential barrier is created thus preventing current from flowing through the
semiconductor material.

Reverse Biased Junction Diode showing an Increase in the Depletion Layer

This condition represents a high resistance value to the PN junction and practically
zero current flows through the junction diode with an increase in bias voltage.
However, a very small leakage current does flow through the junction which can be
measured in microamperes, (μA). One final point, if the reverse bias voltage Vr
applied to the diode is increased to a sufficiently high enough value, it will cause the
PN junction to overheat and fail due to the avalanche effect around the junction. This
may cause the diode to become shorted and will result in the flow of maximum circuit
current, and this shown as a step downward slope in the reverse static characteristics
curve below.

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Reverse Characteristics Curve for a Junction Diode

Sometimes this avalanche effect has practical applications in voltage stabilising

circuits where a series limiting resistor is used with the diode to limit this reverse
breakdown current to a preset maximum value thereby producing a fixed voltage
output across the diode. These types of diodes are commonly known as Zener Diodes
and are discussed in a later tutorial.

Unit2.3Forward Biased Junction Diode

When a diode is connected in a Forward Bias condition, a negative voltage is applied

to the N-type material and a positive voltage is applied to the P-type material. If this
external voltage becomes greater than the value of the potential barrier, approx. 0.7
volts for silicon and 0.3 volts for germanium, the potential barriers opposition will be
overcome and current will start to flow.

This is because the negative voltage pushes or repels electrons towards the junction
giving them the energy to cross over and combine with the holes being pushed in the
opposite direction towards the junction by the positive voltage. This results in a
characteristics curve of zero current flowing up to this voltage point, called the "knee"
on the static curves and then a high current flow through the diode with little increase
in the external voltage as shown below.

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Forward Characteristics Curve for a Junction Diode

The application of a forward biasing voltage on the junction diode results in the
depletion layer becoming very thin and narrow which represents a low impedance
path through the junction thereby allowing high currents to flow. The point at which
this sudden increase in current takes place is represented on the static I-V
characteristics curve above as the "knee" point.

Forward Biased Junction Diode showing a Reduction in the Depletion Layer

This condition represents the low resistance path through the PN junction allowing
very large currents to flow through the diode with only a small increase in bias
voltage. The actual potential difference across the junction or diode is kept constant

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by the action of the depletion layer at approximately 0.3v for germanium and
approximately 0.7v for silicon junction diodes.

Since the diode can conduct "infinite" current above this knee point as it effectively
becomes a short circuit, therefore resistors are used in series with the diode to limit its
current flow. Exceeding its maximum forward current specification causes the device
to dissipate more power in the form of heat than it was designed for resulting in a very
quick failure of the device.

Junction Diode Summary

The PN junction region of a Junction Diode has the following important

characteristics:

 1). Semiconductors contain two types of mobile charge carriers, Holes and
Electrons.

 2). The holes are positively charged while the electrons negatively charged.

 3). A semiconductor may be doped with donor impurities such as Antimony
(N-type doping), so that it contains mobile charges which are primarily
electrons.

 4). A semiconductor may be doped with acceptor impurities such as Boron (P-
type doping), so that it contains mobile charges which are mainly holes.

 5). The junction region itself has no charge carriers and is known as the
depletion region.

 6). The junction (depletion) region has a physical thickness that varies with the
applied voltage.

 7). When a junction diode is Forward Biased the thickness of the depletion
region reduces and the diode acts like a short circuit allowing full current to
flow.

 8). When a junction diode is Reverse Biased the thickness of the depletion
region increases and the diode acts like an open circuit blocking any current
flow, (only a very small leakage current).

In the next tutorial about diodes, we will look at the small signal diode sometimes
called a switching diode that are used in general electronic circuits. A signal diode is
designed for low-voltage or high frequency signal applications such as in radio or
digital switching circuits as opposed to the high-current mains rectification diodes in
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which silicon diodes are usually used, and examine the Signal Diode static current-
voltage characteristics curve and parameters.

Unit2.4The Power Diode

In the previous tutorials we saw that a semiconductor signal diode will only conduct
current in one direction from its anode to its cathode (forward direction), but not in
the reverse direction acting a bit like an electrical one way valve. A widely used
application of this feature is in the conversion of an alternating voltage ( AC ) into a
continuous voltage ( DC ). In other words, Rectification.

But small signal diodes can also be used as rectifiers in low-power, low current (less
than 1-amp) rectifiers or applications, but were larger forward bias currents or higher
reverse bias blocking voltages are involved the PN junction of a small signal diode
would eventually overheat and melt so larger more robust Power Diodes are used
instead.

