PROBLEM SET

Problem 1.6
A ferromagnetic core with a relative permeability of 1500 is shown in Figure P1-3. The dimensions are
as shown in the diagram, and the depth of the core is 5 cm. The air gaps on the left and right sides of
the core are 0.050 and 0.070 cm, respectively. Because of fringing effects, the effective area of the air
gaps is 5 percent larger than their physical size. If there are 300 turns in the coil wrapped around the
center leg of the core and if the current in the coil is 1.0 A, what is the flux in each of the left, center,
and right legs of the core? What is the flux density in each air gap?

Solution 1.6

This core can be divided up into five regions. Let R1 be the reluctance of the left-hand
portion of the core, R 2 be the reluctance of the left-hand air gap, R 3 be the reluctance
of the right-hand portion of the core, R 4 be the reluctance of the right-hand air gap, and
R 5 be the reluctance of the center leg of the core. Then the total reluctance of the core
is

RTOT  R5 
 R1  R2   R3  R4 
R1  R 2  R3  R 4
l1 1.11 m
R1    168 kA  t/Wb
r 0 A1 1500   4 10 H/m   0.07 m  0.05 m 
7

l2 0.0007 m
R2    152 kA  t/Wb
0 A2  4  10 H/m   0.07 m  0.05 m 1.05
7

l3 1.11 m
R3    168 kA  t/Wb
r 0 A3 1500   4 10 H/m   0.07 m  0.05 m 
7

l4 0.0005 m
R4    108 kA  t/Wb
0 A4  4  10 H/m   0.07 m  0.05 m 1.05
7
 l5 0.37 m
R5    56.1 kA  t/Wb
r 0 A5 1500   4 10 H/m   0.07 m  0.05 m 
7

The total reluctance is

 R1  R2  R3  R4  168  152 168  108
RTOT  R5   56.1   204 kA  t/Wb
R1  R 2  R3  R 4 168  152  168  108

The total flux in the core is equal to the flux in the center leg:
F  300 t 1.0 A 
center  TOT    0.00147 Wb
RTOT 204 kA  t/Wb

The fluxes in the left and right legs can be found by the “flux divider rule”, which is
analogous to the current divider rule.
 R3  R 4  168  108
left  TOT   0.00147 Wb   0.00068 Wb
R1  R 2  R3  R 4 168  152  168  108

 R1  R2  168  152 
right  TOT   0.00147 Wb   0.00079 Wb
R1  R 2  R3  R 4 168  152  168  108

The flux density in the air gaps can be determined from the equation   BA :
left 0.00068 Wb
Bleft    0.185 T
Aeff  0.07 cm  0.05 cm 1.05
right 0.00079 Wb
Bright    0.215 T
Aeff  0.07 cm  0.05 cm 1.05
Problem 1.14

A two-legged magnetic core with an air gap is shown in Figure P1-11. The depth of the core is
5 cm, the length of the air gap in the core is 0.05 cm, and the number of turns on the coil is
1000. The magnetization curve of the core material is shown in Figure P1-9. Assume a 5
percent increase in effective air-gap area to account for fringing. How much current is required
to produce an air-gap flux density of 0.5 T? What are the flux densities of the four sides of the
core at that current? What is the total flux present in the air gap?

192
Solution 1.14

192

An air-gap flux density of 0.5 T requires a total flux of

  BAeff   0.5 T  0.05 m  0.05 m 1.05  0.00131 Wb
This flux requires a flux density in the right-hand leg of
 0.00131 Wb
Bright    0.524 T
A  0.05 m 0.05 m
The flux density in the other three legs of the core is
 0.00131 Wb
Btop  Bleft  Bbottom    0.262 T
A  0.10 m 0.05 m
The magnetizing intensity required to produce a flux density of 0.5 T in the air gap can be found
from the equation Bag  o H ag :

Bag 0.5 T
H ag    398 kA  t/m
0 4  107 H/m
The magnetizing intensity required to produce a flux density of 0.524 T in the right-hand leg of
the core can be found from Figure P1-9 to be
H right  410 A  t/m
 The magnetizing intensity required to produce a flux density of 0.262 T in the top, left, and
bottom legs of the core can be found from Figure P1-9 to be
H top  H left  H bottom  240 A  t/m

The total MMF required to produce the flux is

F TOT  H ag lag  H right lright  H top ltop  H left lleft  H bottom lbottom
F TOT   398 kA  t/m  0.0005 m    410 A  t/m  0.40 m   3  240 A  t/m  0.40 m 
F TOT  278.6  164  288  651 A  t
and the required current is
FTOT 651 A  t
i   0.651 A
N 1000 t
The flux densities in the four sides of the core and the total flux present in the air gap were
calculated above.

