Unit 2: Solution

Introduction:
 Matter –is anything that has mass and occupies
space.
 It is classified in to two.
i. Pure substance
 Is a single kind of matter that has definite and
constant composition with definite physical and
chemical properties regardless of its source or the
way it is made.
 It cannot be separated into other kinds of matter by
any physical process.
 It can be inter-converted through chemical process
only.
Ex. Elements like O2, Cl2, Cu, Zn and compounds. 1
ii. Mixture
 Is a matter composed of two or more
substances in which the individual
substances keep their own properties.
 Components of mixtures (unlike those of
compounds) can have variable proportions,
can be separated physically, and retain their
properties.
Ex: air, food, medications, the skin, hair
products such as body lotion and shampoo are
all mixtures. 2
Mixtures have the following general
properties:
 Each component keeps its original properties.
 The separation of components can be easily
done.
 The proportion of the components is variable.
 Mixtures can be converted into its component
by physical process and vice versa.
 There are two types of mixtures:
homogeneous and heterogeneous mixtures.
3
2.1. Heterogeneous and Homogeneous Mixtures
 Homogeneous mixture
 is a mixture in which the composition is uniform
throughout the mixture.
 i.e., it has no visible boundaries.
 The components are evenly distributed throughout the
entire mixture.
 It can be formed by combining the components in various
proportions(ratio)
Examples.
 5g NaCl in 100g of water
 10g NaCl in 100g of water
 a spoonful of sugar dissolved in water 4
 The difference between Pure substance and
homogeneous mixture:
 The composition(ratio) of components in Pure
substance is always the same/constant regardless
of the source or the way it is made.
 But a homogeneous mixtures may be formed by
combining them in various proportions.
 Pure substance inter-converted through chemical
process only.
 But a homogeneous mixtures can be inter-
converted through physical process.
5
Heterogeneous mixture:
 is a mixture that consists of physically
distinct parts, each with different
properties.
 This type of mixtures has at least two
visible phases.
Examples.
 Mixture of oil and water
 wood ash and water
 sand and water 6
2.1.1 Suspensions, Solutions, Colloids
A. Suspensions
 Suspension is a heterogeneous mixture in which
the solid particles are spread throughout the liquid
without dissolving in it.
Examples
 A mixture of chalk and water
 sand and water,
 mixture of slaked lime (calcium hydroxide)
and water
 muddy water.
7
B. Solutions
 Solution is a homogeneous mixture of a
solute dissolved in a solvent.
 Ex: Air, drinks like soda, coffee, and tea
and the fluids in our body.
 The particles in solution are of the size
of individual atoms, molecules or ions.
 The solvent part of the solution is
usually a liquid but can be a gas or a
solid. 8
 The major component of the solution is called
solvent, and the minor component is called
solute.
 If both components in a solution are 50%, the
term solute can be assigned to either
component.
 When a gaseous or solid material dissolves in a
liquid, the dissolved gas or solid material is
called solute
 All solutions are homogeneous mixtures but
not all homogeneous mixtures are solutions.
9
Properties of Solutions
 has a single uniform phase and has no visible boundaries.
 The components do not settle upon standing
 The particles of a solution are very small that they can
pass through the pores of even fine filter paper.
 So, solute cannot be separated from the solvent by
filtration.
 Solutions are very stable; neither coagulate upon
standing.
 NB: Although the components of a solution may not be
separated by settling (sedimentation) or filtration, the
solute can be separated from the solvent by other
processes.
Ex: solution of sodium chloride and water can be
separated by distillation or evaporation. 10
Types of Solutions
Solutions can exist in all three physical states
1. Gaseous solutions
 Both solute and solvent are gases
Ex: Atmosphere is a gaseous solution.
 It consists N2, O2, Ar, CO2, water vapor and
methane.
 The major component (Nitrogen) is regarded
as a solvent and the other components are
regarded as solute.
 Other example is natural gas
11
2. Liquid solutions
 In liquid solutions, solute can be solid,
liquid, or gas but the solvent is always a
liquid.
Examples:
 carbonated beverage (gas and liquid),
 alcoholic beverage (liquid in liquid), and
 sea water (solid in liquid).

12
3. Solid solutions
 Solid solutions have no restriction on the
state of the solute but the solvent has to be
solid.
Examples:
 Alloys, ceramics, and polymer blends
 Dental filling solution [mercury(liquid)-
silver(solid)] solution.
 wax, and H2 in Pd (gas in solid; used for
hydrogen storage).
13
C. Colloids
A colloid is a heterogeneous mixture in which insoluble
particles of one or more substances are suspended
uniformly throughout another substance.
Properties of Colloids
 A colloid (colloidal solution) appears to be
homogeneous but actually, it is heterogeneous upon
closer inspection.
 The size of particles in a colloid is bigger than those
in a true solution but smaller than those in a
suspension.
 It is between 1nm and 100nm in diameter.
 The particles of a colloid can pass through a filter
paper.
 So, a colloid cannot be separated by filtration.
14
There are two phases in colloidal solution:
 Dispersed phase -is component that present in
smaller proportions.
 Dispersion medium -is component that present in
greater proportion
 Colloids are quite stable.
 The particles do not separate on keeping.
 A colloid (colloidal solution) scatters a beam of light
passing through it (b/c its particles are fairly large).
 As a result, beam of light as well as colloidal particles
become visible.
 But, the beam of light is not visible as it passes
through true solution. 15
 The phenomenon in which the particle
in a colloid scatter the beams of light
that are directed at them and make the
path of the light beam visible is called
Tyndall effect.
 This effect is not observed in true
solutions.
 Suspension does not display Tyndall
effect, b/c its particles settle down.
16
Figure2.1: The light beam is not visible as it
passes through true solution (left) but it is clearly
visible when it passes through a colloid (right). 17
Types of Colloids
There are 8 different types of colloidal solutions
Dispersed Dispersion Types of colloids Example
Phase Medium