The power semiconductor diode, known simply as the Power Diode, has a much
larger PN junction area compared to its smaller signal diode cousin, resulting in a
high forward current capability of up to several hundred amps (KA) and a reverse
blocking voltage of up to several thousand volts (KV).

If an alternating voltage is applied across a power diode, during the positive half cycle
the diode will conduct passing current and during the negative half cycle the diode
will not conduct blocking the flow of current. Then conduction through the power
diode only occurs during the positive half cycle and is therefore unidirectional i.e. DC
as shown.

Power Diode Rectifier

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Power diodes can be used individually as above or connected together to produce a
variety of rectifier circuits such as "Half-Wave", "Full-Wave" or as "Bridge
Rectifiers".

The most commonly used individual power diode for basic electronics applications is
the general purpose 1N400x Series Glass Passivated type rectifying diode with
standard ratings of continuous forward rectified current of 1.0 amp and reverse
blocking voltage ratings from 50v for the 1N4001 up to 1000v for the 1N4007, with
the small 1N4007GP being the most popular for general purpose mains voltage
rectification.

Unit 2.5 Half Wave Rectification

A rectifier is a circuit which converts the Alternating Current (AC) input power into a
Direct Current (DC) output power. The input power supply may be either a single-
phase or a multi-phase supply with the simplest of all the rectifier circuits being that
of the Half Wave Rectifier. The power diode in a half wave rectifier circuit passes
just one half of each complete sine wave of the AC supply in order to convert it into a
DC supply. Then this type of circuit is called a "half-wave" rectifier because it passes
only half of the incoming AC power supply as shown below.

Half Wave Rectifier Circuit

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During each "positive" half cycle of the AC sine wave, the diode is forward biased as
the anode is positive with respect to the cathode resulting in current flowing through
the diode. Since the DC load is resistive (resistor, R), the current flowing in the load
resistor is therefore proportional to the voltage (Ohm´s Law), and the voltage across
the load resistor will therefore be the same as the supply voltage, Vs (minus Vf), that
is the "DC" voltage across the load is sinusoidal for the first half cycle only so
Vout = Vs.

During each "negative" half cycle of the AC sinusoidal input waveform, the diode is
reverse biased as the anode is negative with respect to the cathode. Therefore, NO
current flows through the diode or circuit. Then in the negative half cycle of the
supply, no current flows in the load resistor as no voltage appears across it so
therefore, Vout = 0.

The current on the DC side of the circuit flows in one direction only making the
circuit Unidirectional. As the load resistor receives from the diode a positive half of
the waveform, zero volts, a positive half of the waveform, zero volts, etc, the value of
this irregular voltage would be equal in value to an equivalent DC voltage of 0.318 x
Vmax of the input sinusoidal waveform or 0.45 x Vrms of the input sinusoidal
waveform. Then the equivalent DC voltage, VDC across the load resistor is calculated
as follows.

Where Vmax is the maximum or peak voltage value of the AC sinusoidal supply, and
VS is the RMS (Root Mean Squared) value of the supply. Apart from mastering the

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formula for calculating dc output voltage, there is need to know how to derive it and
shown below is how this is done.

Now Vm= Vrmsx √2 = πxVdc.

This means that Vdc= (Vrmsx √2) / π = 0.45Vrms

Vdc=Vm/π = 0.318Vm

Example

Calculate the voltage across, (VDC) and the current, (IDC) flowing through a 100Ω
resistor connected to a 240 Vrms single phase half-wave rectifier as shown above.
Also calculate the DC power consumed by the load.

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Page 26
Page 27
During the rectification process the resultant output DC voltage and current are
therefore both "ON" and "OFF" during every cycle. As the voltage across the load
resistor is only present during the positive half of the cycle (50% of the input
waveform), this results in a low average DC value being supplied to the load. The
variation of the rectified output waveform between this ON and OFF condition
produces a waveform which has large amounts of "ripple" which is an undesirable
feature. The resultant DC ripple has a frequency that is equal to that of the AC supply
frequency.

Unit2.6 Ripple Factor

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The efficiency of a half wave rectifier is approximately 40% and is calculated as
follows:

η is the symbol for efficiency so η = dc output power / ac input power.

