Wilk: Sorrentino's Canadian Textbook for the Support Worker, 5th Edition
Chapter 32: Body Structure and Function
Chapter 32
Body Structure and
Function
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Body Structure (1 of 2)
Anatomy is the study of body structures.
Physiology is the study of how the body
structures work.
Understanding normal function will help you
understand and identify changes in the body.
Anatomical position: body standing erect, with
face forward
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Slide 2
Body Structure (2 of 2)
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Slide 3
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Cells, Tissues, and Organs
(1 of 3)
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Cells, Tissues, and Organs
(2 of 3)
Cells
The basic unit of body structure is the cell.
Groups of cells with similar functions combine to
form tissues.
• The body has four basic types of tissue:
Epithelial tissue covers internal and external body surfaces.
Connective tissue anchors, connects, and supports other
tissues.
Muscle tissue stretches and contracts to let the body move.
Nerve tissue receives and carries impulses to the brain and
back to body parts.
Groups of tissue with the same function form
organs.
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Cells, Tissues, and Organs
(3 of 3)
Organ Systems
Systems are formed by organs that work together
to perform special functions.
Homeostasis is a steady state or stable internal
environment maintained when all the organ
systems work together.
For example, as external temperature drops, our bodies
start to shiver. This action creates warmth and helps
keep our internal temperature at a normal level.
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Slide 6
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The Integumentary System
(1 of 3)
The integumentary system is the largest body
system.
There are two skin layers:
• Epidermis is the outer layer.
• Dermis is the inner layer.
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The Integumentary System
(2 of 3)
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The Integumentary System
(3 of 3)
The skin has many functions:
It is the body’s protective covering and prevents
microorganisms and other substances from
entering the body.
Nerve endings in the skin sense both pleasant and
unpleasant stimulation.
It helps regulate body temperature.
It is an organ of elimination through perspiration.
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The Musculoskeletal System
(1 of 11)
The musculoskeletal system provides the
framework for the body.
It lets the body move.
It protects and gives the body shape.
It consists of bones (206 bones), muscles,
ligaments, tendons, and cartilage.
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The Musculoskeletal System
(2 of 11)
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The Musculoskeletal System
(3 of 11)
Bones
There are five types of bones:
• Long bones bear the body’s weight.
• Short bones allow skill and ease in movement.
• Flat bones protect the organs.
• Irregular bones allow various degrees of movement and
flexibility.
• Sesamoid bones are short and irregular and protect
tendons.
Bone marrow inside bones forms blood cells.
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The Musculoskeletal System
(4 of 11)
Joints
A joint is the point at which two or more bones
meet.
Joints allow movement.
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The Musculoskeletal System
(5 of 11)
Joints
There are six types of joints:
• Ball-and-socket joints allow movement in all directions.
• Hinge joints allow movement in one direction.
• Pivot joints allow turning from side to side.
• Saddle joints allow for a wide range of motion.
• Gliding joints allow for limited but complex gliding
movements.
• Condyloid joints: oval articular surface of one bone fits
into the oval depression of the second articulating
bone (e.g., wrist, knuckles)
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The Musculoskeletal System
(6 of 11)
Muscles
More than 600 muscles in the human body
Three types of muscles are:
• Skeletal (striated) muscles
• Smooth muscles
• Cardiac muscles
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The Musculoskeletal System
(7 of 11)
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Slide 16
The Musculoskeletal System
(8 of 11)
Muscles
Voluntary muscles can be consciously controlled.
Involuntary muscles work automatically
• You cannot control them.
Cardiac muscle is in the heart
• It is an involuntary muscle
Muscles have three functions:
• Movement of body parts
• Maintenance of posture
• Production of body heat
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The Musculoskeletal System
(9 of 11)
Muscles
Involuntary muscles work automatically
• You cannot control them.