Problem 1.16
Sketch the voltage present at the terminals of the coil.

Solution 1.16

By Lenz’ Law, an increasing flux in the direction shown on the core will produce a voltage that
tends to oppose the increase. This voltage will be the same polarity as the direction shown on
the core, so it will be positive. The induced voltage in the core is given by the equation
d
eind  N
dt
so the voltage in the windings will be
 Time d eind
N
dt
0<t<2s 0.010 Wb 2.50 V
 500 t 
2s
2<t<5s 0.020 Wb -3.33 V
 500 t 
3s
5<t<7s 0.010 Wb 2.50 V
 500 t 
2s
7<t<8s 0.010 Wb 5.00 V
 500 t 
1s

The resulting voltage is plotted below:

Problem 2.6

A 1000-VA 230/115-V transformer has been tested to determine its equivalent circuit.
The results of the tests are shown below.

Open-circuit test Short-circuit test

(on secondary side) (on primary side)
VOC = 115 V VSC = 17.1 V
IOC = 0.11 A ISC = 8.7 A
POC = 3.9 W PSC = 38.1 W

(a) Find the equivalent circuit of this transformer referred to the low-voltage side of
the transformer.
(b) Find the transformer’s voltage regulation at rated conditions and (1) 0.8 PF
lagging, (2) 1.0 PF, (3) 0.8 PF leading.
(c) Determine the transformer’s efficiency at rated conditions and 0.8 PF lagging.
Solution 2.6

(a) OPEN CIRCUIT TEST (referred to the low-voltage or secondary side):

0.11 A
YEX  GC  jBM   0.0009565 S
115 V
POC 3.9 W
  cos 1  cos 1  72.0
VOC I OC 115 V  0.11 A 
YEX  GC  jBM  0.0009565  72 S  0.0002956  j 0.0009096 S
1
RC   3383 
GC
1
XM   1099 
BM
SHORT CIRCUIT TEST (referred to the high-voltage or primary side):
17.1 V
Z EQ  REQ  jX EQ   1.97 
8.7 A
PSC 38.1 W
  cos 1  cos 1  75.2
VSC ISC 17.1 V 8.7 A 
Z EQ  REQ  jX EQ  1.9775.2   0.503  j1.905 
REQ  0.503 
X EQ  j1.905 

To convert the equivalent circuit to the secondary side, divide each series
impedance by the square of the turns ratio (a = 230/115 = 2). Note that the
excitation branch elements are already on the secondary side. The resulting
equivalent circuit is shown below:
 REQ,S  0.126  X EQ,S  j 0.476 
RC , S  3383  X M , S  1099 

(b) To find the required voltage regulation, we will use the equivalent circuit of the
transformer referred to the secondary side. The rated secondary current is
1000 VA
IS   8.70 A
115 V
We will now calculate the primary voltage referred to the secondary side and use
the voltage regulation equation for each power factor.
(1) 0.8 PF Lagging:
VP  VS  Z EQ I S  1150 V   0.126  j 0.476   8.7  36.87 A 
VP  118.41.3 V
118.4-115
VR   100%  2.96%
115
(2) 1.0 PF:
VP  VS  Z EQ I S  1150 V   0.126  j 0.476   8.70.0 A 
V   116.22.04 V
P

116.2-115
VR   100%  1.04%
115
(3) 0.8 PF Leading:
VP  VS  Z EQ I S  1150 V   0.126  j 0.476   8.736.87 A 
VP  113.52.0 V
113.5-115
VR   100%  1.3%
115
(c) At rated conditions and 0.8 PF lagging, the output power of this transformer is
POUT  VS I S cos   115 V  8.7 A  0.8  800 W

The copper and core losses of this transformer are

PCU  I S 2 REQ,S   8.7 A   0.126    9.5 W
2

V 
2

118.4 V 
2
P
Pcore    4.1 W
RC 3383 

Therefore the efficiency of this transformer at these conditions is

POUT 800 W
  100%   98.3%
POUT  PCU  Pcore 800 W  9.5 W  4.1 W
Problem 2.8

A 150-MVA 15/200-kV single-phase power transformer has a per-unit resistance of 1.2

percent and a per-unit reactance of 5 percent (data taken from the transformer’s
nameplate). The magnetizing impedance is j80 per unit.