Very often when rectifying an alternating voltage we wish to produce a "steady" and
continuous DC voltage free from any voltage variations or ripple. One way of doing
this is to connect a large value Capacitoracross the output voltage terminals in parallel
with the load resistor as shown below. This type of capacitor is known commonly as a
"Reservoir" or Smoothing Capacitor.

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Half-wave Rectifier with Smoothing Capacitor

When rectification is used to provide a direct voltage power supply from an

alternating source, the amount of ripple can be further reduced by using larger value
capacitors but there are limits both on cost and size. For a given capacitor value, a
greater load current (smaller load resistor) will discharge the capacitor more quickly
(RC Time Constant ) and so increases the ripple obtained. Then for single phase, half-
wave rectifier circuits it is not very practical to try and reduce the ripple voltage by
capacitor smoothing alone, it is more practical to use "Full-wave Rectification"
instead.

In practice, the half-wave rectifier is used most often in low-power applications

because of their major disadvantages being. The output amplitude is less than the
input amplitude, there is no output during the negative half cycle so half the power is
wasted and the output is pulsed DC resulting in excessive ripple. To overcome these
disadvantages a number of Power Diodes are connected together to produce a Full
Wave Rectifier as discussed in the next tutorial.

Page 30
Unit 2.7 The Full Wave Rectifier

In the previous tutorial we discussed ways of reducing the ripple or voltage variations
on a direct DC voltage by connecting capacitors across the load resistance. While this
method may be suitable for low power applications it is unsuitable to applications
which need a "steady and smooth" DC supply voltage. One method to improve on this
is to use every half-cycle of the input voltage instead of every other half-cycle. The
circuit which allows us to do this is called a Full Wave Rectifier. There are two types
of full wave rectifiers namely the full wave centre-tapped and full wave bridge
rectifiers.

Like the half wave circuit, a full wave rectifier circuit produces an output voltage or
current which has some specified DC component. Full wave rectifiers have some
fundamental advantages over their half wave rectifier counterparts. The average (DC)
output voltage is higher than for half wave, the output of the full wave rectifier has
much less ripple than that of the half wave rectifier producing a smoother output
waveform.

Full Wave Centre-tap Rectifier Circuit

As the spaces between each half-wave developed by each diode is now being filled in
by the other diode the average DC output voltage across the load resistor is now
double that of the single half-wave rectifier circuit and is about 0.637Vmax of the
peak voltage, assuming no losses.

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Where: VMAX is the maximum peak value in one half of the secondary winding and
VRMS is the rms value.

The peak voltage of the output waveform is the same as before for the half-wave
rectifier provided each half of the transformer windings have the same rms voltage
value. To obtain a different DC voltage output different transformer ratios can be
used. The main disadvantage of this type of full wave rectifier circuit is that a larger
transformer for a given power output is required with two separate but identical
secondary windings making this type of full wave rectifying circuit costly compared
to the "Full Wave Bridge Rectifier" circuit equivalent.

Page 32
The Full Wave Bridge Rectifier

Another type of circuit that produces the same output waveform as the full wave
rectifier circuit above, is that of the Full Wave Bridge Rectifier. This type of single
phase rectifier uses four individual rectifying diodes connected in a closed loop
"bridge" configuration to produce the desired output. The main advantage of this
bridge circuit is that it does not require a special centre tapped transformer, thereby
reducing its size and cost. The single secondary winding is connected to one side of
the diode bridge network and the load to the other side as shown below.

Page 33
The Diode Bridge Rectifier

The four diodes labelled D1 to D4 are arranged in "series pairs" with only two diodes
conducting current during each half cycle. During the positive half cycle of the
supply, diodes D1 and D2 conduct in series while diodes D3 and D4 are reverse
biased and the current flows through the load as shown below.

The Positive Half-cycle

During the negative half cycle of the supply, diodes D3 and D4 conduct in series, but
diodes D1 and D2 switch "OFF" as they are now reverse biased. The current flowing
through the load is the same direction as before.

Page 34
The Negative Half-cycle

As the current flowing through the load is unidirectional, so the voltage developed
across the load is also unidirectional the same as for the previous two diode full-wave
rectifier, therefore the average DC voltage across the load is 0.637Vmax. However in
reality, during each half cycle the current flows through two diodes instead of just one
so the amplitude of the output voltage is two voltage drops ( 2 x 0.7 = 1.4V ) less than
the input VMAX amplitude. The ripple frequency is now twice the supply frequency
(e.g. 100Hz for a 50Hz supply)

Typical Bridge Rectifier

Although we can use four individual power diodes to make a full wave bridge
rectifier, pre-made bridge rectifier components are available "off-the-shelf" in a range
of different voltage and current sizes that can be soldered directly into a PCB circuit
board or be connected by spade connectors.