Liquid Gas Aerosol Fog, clouds, mist

Solid Gas Aerosol Smoke, automobile exhaust

Gas Liquid Foam Shaving cream

Liquid Liquid Emulsion Milk, face cream

Solid Liquid Sol Milk of magnesia (magnesium

hydroxide in water), mud

Gas Solid Foam Foam, rubber, sponge, pumice

Liquid Solid Gel Jelly, cheese, butter

Solid Solid Solid sol Colored Gemstone, milky glass

18
Coagulation
 It is the process by which the
dispersed phase of a colloid is made
to aggregate and thereby separate
from the continuous phase
(dispersion phase).
Ex: curdling of milk when it sours

19
Association of colloids
 When molecules or ions that have both a
hydrophobic (nonpolar, water hating) and
a hydrophilic (polar, water loving) end are
dispersed in water, they associate, or
aggregate, to form colloidal-sized particles
called micelles.
 The hydrophobic end point inward.
 The hydrophilic ends are on the outside of
the micelle facing the water molecules.
20
 A colloid in which the dispersed phase consists of
micelles is called an association colloid.
Ex: Ordinary soap in water
 Soap consists of compounds such as sodium
stearate, C17H35COONa.
 The stearate ion (C17H35COO-) has a long
hydrocarbon at one end which is hydrophobic and
a carboxyl group (COO-) at the other end which is
hydrophilic.

21
 The cleansing action of soap occurs because
oil and grease(dirty) can be absorbed
(soluble) into the hydrophobic center of the
soap micelles and washed away.
 The soap molecule is represented by a polar
head and zigzag hydrocarbon nonpolar tail.
 An oily spot can be removed by soap
because the nonpolar tail dissolves in the oil,
and the entire system becomes soluble in
water because the exterior portion is now
ionic..
22
Figure2.2: The cleansing action of soap
23
2.2 The Solution Process
 The extent of dissolution of a solute in a solvent is
governed by intermolecular forces.
 The energy change and entropy resulted when
solute and solvent mix to form a solution are the
forces driving the solution process.
 Formation of a solution physical process.
Solution process involves three basic steps;
1. breaking up the solute-solute inter-particle forces
2. breaking up the solvent-solvent inter-particles
forces
3. formation of solute-solvent interaction. 24
2.2.1 Liquid Solutions and Inter-particle
Forces of Attractions
There three inter-particles forces of
interaction
I. solute-solute interaction
II. solvent-solvent interaction
[Link]- solvent interaction
Solutes dissolve in a solvent when solute-
solvent interaction is greater than solute-
solute and solvent-solvent interaction 25
Solution Process

26
Rule-of-thumb “like dissolves like”
States that substances with similar types of
intermolecular forces dissolve in each other.
Examples:
Ionic compounds like NaCl (that are
extremely polar) and polar compounds like
ethanol (C2H5OH) dissolve in polar solvents
like H2O).
Nonpolar compounds and elements like
CCl4, oil, hexane and I2 dissolve in nonpolar
solvents like hexane(C6H14), carbon
tetrachloride(CCl4), and benzene. 27
How can we Predict the Likeness of a
Substance?
Ionic compounds have the highest polarity as
electrons are transferred from one atom to
another forming ions.
Covalent bond is polar when electrons shared
unequally.
Polarity depends on electronegativity
difference of bonding atoms.
In larger molecules, molecular polarity is
determined by the net dipole moment. 28
Dipole moment(µ)
It is the imbalance of charge over the
molecule.
Depends on both shape and bond polarity.
It is given in the unit debye (D).
1 D = 3.34 x 10-30 C.m.
Substances with zero or low electronegativity
difference in between the bonding atoms and
having zero net dipole moment are nonpolar
Ex: H2, O2, N2, CH4, CCl4.
29
Those having high electronegativity
difference in between the bonding atoms
and having net dipole moment are polar
compounds.
Ex: H2O, NH3, CH3OH, NO, CO, HCl,
H2S, PH3
The presence of polar bonds does not
always result in a polar molecule b/c
dipole moments may cancels out.
30
Examples:

The dipole moments cancels out, therefore CO2

is non-polar

b)

The horizontal components of the two dipoles cancels

out each other. But the vertical components add-up to
give a net dipole moment in H2O.
31
Inter-particle/Intermolecular Forces
Intramolecular force is a force within a
molecule, which hold a molecule together.
Ex: covalent bond
Inter-particle/Intermolecular Forces –is the
force of interaction b/n molecules (between
neighboring molecules), which includes
attraction and repulsion.
They are weaker relative to intramolecular
forces.
The are non covalent interactions. 32
The gaseous state is characterized by
absence of inter-particle forces and
hence the molecules of a gas are free
to move independent of the other
molecules.