(a) Find the equivalent circuit referred to the low-voltage side of this transformer.
(b) Calculate the voltage regulation of this transformer for a full-load current at power
factor of 0.8 lagging.
(c) Calculate the copper and core losses in transformer at the conditions in (b).
(d) Assume that the primary voltage of this transformer is a constant 15 kV, and plot the
secondary voltage as a function of load current for currents from no-load to full-load.
Repeat this process for power factors of 0.8 lagging, 1.0, and 0.8 leading.

Solution 2.8

(a) The base impedance of this transformer referred to the primary (low-voltage) side
is
V 2 15 kV 
2

Z base  base   1.5 

Sbase 150 MVA
so REQ   0.012 1.5    0.018 
X EQ   0.05 1.5    0.075 
X M   80 1.5    120 

The equivalent circuit is

REQ,P  0.018  X EQ,P  j 0.075 

RC  not specified X M  120 

(b) If the load on the secondary side of the transformer is 150 MVA at 0.8 PF lagging,
and the referred secondary voltage is 15 kV, then the referred secondary current
is
 I S 
PLOAD 150 MVA
  12,500 A
VS PF 15 kV  0.8 
I S   12,500  36.87 A
The voltage on the primary side of the transformer is

VP  VS   I S  Z EQ,P
VP  15,0000 V  12,500  36.87 A  0.018  j 0.075    157552.23 V

Therefore the voltage regulation of the transformer is

15,755-15,000
VR   100%  5.03%
15,000
(c) This problem is repetitive in nature, and is ideally suited for MATLAB. A program
to calculate the secondary voltage of the transformer as a function of load is shown
below:

% M-file: prob2_8.m
% M-file to calculate and plot the secondary voltage
% of a transformer as a function of load for power
% factors of 0.8 lagging, 1.0, and 0.8 leading.
% These calculations are done using an equivalent
% circuit referred to the primary side.

% Define values for this transformer

VP = 15000; % Primary voltage (V)
amps = 0:125:12500; % Current values (A)
Req = 0.018; % Equivalent R (ohms)
Xeq = 0.075; % Equivalent X (ohms)

% Calculate the current values for the three

% power factors. The first row of I contains
% the lagging currents, the second row contains
% the unity currents, and the third row contains
% the leading currents.
I = zeros(3,length(amps));
I(1,:) = amps .* ( 0.8 - j*0.6); % Lagging
I(2,:) = amps .* ( 1.0 ); % Unity
I(3,:) = amps .* ( 0.8 + j*0.6); % Leading

% Calculate VS referred to the primary side

% for each current and power factor.
aVS = VP - (Req.*I + j.*Xeq.*I);

% Refer the secondary voltages back to the

% secondary side using the turns ratio.
VS = aVS * (200/15);

% Plot the secondary voltage (in kV!) versus load

plot(amps,abs(VS(1,:)/1000),'b-','LineWidth',2.0);
hold on;
plot(amps,abs(VS(2,:)/1000),'k--','LineWidth',2.0);
plot(amps,abs(VS(3,:)/1000),'r-.','LineWidth',2.0);
title ('\bfSecondary Voltage Versus Load');
 xlabel ('\bfLoad (A)');
ylabel ('\bfSecondary Voltage (kV)');
legend('0.8 PF lagging','1.0 PF','0.8 PF leading');
grid on;
hold off;
The resulting plot of secondary voltage versus load is shown below:

Problem 2.24

Figure P2-4 shows a one-line diagram of a power system consisting of a three-phase 480-V 60-
Hz generator supplying two loads through a transmission line with a pair of transformers at
either end.

(a) Sketch the per-phase equivalent circuit of this power system.

 (b) With the switch opened, find the real power P, reactive power Q, and apparent
power S supplied by the generator. What is the power factor of the generator?
(c) With the switch closed, find the real power P, reactive power Q, and apparent
power S supplied by the generator. What is the power factor of the generator?
(d) What are the transmission losses (transformer plus transmission line losses) in this
system with the switch open? With the switch closed? What is the effect of adding
Load 2 to the system?

Solution 2.24

This problem can best be solved using the per-unit system of measurements. The power
system can be divided into three regions by the two transformers. If the per-unit base
quantities in Region 1 (left of transformer 1) are chosen to be S base1 = 1000 kVA and VL ,base1 =
480 V, then the base quantities in Regions 2 (between the transformers) and 3 (right or
transformer 2) will be as shown below.