The image above shows a typical single phase bridge rectifier with one corner cut off.
This cut-off corner indicates that the terminal nearest to the corner is the positive or

Page 35
+ve output terminal or lead with the opposite (diagonal) lead being the negative or -ve
output lead. The other two connecting leads are for the input alternating voltage from
a transformer secondary winding.

LIGHT-EMITTING DIODE

Light Emitting Diodes or LED´s, are among the most widely used of all the different
types of semiconductor diodes available today. They are the most visible type of
diode, that emit a fairly narrow bandwidth of either visible light at different coloured
wavelengths, invisible infra-red light for remote controls or laser type light when a
forward current is passed through them. A "Light Emitting Diode" or LED as it is
more commonly called, is basically just a specialised type of PN junction diode, made
from a very thin layer of fairly heavily doped semiconductor material.

So, how do these diodes produce light? When the diode is forward biased, electrons
from the semiconductors conduction band recombine with holes from the valence
band releasing sufficient energy to produce photons which emit a monochromatic
(single colour) of light. Because of this thin layer a reasonable number of these
photons can leave the junction and radiate away producing a coloured light output. In
other words we can say that as electrons cross the diode junction, they move from a
higher energy state to a lower energy state. In the process, the excess energy is
released in the form of light. Then, we can also say that when operated in a forward
biased direction Light Emitting Diodes are semiconductor devices that convert
electrical energy into light energy.

LED Construction

Page 36
The construction of a light emitting diode is very different from that of a normal
signal diode. The PN junction of an LED is surrounded by a transparent, hard plastic
epoxy resign hemispherical shaped shell or body which protects the LED from both
vibration and shock.

Surprisingly, an LED junction does not actually emit that much light so the epoxy
resin body is constructed in such a way that the photons of light emitted by the
junction are reflected away from the surrounding substrate base to which the diode is
attached and are focused upwards through the domed top of the LED, which itself acts
like a lens concentrating the amount of light. This is why the emitted light appears to
be brightest at the top of the LED.

However, not all LEDs are made with a hemispherical shaped dome for their epoxy
shell. Some indication LEDs have a rectangular or cylindrical shaped construction
that has a flat surface on top or their body is shaped into a bar or arrow. Also, nearly
all LEDs have their cathode, ( K ) terminal identified by either a notch or flat spot on
the body, or by one of the leads being shorter than the other, ( the Anode, A ).

Unlike normal incandescent lamps and bulbs which generate large amounts of heat
when illuminated, the light emitting diode produces a "cold" generation of light which
leads to high efficiencies than the normal "light bulb" because most of the generated
energy radiates away within the visible spectrum. Because LEDs are solid-state
devices, they can be extremely small and durable and provide much longer lamp life
than normal light sources.

Light Emitting Diode Colours

So how does a light emitting diode get its colour. Unlike normal signal diodes which
are made for detection or power rectification, and which are made from either
Germanium or Silicon semiconductor materials, Light Emitting Diodes are made
from exotic semiconductor compounds such as Gallium Arsenide (GaAs), Gallium
Phosphide (GaP), Gallium Arsenide Phosphide (GaAsP), Silicon Carbide (SiC) or

Page 37
Gallium Indium Nitride (GaInN) all mixed together at different ratios to produce a
distinct wavelength of colour.

Different LED compounds emit light in specific regions of the visible light spectrum
and therefore produce different intensity levels. The exact choice of the
semiconductor material used will determine the overall wavelength of the photon light
emissions and therefore the resulting colour of the light emitted.

Typical LED Characteristics Thus, the actual colour of a

Semiconductor light emitting diode is
Wavelength Colour VF @ 20mA
Material determined by the

GaAs 850-940nm Infra-Red 1.2v wavelength of the light

emitted, which inturn is
GaAsP 630-660nm Red 1.8v
determined by the actual
GaAsP 605-620nm Amber 2.0v
semiconductor compound
GaAsP:N 585-595nm Yellow 2.2v
used in forming the PN
AlGaP 550-570nm Green 3.5v
junction during manufacture.
SiC 430-505nm Blue 3.6v
GaInN 450nm White 4.0v Therefore the colour of the
light emitted by an LED is
NOT determined by the colouring of the LED's plastic body although these are
slightly coloured to both enhance the light output and to indicate its colour when its
not being illuminated by an electrical supply.