33
Types of Intermolecular Forces
dipole-dipole interaction
dipole-induced dipole interaction
dispersion forces or London forces
ion-dipole interaction
ion-induced dipole
hydrogen bonding
Dipole-dipole, dipole-induced dipole, and
dispersion forces are commonly refer to as van
der Waals forces.
Their relative strength is as follow:
Dispersion forces < dipole-induced dipole < dipole-
dipole < H - bonding < ion dipole bond
34
Dipole-Dipole Forces
occur between polar molecules as a result of
electrostatic interactions among dipoles
Ex: Solubility of HBr in H2O.

Figure2.4: Dipole–dipole attraction between polar molecules.

35
Dipole–induced Dipole Force
Arise when a polar molecule distorts the electron
cloud of a nonpolar molecule.
Ex: The solubility in water of atmospheric O2, N2,
and noble gases.

Figure2.4: dipole-induced dipole attraction between

polar and nonpolar 36
Dispersion Forces (London forces)
Arise because the electron distribution within
molecules is constantly changing.
i.e: Result from temporary redistribution of the
electrons.
their strength increases with the number of
electrons
It occur between all neighboring molecules.
This type of force is also called instantaneous
dipole-induced dipole force.
It is common to all types of molecules
But it is more account for nonpolar molecules. 37
Ion-Dipole Forces
It is the principal force involved when an ionic
compound dissolves in water
Ex: When NaCl dissolves in H2O it forms ion-dipole
interaction

38
Ion–induced dipole forces
This arise when an ion’s charge distorts the electron
cloud of a nearby nonpolar molecule
When the ion and the nonpolar molecule get closer-
the nonpolar molecule gets polarized.

This type of force initiates the binding of the

Fe2+ion in hemoglobin to an O2 molecule entering a
red blood cell 39
The Hydrogen Bond
The hydrogen bond is an interaction of H-bonded to
O, N, or F in one molecule with O, N, or F of
another molecule.
Ex: Hydrogen bonding in water

40
2.2.2 Solutions of Ionic Solids in Water
Many ionic compounds are soluble in
water (at least 1g dissolves in 100mL
water).
However, not all ionic compounds are
soluble.
Examples:
KCl is readily soluble in water
AgCl is insoluble.
Ca(OH)2 is slightly soluble. 41
When ionic solid solute dissolve in liquid solvent,
the solvent molecules penetrate between catios
and anions of ionic solute and surround them.
The process in which solute particles become
surrounded by solvent is called solvation.
It is process of attraction and association of
molecules of a solute and a solvent.
When the solvent is water the process is called
hydration.
Ionic compounds that are soluble in water exist in
their ionic state as hydrated cations and anions
within the solution. 42
Ex:

Figure2.8: Hydration of Na+ and Cl- ions as

NaCl dissolves in water. 43
2.2.3 The Solubility Rules for Ionic
Solids
Solubility is a measure of how much
solute dissolved in a solvent at a specific
temperature.
It is the maximum amount of a solute
that can be dissolved in a given volume
(usually 100mL) of solvent at a given
temperature.
44
The solubility rules for common ionic compounds
i. All common salts of the Group 1A elements (such
as Na+, K+, Li+) and ammonium, NH4+, are
soluble.
ii. All common salts containing acetate (CH3COO-),
or nitrate (NO3-), and most perchlorates (ClO4-)
are soluble.
iii. All common chlorides (Cl-), bromides (Br-), and
iodides (I-) are soluble, except those of Ag+, Pb2+,
Cu2+, and Hg2+.
iv. All common fluorides (F-) are soluble, except
those of Pb2+ and Group 2A.
45
v. Most hydroxide salts are only slightly soluble.
 Hydroxides of GI elements are soluble.
 Hydroxides of GII elements (Ca, Sr, and Ba) are
slightly soluble.
 Hydroxide salts of transition metals and Al3+are
insoluble.
Ex: Fe(OH)3, Al(OH)3, are not soluble.
vi. All compounds containing sulfate (SO42-) are soluble,
except those of barium (Ba), strontium (Sr), lead
(Pb), calcium (Ca), silver (Ag), and mercury (Hg)
vii. Except for those compounds following rule1,
compounds containing carbonate (CO32-), sulfides;S2-
oxides (O2-), and phosphates (PO43-) are insoluble.
46
There are also molecular solids (covalent
solids) that held together by dispersion forces,
dipole-dipole forces, or hydrogen bonds.
Ex: ice, glucose, sucrose, solid CO2, sulfur,
solid hydrocarbons (like octadecane, C18H38).
Polar molecular solids such as ice, glucose,
and sucrose dissolve in polar solvents like
water.
Nonpolar molecular solids such as solid CO2,
sulfur, solid hydrocarbons dissolve in
nonpolar solvents like benzene, hexane, etc. 47
2.2.4 Solution of Liquids in Liquids
Ex: Grain alcohol/ethanol (CH3CH2OH) in
water
When two similar liquids (in terms of
polarity) are able to mix into a solution, the
are termed miscible.
Liquids that do not mix together, are
termed immiscible.
Ex: Oil and water
48
2.2.5 The Rate of Dissolution
Dissolution is the process through which a
solute dissolves in a solvent.
The rate of dissolution is the speed with which a
solute dissolves in a solvent to form a solution.
This depends on:
largely depends on inter-particle forces
to a lesser extent it depends on:
surface area of the solid solute,
the temperature and
pressure (for gaseous solutes) 49
When the solvent-solute interactions are
stronger than solute-solute and solvent-
solvent interactions, the dissolution process
becomes faster.
Ex: Ethanol in water.
Increasing surface area of the solute will
increase the rate of dissolution b/c it increases
the number of solute particles in contact with
the solvent.
Stirring or agitation of the mixture can also
increase rate of dissolution. 50
2.2.6 Energy Changes in Solution Process
The energy released or absorbed during mixing
solute in solvent to produce solution is called
solvation energy.
If solvent is water it is called hydration energy
i.e: Hydration energy is the energy released when
solute solvated by water molecules.
NB: Solution process involves:
breaking solute-solute interaction,
breaking solvent-solvent interaction, and
forming solute-solvent interactions (mixing step).
51
 If the energy released during mixing step is larger than
the energy required to break the solute-solute and
solvent-solvent forces, energy is released & the
process is exothermic.
 The energy released heats up the surrounding.
 Ex: When NaOH is mixed in water in a flask, the flask
gets hot.
 If the energy released in the mixing step is less than the
energy required to break the solute-solute and solvent-
solvent forces, energy is absorbed from the
surrounding & the process is endothermic.
 The surrounding gets cold.
 Ex: When NH4Cl mixed in water in a flask, the flask
gets cold.
52
Heat of solution or Enthalpy of solution
is the amount of heat released or absorbed during the
dissolution process.
q = m x Cg x ∆T
q - the amount of energy released or absorbed in
Joules (J) or kJ,
m - mass of the solution,
∆T - temperature change (Ti-Tf),
Cg - the specific heat of solution (J/g.℃)
- it can be assumed to be the same as that of
water, 4.184 J/g. ℃ for dilute solutions).
Heat of solution can either be positive
(endothermic) or negative (exothermic)
depending on the observed temperature change. 53
Molar heat of solution (ΔHsoln)
is the heat absorbed or released when one
mole of the substance is dissolved in water at
constant pressure.
𝑞
ΔHsoln =
𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
The enthalpy changes are expressed in kJ/mol
for a reaction taking place at standard
conditions (a temperature of 298.15K and a
pressure 1atm).