Region 1 Region 2 Region 3

S base1 = 1000 kVA S base2 = 1000 kVA S base3 = 1000 kVA
VL ,base2 = 480 V VL ,base2 = 14,400 V VL ,base3 = 480 V

The base impedances of each region will be:

3  277 V 
2 2
3V1
Z base1    0.238 
Sbase1 1000 kVA
3  8314 V 
2
3V 2 2
Z base2    207.4 
Sbase2 1000 kVA
3  277 V 
2 2
3V 3
Z base3    0.238 
Sbase3 1000 kVA

(a) To get the per-unit, per-phase equivalent circuit, we must convert each
impedance in the system to per-unit on the base of the region in which it is
located. The impedance of transformer T1 is already in per-unit to the proper
base, so we don’t have to do anything to it:
R1,pu  0.010
X 1,pu  0.040

The impedance of transformer T2 is already in per-unit, but it is per-unit to the

base of transformer T2 , so it must be converted to the base of the power system.

( R, X , Z ) pu on base 2  ( R, X , Z ) pu on base 1
Vbase 1   Sbase 2 
2
(2-60)
Vbase 2 2  Sbase 1 
R2,pu  0.020
 8314 V  1000 kVA 
2

 0.040
8314 V2  500 kVA
X 2,pu  0.085
8314 V2 1000 kVA   0.170
8314 V2  500 kVA 
The per-unit impedance of the transmission line is
 Z line 1.5  j10 
Z line,pu    0.00723  j 0.0482
Z base2 207.4 

The per-unit impedance of Load 1 is

Z load1 0.4536.87 
Z load1,pu    1.513  j1.134
Z base3 0.238 

The per-unit impedance of Load 2 is

Z load2  j 0.8 
Z load2,pu     j 3.36
Z base3 0.238 

The resulting per-unit, per-phase equivalent circuit is shown below:

0.010 j0.040 0.00723 j0.0482 0.040 j0.170

T1 Line T2
1.513
+
10° - L1 L2
j1.134
-j3.36

(b) With the switch opened, the equivalent impedance of this circuit is
Z EQ  0.010  j 0.040  0.00723  j 0.0482  0.040  j 0.170  1.513  j1.134
Z EQ  1.5702  j1.3922  2.09941.6

The resulting current is

10
I  0.4765  41.6
2.09941.6
The load voltage under these conditions would be
VLoad,pu  I Z Load   0.4765  41.61.513  j1.134   0.901  4.7
VLoad  VLoad,puVbase3   0.901 480 V   432 V

The power supplied to the load is

PLoad,pu  I 2 RLoad   0.4765 1.513  0.344
2

PLoad  PLoad,pu Sbase   0.344 1000 kVA   344 kW

The power supplied by the generator is

PG ,pu  VI cos   1 0.4765 cos 41.6  0.356
QG ,pu  VI sin   1 0.4765 sin 41.6  0.316
SG ,pu  VI  1 0.4765  0.4765
PG  PG ,pu Sbase   0.3561000 kVA   356 kW
QG  QG ,pu Sbase   0.3161000 kVA   316 kVAR
SG  SG ,pu Sbase   0.47651000 kVA   476.5 kVA
 The power factor of the generator is
PF  cos 41.6  0.748 lagging

(c) With the switch closed, the equivalent impedance of this circuit is

Z EQ  0.010  j 0.040  0.00723  j 0.0482  0.040  j 0.170 

1.513  j1.134  j3.36
1.513  j1.134    j3.36
Z EQ  0.010  j 0.040  0.00788  j0.0525  0.040  j0.170  (2.358  j0.109)
Z EQ  2.415  j 0.367  2.4438.65

The resulting current is

10
I  0.409  8.65
2.4438.65
The load voltage under these conditions would be
VLoad,pu  I Z Load   0.409  8.65 2.358  j 0.109   0.966  6.0
VLoad  VLoad,puVbase3   0.966 480 V   464 V

The power supplied to the two loads is the power supplied to the resistive
component of the parallel combination of the two loads: 2.358 pu.
PLoad,pu  I 2 RLoad   0.409   2.358  0.394
2