Light emitting diodes are available in a wide range of colours with the most common
being RED, AMBER, YELLOW and GREEN and are thus widely used as visual
indicators and as • Aluminium Gallium Nitride (AlGaN) - ultraviolet

Like conventional PN junction diodes, LEDs are current-dependent devices with its
forward voltage drop VF, depending on the semiconductor compound (its light colour)
and on the forward biased LED current. The point where conduction begins and light
is produced is about 1.2V for a standard red LED to about 3.6V for a blue LED.

Page 38
Light Emitting Diodes I-V Characteristics.

Light Emitting Diode (LED) Schematic symbol and its I-V Characteristics Curves
showing the different colours available.

Before a light emitting diode can "emit" any form of light it needs a current to flow
through it, as it is a current dependant device with their light output intensity being
directly proportional to the forward current flowing through the LED. As the LED is
to be connected in a forward bias condition across a power supply it should be current
limited using a series resistor to protect it from excessive current flow. Never connect
an LED directly to a battery or power supply as it will be destroyed almost instantly
because too much current will pass through and burn it out.

From the table above we can see that each LED has its own forward voltage drop
across the PN junction and this parameter which is determined by the semiconductor
material used, is the forward voltage drop for a specified amount of forward
conduction current, typically for a forward current of 20mA. In most cases LEDs are
operated from a low voltage DC supply, with a series resistor, RS used to limit the
forward current to a safe value from say 5mA for a simple LED indicator to 30mA or
more where a high brightness light output is needed.

Page 39
LED Series Resistance.

The series resistor value RS is calculated by simply using Ohm´s Law, by knowing the
required forward current IF of the LED, the supply voltage VS across the combination
and the expected forward voltage drop of the LED, VF at the required current level,
the current limiting resistor is calculated as:

LED Series Resistor Circuit

Example

An amber coloured LED with a forward volt drop of 2 volts is to be connected to a

5.0v stabilised DC power supply. Using the circuit above calculate the value of the
series resistor required to limit the forward current to less than 10mA. Also calculate
the current flowing through the diode if a 100Ω series resistor is used instead of the
calculated first.

1). series resistor value at 10mA.

2). with a 100Ω series resistor.

Page 40
We remember from the Resistorstutorials, that resistors come in standard preferred
values. Our first calculation above shows to limit the current flowing through the LED
to 10mA exactly, we would require a 300Ω resistor. In the E12 series of resistors
there is no 300Ω resistor so we would need to choose the next highest value, which is
330Ω. A quick re-calculation shows the new forward current value is now 9.1mA, and
this is ok.

A Typical Seven Segment LED Display

Page 41
 POWER SUPPLY FILTERS

Rectification without Filter

Rectifier with a Filter Output

iCapacitor Input Filter

A half wave rectifier with a capacitor input filter is shown in above figure, The filter
is simply a capacitor connected from the rectifier output to ground. RL represents the
equivalent resistance of a load. We will use the half wave rectifier to illustrate the
basic principle and then expand the concept to full wave rectification.

(a) Initial charging of the capacitor (diode is forward biased) happens only once when
power is tuned on

Figure(a)

Operation of a half wave rectifier with a capacitor input filter. The current indicates
charging or discharging of the capacitor.

Page 42
Figure (b)

In this figure, the capacitor discharging through RL after peak of positive alternation
when the diode is reverse biased. This discharging occurs during the portion of the
input voltage indicated by the solid curve.

Figure(c)

The capacitor charges back to peak of input when the diode become forward biased.
This charging occurs during the portion of the input voltage indicated by the solid
curve.

During the positive first quarter cycle of the input, the diode is forward biased
allowing the capacitor to charge to within 0.7 V of the input peak, as shown in figure
(a). When the input begins to decrease below its peak, as shown in figure (b), the
capacitor retains its charge and the diode becomes reverse biased because the cathode
is more positive than the anode. During the remaining part of the cycle, the capacitor
can discharge only through the load resistance at a rate determined by the RLC time
constant, which is normally long compared to the period of the input. The larger the
input constant, the less the capacitor will discharge. During the first quarter of the
next cycle, as shown in figure (c), the diode will again become forward biased when
the input voltage exceeds the capacitor voltage by approximately 0.7 V.