54
Ex: When 5.19 g of NaCO3 was dissolved in 75.0 g of water,
the temperature of the water rose by 3.8 ℃.
Calculate the heat of solution and the molar heat of solution.
Take Cg of the solution as 3.820 J/g. ℃ and molar mass of
NaCO3 as 105.99 g/mol.
Soln
Mass of solution = mass of solute + mass of solvent
= 5.19 g + 75.0 g = 80.19 g
Temperature raised means Tf > Ti
⸫ ΔT = Ti – Tf = -3.80 ℃
moles of solute =5.19 g/105.99 g/mol
= 0.0489 mole
q = m x Cg x ∆T
= (80.19 g) (3.820 J/g. ℃ ) (-3.80 ℃ ) = -1164.0J
𝑞
ΔHsoln =
𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒

−1164.0J
= = -23,803.70 J/mole
0.0489 mole
The process is Exothermic
55
In solution process:
breaking solute-solute interaction, ΔHsolute > 0
breaking solvent-solvent interaction, ΔHsolvent > 0
forming solute-solvent interactions, ΔHmix< 0
The total enthalpy change (ΔHsoln):
ΔHsoln = ΔHsolute + ΔHsolven + ΔHmix
ΔHsoln can be zero (ideal solution),
negative (exothermic) or positive
(endothermic).
56
Ideal solution is a solution formed when the
strengths of the intermolecular forces of attraction in
solute-solute and solvent-solvent are similar to solute-
solvent.
Examples:
a. Mixture of ideal gases or mixture of gases, which
are closely approach to ideal behavior
helium and argon
b. Mixtures of structurally similar liquids.
 Mixtures of methanol (CH3OH) and ethanol (C2H5OH)
 Pentane (C5H12) and hexane (C6H14)
Ideal gas is a gas composed of many particles with the
absence of inter-particle interactions.
57
Enthalpy of Hydration (Ionic Solids in Water)
ΔHsoln = ΔHsolute + ΔHsolven + ΔHmix
=ΔHlat + ΔHhydr
Solvation energy is energy released or
absorbed when solute particles are
surrounded by solvent molecules.
If solvent is water it is called hydration
energy(ΔHhydr)
Hydration is usually exothermic
Lattice energy(ΔHlat), is the energy required
to break the ions apart from crystal
lattice(Ionic solids).
It is endothermic process. 58
Lattice energy works against the solution
process.
So, ionic solid with large lattice energy
is usually insoluble.
Lattice energies depend on:
the charge on the ions and
distance b/n the positive and
negative ions.