Cardiac muscle is in the heart
• It is an involuntary muscle
Muscles have three functions:
• Movement of body parts
• Maintenance of posture
• Production of body heat
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The Musculoskeletal System
(10 of 11)
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The Musculoskeletal System
(11 of 11)
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The Nervous System (1 of 7)
The nervous system controls, directs, and
coordinates body functions.
It has two main divisions:
The central nervous system (CNS) consists of the
brain and spinal cord.
The peripheral nervous system (PNS) involves the
nerves throughout the body.
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The Nervous System (2 of 7)
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The Nervous System (3 of 7)
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The Nervous System (4 of 7)
The brain and spinal cord
The brain is covered by the skull.
Three main parts of the brain are:
• Cerebrum
• Cerebellum
• Brainstem
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The Nervous System (5 of 7)
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The Nervous System (6 of 7)
The spinal cord lies within the spinal column.
The spinal cord contains pathways that
conduct messages to and from the brain and
spinal nerves.
The brain and spinal cord are covered and
protected by three layers of connective tissue
called meninges:
The outer layer (dura mater) lies next to the skull.
The middle layer is the arachnoid.
The inner layer is the pia mater.
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The Nervous System (7 of 7)
The peripheral nervous system involves the
nerves throughout the body.
Has 12 pairs of cranial nerves
• Cranial nerves conduct impulses between the brain and
the head, neck, chest, and abdomen
Has 31 pairs of spinal nerves.
• Spinal nerves carry impulses to and from the skin,
extremities, and the internal structures not supplied by
cranial nerves.
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The Sense Organs (1 of 7)
The five senses are sight, hearing, taste,
smell, and touch.
• Receptors for taste are in the tongue (taste buds).
• Receptors for smell are in the nose.
• Touch receptors are in the dermis, especially in the
lips, toes and fingertips.
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The Sense Organs (2 of 7)
The eye
Receptors for vision are in the eyes.
The eye has three layers:
• Sclera (the outer layer)
• Choroid (the second layer)
• Retina (the inner layer)
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The Sense Organs (3 of 7)
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The Sense Organs (4 of 7)
The ear:
Functions in hearing and balance
It has three parts:
• External ear
• Middle ear
• Inner ear
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The Sense Organs (5 of 7)
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The Sense Organs (6 of 7)
The external ear is called the pinna or auricle.
The eardrum (tympanic membrane) separates the
external and middle ear.
The middle ear contains the Eustachian tube and
three small bones called ossicles.
• The ossicles are the malleus, the incus, and the stapes.
The inner ear consists of the semicircular canals
and the cochlea.
• The cochlea contains fluid that carries sound waves to the
auditory nerve.
• The three semicircular canals are involved with balance.
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The Sense Organs (7 of 7)
Sense of Taste and Smell
Four basic taste sensations are salty, sweet, sour,
and bitter.
Taste buds contain receptors for taste.
Smell and taste are very connected.
Olfactory receptors are located in the roof of the
nasal cavity.
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The Endocrine System (1 of )
The endocrine system is made up of glands
called the endocrine glands.
The endocrine glands secrete chemical
substances called hormones into the
bloodstream.
Hormones regulate the activities of other
organs and glands in the body.
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The Endocrine System (2 of 5)
The pituitary gland is called the master gland
Located at the base of the brain, behind the eyes
The anterior pituitary lobe secretes:
• Growth hormone (GH)
• Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)
• Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
• Hormones that regulate growth, development, and function of
the male and female reproductive systems
The posterior pituitary lobe secretes:
• Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
• Oxytocin
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The Endocrine System (3 of 5)
The thyroid gland is in the neck, in front of the
larynx.
Secretes thyroid hormone (T3-thyroxine, T4- tri-
iodothyronine) and calcitonin
There are four parathyroid glands:
Two lie on each side of the thyroid gland.
The parathyroid glands secrete parathormone.
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The Endocrine System (4 of 5)
There are two adrenal glands:
One adrenal gland is on the top of each kidney.
The adrenal medulla secretes epinephrine and
norepinephrine.