We saw in the previous section that the single phase half-wave rectifier produces an
output wave every half cycle though it is not practical to use this type of circuit to
produce a steady DC supply. The full-wave bridge rectifier however, gives us a
greater mean DC value (0.637 Vmax) with less superimposed ripple while the output
waveform is twice that of the frequency of the input supply frequency. We can
therefore increase its average DC output level even higher by connecting a suitable
smoothing capacitor across the output of the bridge circuit as shown below.

Page 43
Full-wave Rectifier with Smoothing Capacitor

The smoothing capacitor converts the full-wave rippled output of the rectifier into a
smooth DC output voltage. Generally for DC power supply circuits the smoothing
capacitor is an Aluminium Electrolytic type that has a capacitance value of 100uF or
more with repeated DC voltage pulses from the rectifier charging up the capacitor to
peak voltage. However, their are two important parameters to consider when choosing
a suitable smoothing capacitor and these are its Working Voltage, which must be
higher than the no-load output value of the rectifier and its Capacitance Value, which
determines the amount of ripple that will appear superimposed on top of the DC
voltage.

Too low a capacitance value and the capacitor has little effect on the output
waveform. But if the smoothing capacitor is sufficiently large enough (parallel
capacitors can be used) and the load current is not too large, the output voltage will be
almost as smooth as pure DC. As a general rule of thumb, we are looking to have a
ripple voltage of less than 100mV peak to peak.

The maximum ripple voltage present for a Full Wave Rectifier circuit is not only
determined by the value of the smoothing capacitor but by the frequency and load
current, and is calculated as:
Page 44
Bridge Rectifier Ripple Voltage

Where: I is the DC load current in amps, ƒ is the frequency of the ripple or twice the
input frequency in Hertz, and C is the capacitance in Farads.

The main advantages of a full-wave bridge rectifier is that it has a smaller AC ripple
value for a given load and a smaller reservoir or smoothing capacitor than an
equivalent half-wave rectifier. Therefore, the fundamental frequency of the ripple
voltage is twice that of the AC supply frequency (100Hz) where for the half-wave
rectifier it is exactly equal to the supply frequency (50Hz).

The amount of ripple voltage that is superimposed on top of the DC supply voltage by
the diodes can be virtually eliminated by adding a much improved π-filter (pi-filter) to
the output terminals of the bridge rectifier. This type of low-pass filter consists of two
smoothing capacitors, usually of the same value and a choke or inductance across
them to introduce a high impedance path to the alternating ripple component.

Another more practical and cheaper alternative is to use an off the shelf 3-terminal
voltage regulator IC, such as a LM78xx (where "xx" stands for the output voltage
rating) for a positive output voltage or its inverse equivalent the LM79xx for a
negative output voltage which can reduce the ripple by more than 70dB (Datasheet)
while delivering a constant output current of over 1 amp.

Page 45
The capacitor-input filter, also called pi filter due to its shape that looks like the
Greek letterpi, is a type of electronic filter. Filter circuits are used to remove
unwanted or undesired frequencies from a signal.

A typical capacitor input filter consists of a filter or reservoir capacitor C1, connected
across the rectifier output, an inductor L, in series and another filter or smoothing
capacitor, C2, connected across the load, RL. A filter of this sort is designed for use at
a particular frequency, generally fixed by the AC line frequency and rectifier
configuration. When used in this service, filter performance is often characterized by
its regulation and ripple.

Page 46
 1. The capacitor C1 offers low reactance to the AC component of the rectifier
output while it offers infinite resistance to the DC component. As a result the
capacitor shunts an appreciable amount of the AC component while the DC
component continues its journey to the inductor L
2. The inductor L offers high reactance to the AC component but it offers almost
zero resistance to the DC component. As a result the DC component flows
through the inductor while the AC component is blocked.
3. The capacitor C2 bypasses the AC component which the inductor had failed to
block. As a result only the DC component appears across the load RL.

The component value for the inductor can be estimated as an inductance that
resonates the smoothing capacitor(s) at or below one tenth of the minimum ac
frequency in the power supplied to the filter (100 Hz from a full-wave rectifier in a
region where the power supply is 50Hz). Thus if reservoir and smoothing capacitors
of 2200 microfarads are used, a suitable minimum value for the inductor would be
that which resonates 2200 microfarads (μF) to 10 Hz, i.e. 1 mH. A larger value is
preferable provided the inductor can carry the required supply current.

Capacitor input filters can provide extremely pure dc supplies, but have fallen out of
favour because inductors tend to be unavoidably heavy, which has led to the often-
preferred choice of voltage regulators instead.