59
As the magnitude of the charge on the ions
increases the lattice energy also increases.
you can
i.e: substances with single charged ions is
more soluble, and those with multiple
charged ions are less soluble in water.
Lattice energy is inversely proportional to
the distance between the centers of the two
ions.
Thus, CsCl has less lattice energy than
NaCl. 60
Examples of Endothermic and
Exothermic Processes
If the energy released during mixing step is
larger than the energy required to break the
solute-solute and solvent-solvent forces,
energy is released & the process is
exothermic.
The energy released heats up the
surrounding.
Ex: When NaOH is mixed in water in a flask,
the solution and flask become hot.
61
If the energy released in the mixing step is
less than the energy required to break the
solute-solute and solvent-solvent forces,
energy is absorbed from the surrounding &
the process is endothermic.
The surrounding gets cold.
Examples:
a. When NH4Cl mixed in water in a flask, the
flask gets cold.
b. When ammonium nitrate is dissolved in
water, the solution becomes very cold 62
Enthalpy and entropy of solution are the
driving force in the formation of
solutions.
Enthalpy (heat) of solution can be
determined in the laboratory by
measuring the temperature change of the
solvent when solute is added.
Calorimeter is a device used to measure
the amount of heat involved in a
chemical or physical process. 63
2.3 Solubility as an Equilibrium Process
When an ionic solid dissolves, ions leave the
solid and become dispersed in the solvent.
Some dissolved ions collide back again with
the undissolved solute and recrystallize.
When rate of dissolution is greater than the
rate of crystallization, the concentration of
ions in the solution rises.
Solution equilibrium is the physical state at
which the rate of dissolution of ions from
the solid is equal to the rate of
recrystallization of dissolved solute. 64
Recrystallization -is the process of
dissolved solute returning to the solid state.
After equilibrium is established:
no more solid dissolves.
no further change in the concentration over
time
Such a solution is said to be saturated.
Dissolution
solid(solute) Dissolved ions
Crystallization
65
2.3.1 Unsaturated, Saturated, and
Supersaturated Solutions
Saturated solution
is a solution at equilibrium and contains the
maximum amount of dissolved solute.
The solvent reached its maximum ability to
dissolved more solute.
Unsaturated solution
is the solution in which solvent can dissolve
more solute.
It is before equilibrium
66
Supersaturated solutions
Is solution that has dissolved solute
beyond the normal saturation point,
in which solute dissolved forcefully.
This may be done by increasing
temperature or pressure.

67
2.3.2 Factors Affecting Solubility of Substances
Solubility of a solute in a given solvent depends on:
inter-particle forces,
temperature, and
pressure (for gases only).
A. Effect of Temperature on Solubility of Solids
Solubility of most of solid solutes increases with
temperature.
Ex: solubility of Na2SO4, rises more than tenfold
when the temperature rises from 0°C to 32.4°C,
where it reaches a maximum of 49.7g Na2SO4 per
100g water. 68
B. Effect of Temperature on Solubility of
Gases
The solubility of gases in liquids decreases
with increasing temperature.
When a gas dissolves in liquids solvent, heat
should be released and new attractive forces
form.
Thus, if external heat is added, it breaks the
attractive forces between the gas and the
solvent and decreases the solubility of the
gas. 69
C. Effect of Pressure on Solubility of
Gases: Henry‟s Law
Pressure has virtually no effect on the
solubility of solids & liquids in liquid
solvents because they are
incompressible.
Henry‟s Law: the solubility of gases
increases as the partial pressure of the gas
above a solution increases.
70
Figure 2.14: A model depicting why the solubility
of a gas increases as the partial pressure increases
at constant temperature. 71
Henry‟s law:
C α P or C = kP
C - the concentration of dissolved gas at
equilibrium(M=mol/L)
P - the partial pressure of the gas
k - the Henry’s law constant, which must be
determined experimentally for each
combination of gas, solvent, and temperature
(mol/([Link]) = M/atm).

72
If the partial pressure of a gas changes while
the temperature remains constant, the new
concentration of the gas within the liquid can
be calculated as follows:
𝑪𝟏 𝑪𝟐
=
𝑷𝟏 𝑷𝟐
C1 -initial concentration, P1 -initial partial pressure
C2 -final concentration, P2 -final partial pressure

73
NB: Gases that form strong intermolecular
forces such as H-bonding or react
chemically with water, such as hydrogen
halides, H2S, and NH3, do not obey
Henry’s law.
B/c all of these gases are much more
soluble than predicted by Henry’s law.

74
Example 2.2
The partial pressure of CO2 gas inside a bottle of cola
is 4atm at 25°C. What is the solubility of CO2?
The Henry’s law constant for CO2 in water is
3.3 x 10-2 mol/[Link] at 25°C.
Given:
PCO2 = 4atm
kCO2 = 3.3 x 10-2 mol/[Link]
Solubility(concentration) of CO2 =?
C = kP
=(3.3 x 10-2 mol/[Link] ) x (4atm)
= 0.1mol/L 75
Exercise 2.5
The concentration of CO2 in a solution is 0.032M at
3.0atm. What is the concentration of CO2 at 5.0atm
of pressure?
Given:
C1 =0.032M, P2= 5.0atm
P1 = 3.0atm C2 = ?
𝑪𝟏 𝑪𝟐
=
𝑷𝟏 𝑷𝟐
𝑪𝟏 𝒙 𝑷𝟐
⇒ 𝑪𝟐 =
𝑷𝟏
(0.032M)𝒙 (5.0atm)
= = 0.053M
(3.0atm)
76
2.4 Ways of Expressing Concentration of Solutions
 Concentration is relative quantity of a solute against a total
quantity of solution or solvent.
i.e: Concentration is the amount of solute present in a given
quantity of solvent or solution.
 The following are ways of expressing concentration of
solutions.
Percent by mass or volume,
Parts per million (ppm)
Parts per billion (ppb)
Mole fraction,
Molarity,
Molality, and
Normality 77
2.4.1 Percent by Mass/Volume
Percent by mass also called the percent by
weight.