The adrenal cortex secretes three groups of
hormones needed for life:
• Glucocorticoids
• Mineralocorticoids
• Small amounts of male and female sex hormones
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The Endocrine System (5 of 5)
The pancreas secretes insulin.
The gonads are the glands of human
reproduction.
Male sex glands (testes) secrete testosterone.
Female sex glands (ovaries) secrete estrogen and
progesterone.
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The Circulatory System (1 of 11)
Cardiovascular and lymphatic systems make up
the circulatory system.
The circulatory system is made up of the blood,
heart, and blood vessels.
The circulatory system has many functions:
• Blood carries nutrients, oxygen, and other substances to
the cells
• Help stop bleeding and promote healing
• During exercise, increased demands are met through
increased blood flow
• Blood removes waste products from cells
• Blood and blood vessels help regulate body temperature
• The system produces and carries cells that defend the body
from microbes that cause disease
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The Circulatory System (2 of 11)
Cardiovascular System
The blood:
• Consists of blood cells and plasma
Plasma is mostly (90%) water
• Red blood cells (RBCs) are called erythrocytes.
They give blood its red colour because of a
substance in the cell called hemoglobin.
• White blood cells (WBCs) are called leukocytes.
They protect the body against infection.
• Platelets (thrombocytes) are needed for blood clotting.
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The Circulatory System (3 of 11)
The Heart
The heart is a muscle.
• It pumps blood through the blood vessels to the tissues
and cells.
• It lies in the middle to lower part of the chest cavity,
toward the left side.
The heart is hollow and has three layers:
• Pericardium (outer layer)
• Myocardium (the thick, muscular part of the heart)
• Endocardium (lines the inner surface of the heart)
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The Circulatory System (4 of 11)
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The Circulatory System (5 of 11)
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The Circulatory System (6 of 11)
The heart
The heart has four chambers
• Upper chambers receive blood and are called atria
The right atrium receives blood from body tissues
The left atrium receives blood from the lungs
• Lower chambers pump blood and are called ventricles
The right ventricle pumps blood to the lungs for
oxygen
The left ventricle pumps blood to all parts of the body
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The Circulatory System (7 of 11)
The heart:
Has four valves:
• (1) Tricuspid valve and (2) mitral valve are between the
atria and ventricles
• Pulmonary valve is between pulmonary artery and right
ventricle.
• Aortic valve is between aorta and left ventricle.
Heart action has two phases:
• Diastole is the resting phase.
• Systole is the working phase.
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The Circulatory System (8 of 11)
The blood vessels
Arteries carry blood away from the heart.
• The aorta is the largest artery.
• The smallest branch of an artery is an arteriole.
Capillaries are very tiny blood vessels.
• The capillaries pick up waste products from the cells.
Veins return blood to the heart.
• The two main veins are the inferior vena cava and the superior
vena cava.
Venules smallest form of veins.
• They draw blood from the capillaries.
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The Circulatory System (9 of 11)
Lymphatic System
Made up of lymphoid organs, lymph nodes, ducts,
tissue, capillaries, and lymph vessels
Lymphatic vessels are throughout the entire body
and run beside veins.
Lymphoid organs include lymph nodes, tonsils, the
thymus gland, and the spleen.
Lymph moves in response to contraction of
skeletal muscles.
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The Circulatory System
(10 of 11)
Lymphatic System
Three main functions:
It maintains the balance of fluid between blood
and tissues (called fluid homeostasis).
It forms part of the body’s immune system.
If facilitates absorption of fats.
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The Circulatory System
(11 of 11)
Effects of Aging on the Lymphatic System
Cells which destroy bacteria, cancer cell and other
antigens slow down.
Immune system is less able to distinguish self
from non-self (i.e., identify foreign antigens).
Fewer white blood cells are present—the body is
less able to defend against it.
Older people do not produce the type of proteins
needed to fight bacterial infections.
Antibodies become less able to attach to the
antigen.
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Slide 50
The Respiratory System (1 of 2)
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The Respiratory System (2 of 2)
The respiratory system brings oxygen into the lungs
and removes carbon dioxide.