Advantages: More output voltage & Ripple less output

Disadvantages: Large in size and weight & High cost

Page 47
 THE ZENER DIODE

In the Signal Diode tutorial, we saw that a "reverse biased" diode blocks current in the
reverse direction, but will suffer from premature breakdown or damage if the reverse
voltage applied across it is too high. However, the Zener Diode or "Breakdown
Diode" as they are sometimes called, are basically the same as the standard PN
junction diode but are specially designed to have a low pre-determined Reverse
Breakdown Voltage that takes advantage of this high reverse voltage. The zener
diode is the simplest types of voltage regulator and the point at which a zener diode
breaks down or conducts is called the "Zener Voltage" ( Vz ).

The Zener diode is like a general-purpose signal diode consisting of a silicon PN

junction. When biased in the forward direction it behaves just like a normal signal
diode passing the rated current, but as soon as a reverse voltage applied across the
zener diode exceeds the rated voltage of the device, the diodes breakdown voltage VB
is reached at which point a process called Avalanche Breakdown occurs in the
semiconductor depletion layer and a current starts to flow through the diode to limit
this increase in voltage.

The current now flowing through the zener diode increases dramatically to the
maximum circuit value (which is usually limited by a series resistor) and once
achived this reverse saturation current remains fairly constant over a wide range of
applied voltages. This breakdown voltage point, VB is called the "zener voltage" for
zener diodes and can range from less than one volt to hundreds of volts.

The point at which the zener voltage triggers the current to flow through the diode can
be very accurately controlled (to less than 1% tolerance) in the doping stage of the
diodes semiconductor construction giving the diode a specific zener breakdown
voltage, ( Vz ) for example, 4.3V or 7.5V. This zener breakdown voltage on the I-V
curve is almost a vertical straight line.

Page 48
Zener Diode I-V Characteristics

The Zener Diode is used in its "reverse bias" or reverse breakdown mode, i.e. the
diodes anode connects to the negative supply. From the I-V characteristics curve
above, we can see that the zener diode has a region in its reverse bias characteristics
of almost a constant negative voltage regardless of the value of the current flowing
through the diode and remains nearly constant even with large changes in current as
long as the zener diodes current remains between the breakdown current IZ(min) and the
maximum current rating IZ(max).

This ability to control itself can be used to great effect to regulate or stabilise a
voltage source against supply or load variations. The fact that the voltage across the
diode in the breakdown region is almost constant turns out to be an important
application of the zener diode as a voltage regulator. The function of a regulator is to
provide a constant output voltage to a load connected in parallel with it in spite of the
ripples in the supply voltage or the variation in the load current and the zener diode
will continue to regulate the voltage until the diodes current falls below the minimum
IZ(min) value in the reverse breakdown region.

Page 49
The Zener Diode Regulator

Zener Diodes can be used to produce a stabilised voltage output with low ripple
under varying load current conditions. By passing a small current through the diode
from a voltage source, via a suitable current limiting resistor (RS), the zener diode will
conduct sufficient current to maintain a voltage drop of Vout. We remember from the
previous tutorials that the DC output voltage from the half or full-wave rectifiers
contains ripple superimposed onto the DC voltage and that as the load value changes
so to does the average output voltage. By connecting a simple zenerstabiliser circuit
as shown below across the output of the rectifier, a more stable output voltage can be
produced.

Zener Diode Regulator

The resistor, RS is connected in series with the zener diode to limit the current flow
through the diode with the voltage source, VS being connected across the
combination. The stabilised output voltage Vout is taken from across the zener diode.
The zener diode is connected with its cathode terminal connected to the positive rail
of the DC supply so it is reverse biased and will be operating in its breakdown
condition. Resistor RS is selected so to limit the maximum current flowing in the
circuit.

Page 50
With no load connected to the circuit, the load current will be zero, ( IL = 0 ), and all
the circuit current passes through the zener diode which inturn dissipates its maximum
power. Also a small value of the series resistor RS will result in a greater diode current
when the load resistance RL is connected and large as this will increase the power
dissipation requirement of the diode so care must be taken when selecting the
appropriate value of series resistance so that the zeners maximum power rating is not
exceeded under this no-load or high-impedance condition.

The load is connected in parallel with the zener diode, so the voltage across RL is
always the same as the zener voltage, ( VR = VZ ). There is a minimum zener current
for which the stabilization of the voltage is effective and the zener current must stay
above this value operating under load within its breakdown region at all times. The
upper limit of current is of course dependant upon the power rating of the device. The
supply voltage VS must be greater than VZ.