Percent by mass of solute

𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆
[%(w/w)] =
𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆 + 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒗𝒆𝒏𝒕
x 100%

𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆
= x 100%
𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏

78
Example(Exercise 2.6: 1)
A sample of 0.892g of potassium KCl, is dissolved in
54.6g of water.
What is the percent, by mass, of KCl in the solution?
Given:
Mass of solute = 0.892g
Mass of solution = 0.892g + 54.6g = 55.492g
𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆
%by mass = x 100%
𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
𝒐.𝟖𝟗𝟐𝒈
= x 100%
𝟓𝟓.𝟒𝟖𝟐𝒈
= 1.6%
79
 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆
Volume percent [% (v/v)] = x 100%
𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏

Example 2.5
A rubbing alcohol usually contains 70mL of
isopropanol in 100 mL of solution.
What is the %(v/v) of this solution?

𝟕𝟎𝒎𝑳
%(v/v) isopropanol = x 100%
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝒍𝑴
= 70%

80
 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆
% (w/v) solute = x 100%
𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏

NB: Mass of 100mL of solution is equal to

100g if density of solution is assumed to be
equal to density of water (1g/mL); for dilute
solutions.
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
i.e: density =
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒

81
For more dilute solutions, parts per million
(ppm) and parts per billion (ppb) are used.
ppm and ppb are widely used to express the
amounts of trace pollutants/ contaminants in
the environment.
𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆
ppm = x 106
𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏

𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆
ppb = x 109
𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏

NB: 1ppm = 1g solute per 1,000,000g solution 82

Example 2.7
A 2.5g sample of ground water was found to
contain 5.4µg of Pb2+.
Express the concentration of Pb2+ ppm and ppb
Given
Mass of solute = 5.4µg = 5.4 x 10-6g
Mass of solution = 2.5g + 5.4 x 10-6g ≈ 2.5g
5.4 x 10−6g
ppm = x 106 = 2.16ppm
2.5g
5.4 x 10−6g
ppb = x 109 = 2160ppb
2.5g 83
When reporting contaminants like lead in
drinking water, ppm and ppb concentrations
are often reported in mass/volume.
Since it is easier to think about water in terms
of its volume, rather than by its mass.
In addition, the density of water is 1.0g/mL.
Therefore, for dilute solutions the conversion
between ppm mass/volume is :
1ppm = 1 mg/L

84
2.4.2 Mole Fraction (X)
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
Mole fraction of solute (X 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆) =
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡
Mole fraction of solvent (X 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒗𝒆𝒏𝒕) =
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
NB: Mole of solution = mole of solute + mole of solvent
X 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆 + X 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒗𝒆𝒏𝒕 = 1
Ex: If mole fraction of the solute is 0.25, then:
Mole fraction of solvent = 1- 0.25 = 0.75
i.e: Solute is 25% by mole, then solvent is 75%.
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
Mole percent(Mole %) = x 100
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

85
Example (Exercise 2.7:1)
A sample of rubbing alcohol contains 142g of isopropyl
alcohol (C3H7OH) and 58.0g of water. What are the mole
fractions of alcohol and water? [Link] C3H7OH = 60.0 g/mol,
H2O = 18 g/mol.
Ans:
Mass of solvent(isopropyl alcohol) = 142g
Mole of solvent = 142g/60g/mol = 2.37mol
Mass of solute (water) = 58g
Mole of solute = 58g/18g/mol =3.22mol
Mole of solution = 2.37mol + 3.22mol = 5.59mol
2.37𝑚𝑜𝑙
Mole fractions of solvent(isopropyl alcohol) = = 0.42
5.59𝑚𝑜𝑙
3.22𝑚𝑜𝑙
Mole fractions of solute (water) = = 0.58 86
5.59𝑚𝑜𝑙
2.4.3 Molarity (M)
The molarity(M) of a solution is the number of
moles of solute present in 1L of solution.
𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
Molarity =
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑟𝑒
Unit of molarity is M(molarity)
1M = 1mol/1L
Molarity(M) is the most common unit of
concentration
It is also the most useful for calculations
involving the stoichiometry of reactions in
solution. 87
Example1(Exercise 2.8 :1)
5.85g of NaCl is dissolved in water to make 250mL
of solution. Calculate molarity of the solution.
Ans:
Mass of solute(NaCl)= 5.85g
Mole of solute (NaCl) = 5.85g/58.5g/mol
= 0.1mol
Volume of solution = 0.25L
𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
Molarity =
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑟𝑒
= 0.1mol/0.25L = 0.4M
88
Example2(Exercise 2.8 :2)
How would 250 ml of 0.15 M KNO3 solution be
prepared?
Given:
Volume of solution = 250mL= 0.25L
Molarity of solution = 0.15M
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
Molarity =
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
Mole of solute(KNO3) = (Molarity) x (volume of solution)
= (0.15mol/L) x (0.25L) = 0.038 mol
Mass of KNO3 = 0.038 mol x 101.10 g/mol = 3.8g
Therefore, 3.8g KNO3 needed to dissolve, to produce
250mLof solution.
89
2.4.4 Molality
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
 Molality(m) =
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 (𝑘𝑔) 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡
 Molality includes the quantity of solvent, not solution.
 Molality has two advantages over molarity for precise
work:
Effect of temperature.
 Molal solutions are based on masses of components,
not volume.
 Since mass does not change with temperature, neither
does molality.
 But in molarity, liquid expands when heated, so a unit
volume of hot solution contains less solute than that of
cold solution.
 Thus, the molarity varies with temperature .
90
Effect of mixing.
Unlike volumes, masses are additive in
molality: adding 500g of one solution to 500g
of another does give 1000g of final solution.
But in molarity, because of solute-solvent
interactions it is difficult to predict volume of
solution, since volume may not be additive:
Adding 500mL of one solution to 500mL of
another may not give 1000mL of final
solution.
91
Example 2.10
Calculate the molality of a solution prepared by
dissolving 32.0g of CaCl2 in 271g of water.
Ans:
Mass of solute(CaCl2) = 32g
Mole of solute = 32g/111g/mol = 0.29mol
Mass of solvent(water) = 271g = 0.271kg
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
Molality(m) =
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 (𝑘𝑔) 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡
0.29𝑚𝑜𝑙
= = 1.06m CaCl2
0.271𝑘𝑔