Respiration involves inhalation (inspiration) and
exhalation (expiration).
The lungs are spongy tissues filled with alveoli, blood
vessels, and nerves.
Each lung is divided into lobes:
• The right lung has three lobes.
• The left lung has two lobes.
The lungs are separated from the abdominal cavity by a
muscle called the diaphragm.
Each lung is covered by a two-layered sac called the pleura.
A bony framework made up of the ribs, sternum, and
vertebrae protects the lungs.
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The Immune System (1 of 2)
Protects the body from disease and infection.
Defends against threats inside and outside the body.
Nonspecific immunity is the body’s reaction to
anything it does not recognize as a normal body
substance.
First line of defence includes:
Mechanical barriers
Chemical barriers
Reflexes
Phagocytes
Inflammation
Fever
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The Immune System (2 of 2)
Produces special cells and substances that function
to produce immunity:
Antibodies
Antigens
Lymphocytes
B lymphocytes (B cells)
T lymphocytes (T cells)
When the body senses an antigen (an unwanted
substance), the immune system reacts.
Natural immunity can be acquired in two ways:
• Active immunity (from naturally developing antibodies after an illness)
• Passive immunity (short-lived; passed from mother to fetus, and lasts
about 6 months)
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Slide 54
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The Digestive System (1 of 2)
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The Digestive System (2 of 2)
Breaks down food physically and chemically
so it can be absorbed for use by the cells
(called digestion).
Removes solid wastes from the body.
The digestive system involves the alimentary
canal (GI tract) and the accessory organs of
digestion:
• Its major parts are the mouth, pharynx, esophagus,
stomach, small intestine, and large intestine.
• Accessory organs are the teeth, tongue, salivary glands,
liver, gallbladder, and pancreas.
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The Urinary System (1 of 3)
The urinary system
Removes waste products from the blood
Maintains water balance within the body
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The Urinary System (2 of 3)
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The Urinary System (3 of 3)
The kidneys
The kidneys are two bean-shaped organs in the
upper abdomen that remove waste products from
the blood.
Each kidney has a million tiny nephrons.
• Each nephron is the basic working unit of the kidney.
The ureters carry urine from the kidneys to the
bladder.
Urine:
• Is stored in the bladder until the need to urinate is felt
• Passes from the bladder through the urethra
• Then passes from the body through the meatus
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The Reproductive System
(1 of 7)
Human reproduction results from the union of
a male sex cell and a female sex cell.
The differences in the male and female
reproductive systems allow for the process of
reproduction.
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The Reproductive System
(2 of 7)
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The Reproductive System
(3 of 7)
Male Reproductive System
Male sex glands are called testicles or gonads.
Testosterone is a male hormone is produced in
the testes.
Sperm travel from each testis to the epididymis.
The prostate gland lies below bladder and secrete
fluid into the semen- increases the mobility of
sperm.
The penis contains erectile tissue.
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Slide 62
The Reproductive System
(4 of 7)
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The Reproductive System
(5 of 7)
Female Reproductive System
The external female genitalia are called the vulva.
• The mons pubis is a rounded, fatty pad over a bone
called the symphysis pubis.
• The labia majora and labia minora are two folds of tissue
on each side of the vaginal opening.
• The clitoris is a small organ composed of erectile tissue.
It becomes hard when sexually stimulated.
The mammary glands (breasts) secrete milk after
childbirth.
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The Reproductive System
(6 of 7)
Menstruation
If pregnancy does not occur, the endometrium
(blood-rich lining of the uterus) breaks up and is
discharged from the body through the vagina.
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The Reproductive System
(7 of 7)
Fertilization
The uniting of the sperm and ovum into one cell
• During intercourse, millions of sperm are deposited into
the vagina.
• If a sperm and an ovum unite in a fallopian tube,
fertilization results.
• The fertilized cell travels down the fallopian tube to the
uterus.
• The fertilized cell implants in the thick endometrium and
grows during pregnancy.
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