One small problem with zener diode stabiliser circuits is that the diode can sometimes
generate electrical noise on top of the DC supply as it tries to stabilise the voltage.
Normally this is not a problem for most applications but the addition of a large value
decoupling capacitor across the zeners output may be required to give additional
smoothing.

Then to summarise a little. A zener diode is always operated in its reverse biased
condition. A voltage regulator circuit can be designed using a zener diode to maintain
a constant DC output voltage across the load in spite of variations in the input voltage
or changes in the load current. The zener voltage regulator consists of a current
limiting resistor RS connected in series with the input voltage VS with the zener diode
connected in parallel with the load RL in this reverse biased condition. The stabilized
output voltage is always selected to be the same as the breakdown voltage VZ of the
diode.

Example

A 5.0Vstabilised power supply is required to be produced from a 12V DC power

supply input source. The maximum power rating PZ of the zener diode is 2W. Using
the zener regulator circuit above calculate:

Page 51
a) The maximum current flowing through the zener diode.

b) The minimum value of the series resistor, RS

c) The load current IL if a load resistor of 1kΩ is connected across the Zener diode.

d) The zener current IZ at full load.

Page 52
Page 53
Page 54
Zener Diode Clipping Circuits

Thus far we have looked at how a zener diode can be used to regulate a constant DC
source but what if the input signal was not steady state DC but an alternating AC
waveform how would the zener diode react to a constantly changing signal.

Diode clipping and clamping circuits are circuits that are used to shape or modify an
input AC waveform (or any sinusoid) producing a differently shape output waveform
depending on the circuit arrangement. Diode clipper circuits are also called limiters
because they limit or clip-off the positive (or negative) part of an input AC signal. As
zener clipper circuits limit or cut-off part of the waveform across them, they are
mainly used for circuit protection or in waveform shaping circuits.

For example, if we wanted to clip an output waveform at +7.5V, we would use a 7.5V
zener diode. If the output waveform tries to exceed the 7.5V limit, the zener diode
will "clip-off" the excess voltage from the input producing a waveform with a flat top
still keeping the output constant at +7.5V. Note that in the forward bias condition a
zener diode is still a diode and when the AC waveform output goes negative below -
0.7V, the zener diode turns "ON" like any normal silicon diode would and clips the
output at -0.7V as shown below.

Square Wave Signal

Page 55
The back to back connected zener diodes can be used as an AC regulator producing
what is jokingly called a "poor man's square wave generator". Using this arrangement
we can clip the waveform between a positive value of +8.2V and a negative value of -
8.2V for a 7.5V zener diode. If we wanted to clip an output waveform between
different minimum and maximum values for example, +8V and -6V, use would
simply use two differently rated zener diodes.

Note that the output will actually clip the AC waveform between +8.7V and -6.7V
due to the addition of the forward biasing diode voltage, which adds another 0.7V
voltage drop to it. This type of clipper configuration is fairly common for protecting
an electronic circuit from over voltage. The two zeners are generally placed across the
power supply input terminals and during normal operation, one of the zener diodes is
"OFF" and the diodes have little or no affect. However, if the input voltage waveform
exceeds its limit, then the zeners turn "ON" and clip the input to protect the circuit.

In the next tutorial about diodes, we will look at using the forward biased PN junction
of a diode to produce light. We know from the previous tutorials that when charge
carriers move across the junction, electrons combine with holes and energy is lost in
the form of heat, but also some of this energy is dissipated as photons but we can not
see them.

If we place a translucent lens around the junction, visible light will be produced and
the diode becomes a light source. This effect produces another type of diode known
commonly as the Light Emitting Diode which takes advantage of this light producing
characteristic to emit light (photons) in a variety of colours and wavelengths. Light
Emitting Diodes

Page 56
REFERENCES:

 [Link]
 [Link]-free [Link]
 Electrical Technology Multicolouredn. byB.L Theraja and A.K Theraja,
Publishers [Link].
 Principles of Electronics Multicolouredn by V.K Mehta and Rohit Mehta,
Publishers S. Chand.
 Electronic circuits and devices by boylestad
 Electronic amplifiers by cooper

Page 57
References:

[Link]

[Link]-free [Link]

Electrical Technology Multicolouredn. byB.L Theraja and A.K Theraja, Publishers

[Link].

Principles of Electronics Multicolouredn by V.K Mehta and Rohit Mehta, Publishers

S. Chand.

Page 58