92
2.4.5 Normality(N)
The normality of a solution is the number of gram
equivalent of a solute per liter of solution.
1N = 1eq/L
𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒈𝒓𝒂𝒎
𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆
Normality(N) = …Eq 2.14
𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒊𝒏 𝒍𝒊𝒕𝒓𝒆

Number of gram
𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆
equivalents of solute = 𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒘𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 ……. Eq 2.15
𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆

𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
Equivalent weight of solute = ………. Eq 2.16
𝑧
93
Substituting eq 2.16 in eq 2.15 gives:
Number of gram
𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆
equivalents of solute = x z… Eq 2.17
𝒎𝒐𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔
𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆

= mole of solute x z
Substituting eq 2.17 in eq 2.14 gives:

𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆
Normality(N) = x z …Eq2.18
(𝒎𝒐𝒂𝒍𝒓𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆) 𝒙 (𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍)

=M x Z ……. Eq2.19

94
Where „z‟ is:
 number of transferable H+ in acid
 number of transferable OH- in base
 Number of electrons lost or gained for redox reactions
 number of positive or negative charges formed for salts
Ex: z=1 for HCl z=1 for NaOH
z=2 for H2SO4 z=2 for Na2CO3
z=2 Ca(OH)2 z=1 for Al2(SO4)3
Normality is the only concentration unit that is reaction
dependent.
Since the value of ‘z’ depends on the actual number of H+,
OH- and number of charge released; not just the one in the
formula.
95
Example1:
Calculate the number of gram equivalent or simply
equivalents in 20g NaOH.
Given: mass = 20g
molar mass= 40g/mol
NaOH →Na+ + OH-
⇒ z=1
Number of gram
equivalents of solute = 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆 x z
𝒎𝒐𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔
𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆
=(20/40) x 1
= 0.5eq 96
Example2
Calculate the number of equivalents present in 0.50mol H3PO4if
the acid is:
a. completely neutralized to give PO43-
b. converted to H2PO4 -
c. converted to HPO42-
Ans:
𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆
Number of equivalents = x z = mole of solute x z
𝒎𝒐𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔
𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆
a. H3PO4 → 3H+ + PO43- ⇒ z= 3, mole = 0.5mol
Number of equivalents = mole of solute x z = 0.5 x 3 = 1.5eq
b. H3PO4 → H + H2PO4
+ - ⇒ z= 1, mole = 0.5mol
Number of equivalents = mole of solute x z = 0.5 x 1 = 0.5eq
c. H3PO4 → 2H+ + HPO42- ⇒ z= 2, mole = 0.5mol
Number of equivalents = mole of solute x z = 0.5 x 2 = 1eq 97
Example3:
Calculate Normality of the solution containing 0.50mol
H3PO4 in 100mL of solution, if the acid is completely
neutralized to give PO43-
Given:
Mole = 0.5mol
Volume = 100mL = 0.1L
H3PO4 completely neutralized means: H3PO4 → 3H+ + PO43-
⇒ z= 3
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 0.5𝑚𝑜𝑙
Molarity == = = = 5M
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 0.1𝐿
N = M x Z = (5M) x(3) = 15N
98
2.4.6 Conversion of Concentration Units
During conversion, note the following:
In (w/w) percent:
1% = 1g of solute in 100g of solution
In (v/v) percent:
1% = 1mL of solute in 100mLof solution
In (w/v) percent:
1% = 1g of solute in 100mLof solution
1ppm = 1g of solute in 106g solution
1ppb = 1g of solute in 109g solution
1ppm = 1mg/L 99
Converting (v/v) percent to Molarity
When (v/v) percent is given, convert the mL of
solute into mass using its density and find its mole.
Ex: Calculate the molarity of 40% (v/v) H2SO4
solution in which volume of solution is 1mL and
density .of H2SO4 is 1.83g/mL
Given:
Volume of solute(H2SO4 ) = 40% = (1mL x40)/100 = 0.4mL
Mass of solute = density x volume
= (1.83g/mL) x 0.4mL = 0.732g
Mole of solute = (0.732g)/98g/mol = 0.0075mol
Volume of solution = 1mL = 0.001L
Molarity(M) = (0.0075mol)/0.001L = 7.5M 100
Converting Mole Fractions to Molality
Ex: The mole fractions of glucose, C6H12O6, and
water are 0.150 and 0.850, respectively. What is the
molality of glucose in the solution?
Ans: Consider 0.15moles of glucose and 0.85moles
of water which is consistent with the given mole
fractions
Then, mass solvent (H2O) = mole x molar mass
= 0.85mol x 18g/mol = 15.3g = 0.0153kg
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
Molatity(m) =
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑘𝑔 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡
0.15𝑚𝑜𝑙
= = 9.8m
0.0153𝑘𝑔
101
Converting Molality to Molarity
Ex: An aqueous solution is 0.273m KCl.
What is the molar concentration of KCl?
The density of the solution is 1.011 x 103g/L.
Give: 0.273molality means 0.273mole of solute (KCl) in
1kg(1000g) of solvent
 Mass of solution = mass of solute + mass of solvent
= (0.273mol x 74.5g/mol) + 1000g = 1020.3g
 density of the solution = 1.011 x 103g/L
 Volume of solution =mass of solution/density of solution
=1020.3g/1011g/L = 1.01L
 Molarity (M) = 0.273mole/ 1.01L= 0.27M
102
Converting (w/w) percent to Molarity
Calculate the molarity of 36.5%(w/w) HCl
solution. Density of solution is 1.20g/mL;
molar mass HCl = 36.5 g/moL)
Given:
Mass of solution = 100g
Mass of solute = 36.5g
Mole of solute = 36.5g/36.5g/mol = 1mol
Volume of solution = mass of solution/density
= (100g)/1.20g/mL = 83.3mL = 0.0833L
Molarity = 1mol/0.0833L = 12M
103
2.5.1 Preparation of stock solution from pure compound
Stock solution is a concentrated solution that will be diluted to
the required lower concentration for actual use.
A. Preparation of liquid solution using a solid solute.
This involves six steps:
1. Calculate the mass required to be dissolved in a suggested
volume. The required mass is calculated from the given
mole.
Mass required = mole x molar mass.
2. Weight the required mass using balance
3. Transfer the measured mass into beaker. Add some solvent
and mix(shake). Heating over hot plate may be required if
solute is not readily soluble.
4. Transfer the dissolved mixture into desired volumetric flask
5. Dilute to the mark (to the required volume) by solvent.
6. Cap it and label its name of solute, concentration
104
Figure 2.15 Steps of preparing solution
105
B. Preparation of liquid solution using liquid solute.
You need to calculate the volume of solute to be
dissolved in a given solvent.
The required volume of solute is calculated from
the given mole and density of solute as follow:
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑥 (𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒)
V = =
𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦
Then, transfer the required(calculated) volume into
volumetric flask.
Dilute to the mark (to the required volume) by
solvent

106
Example:
How 100mL of 1M NaOH solution prepared from
pure NaOH solid?
Given:
M= 1M =1mol/L
Volume of solution = 100mL 0.1L
Molarity = Mole of solute/ Volume of solution
Mole of solute(NaOH) = molarity x Volume of solution
= (1mol/L) x (0.1L) = 0.1mol
Mass of solute(NaOH) = mol x molar mass
= (0.1mol) x (40g/mol) = 4g
Therefore, 1M NaOH solution prepared by dissolving 4g
NaOH 100mL volumetric flask 107
2.5.2. Diluting a Solutions
Concentrated solutions are usually stored as
stock solutions in laboratory.
Dilution is the procedure for preparing a
less-concentrated solution from a more
concentrated (stock) one.
This can be done by withdrawing small
volume(V1) of concentrated (stock) solution
and diluting to a required final volume (V2)
by adding more solvent.
108
Solution1 Solution2
Before dilution After dilution
Volume1=V1 Volume2=V2
Concentration1 =M1 Concentration2 =M2
109
Dilution decreases the concentration of the
solution, but doesn’t change number of moles of
solute present in the solution.
i.e: Moles of solute before dilution = moles of solute after dilution
Molarity of solution1(M1) = Moles1/V1
⇒ Mole1 = M1 x V1
Molarity of solution2(M2) = Moles2/V2
⇒ Mole2 = M2 x V2
Since moles of solute before dilution = moles of solute after dilution

M1 x V1 = M2 x V2
This formula is known as dilution formula 110
Caution!
When preparing dilutions from
concentrated acids such as sulfuric acid:
Add the acid slowly to water with
frequent stirring.

⇒ AW
Adding water to acid causes harm
⇒ WA !!
111
Example (Exercise 2.12: 1)
How would you prepare 200mL of a 0.866M KOH solution,
starting with a 5.07M stock solution?
Given:
M1 = 5.07M
M2 = 0.866M
V2 = 2.00 x 102mL
V1 = ?
Ans: M1 x V1 = M2 x V2
M2 x V2 (0.866M)x (200mL)
V1= = = 0.0034L
M1 5.07M
Thus, we must withdraw 0.0034L from the 5.07M KOH
solution, transfer it to a 200mL volumetric flask and dilute it
with sufficient amount of water to the mark (200mL). 112
Do the best!
Prepare the main note for:
2.6. Solution Stoichiometry
2.7. Describing Reactions in Solution

113
Do the best!
1. Differentiate pure substances and mixtures
2. Why all homogeneous mixtures are not solutions?
3. Assume that solid and liquid substances mixed. Describe the condition when the
solid and liquid become solute and solvent.
4. Describe the similarities and difference of homogeneous and heterogamous
mixture.
5. Describe the difference between Intramolecular and Intermolecular Forces.
Express using figure examples.
6. Describe the Dynamic equilibrium of solution
For question 7&8:
0.25L aqueous solution of hydrochloric acid contains 30 percent HCl by mass.
7. Calculate the mole fraction of HCl in the solution.
8. Calculate the molar concentration of the solution. Show steps necessarily
For question 9&10:
0.5 mole of ethanol is mixed with 1.5moles of water.
9. Calculate the mole fraction of alcohol.
10. Calculate the percent by mass %(w/w) 114