PLoad  PLoad,pu Sbase   0.394 1000 kVA   394 kW

The power supplied by the generator is

PG ,pu  VI cos   1 0.409  cos 6.0  0.407
QG ,pu  VI sin   1 0.409  sin 6.0  0.0428
SG ,pu  VI  1 0.409   0.409
PG  PG ,pu Sbase   0.407 1000 kVA   407 kW
QG  QG ,pu Sbase   0.04281000 kVA   42.8 kVAR
SG  SG ,pu Sbase   0.409 1000 kVA   409 kVA

The power factor of the generator is

PF  cos 6.0  0.995 lagging

(d) The transmission losses with the switch open are:

Pline,pu  I 2 Rline   0.4765  0.00723  0.00164
2

Pline  Pline,pu Sbase   0.00164 1000 kVA   1.64 kW

The transmission losses with the switch closed are:

Pline,pu  I 2 Rline   0.409  0.00723  0.00121
2

Pline  Pline,pu Sbase   0.001211000 kVA   1.21 kW

Load 2 improved the power factor of the system, increasing the load voltage and the
total power supplied to the loads, while simultaneously decreasing the current in the
transmission line and the transmission line losses. This problem is a good example of
the advantages of power factor correction in power systems.
Problem 7.4

A dc machine has 8 poles and a rated current of 120 A. How much current will flow in each
path at rated conditions if the armature is (a) simplex lap-wound, (b) duplex lap-wound, (c)
simplex wave-wound?

Solution 7.4

(a) Simplex lap-wound:

a  mP  1 8  8 paths

Therefore, the current per path is

I A 120 A
I   15 A
a 8
(b) Duplex lap-wound:
a  mP   2  8  16 paths

Therefore, the current per path is

I A 120 A
I   7.5 A
a 16
(c) Simplex wave-wound:
a  2m   2 1  2 paths

Therefore, the current per path is

I A 120 A
I   60 A
a 2
Problem 7.7

An eight-pole, 25-kW, 120-V dc generator has a duplex lap-wound armature which has 64 coils
with 10 turns per coil. Its rated speed is 3600 r/min.

(a) How much flux per pole is required to produce the rated voltage in this generator
at no-load conditions?
(b) What is the current per path in the armature of this generator at the rated load?
(c) What is the induced torque in this machine at the rated load?
(d) How many brushes must this motor have? How wide must each one be?
(e) If the resistance of this winding is 0.011  per turn, what is the armature resistance
RA of this machine?

Solution 7.7

ZP
(a) E A  K   
2 a
In this machine, the number of current paths is
 a  mP   2  8  16

The number of conductor is

Z   64 coils 10 turns/coil  2 conductors/turn   1200

The equation for induced voltage is

ZP
EA  
2 a
so the required flux is
1200 cond 8 poles   3600 r/min  2 rad  1 min 
120 V     
2 16 paths   1 r  60 s 
120 V  36,000 
  0.00333 Wb
(b) At rated load, the current flow in the generator would be
25 kW
IA   208 A
120 V
There are a = m P = (2)(8) = 16 parallel current paths through the machine, so the
current per path is
I A 208 A
I   13 A
a 16
(c) The induced torque in this machine at rated load is
ZP
 ind  I A
2 a
1200 cond 8 poles 
 ind   0.00333 Wb  208 A 
2 16 paths 
 ind  66.1 N  m
(d) This motor must have 8 brushes, since it is lap-wound and has 8 poles. Since it is
duplex-wound, each brush must be wide enough to stretch across 2 complete
commutator segments.
(e) There are a total of 64  10  640 turns on the armature of this machine, so the
number of turns per path is
650 turns
NP   40 turns/path
16 paths

The total resistance per path is RP   40  0.011    0.44  . Since there are 16
parallel paths through the machine, the armature resistance of the generator is
0.44 
RA   0.0275 
16 paths
Problem 7.8

Figure P7-2 shows a small two-pole dc motor with eight rotor coils and 10 turns per
coil. The flux per pole in this machine is 0.006 Wb.

FIGURE P7-2
The machine in Problem 7-8.

(a) If this motor is connected to a 12-V dc car battery, what will the no-load speed of
the motor be?
(b) If the positive terminal of the battery is connected to the rightmost brush on the
motor, which way will it rotate?
(c) If this motor is loaded down so that it consumes 600 W from the battery, what will
the induced torque of the motor be? (Ignore any internal resistance in the motor.)
Solution
(a) At no load, VT  E A  K  . If K is known, then the speed of the motor can be
found. The constant K is given by
ZP
K
2 a
On the average, about 6 of the 8 coils are under the pole faces at any given time,
so the average number of active conductors is
Z = (6 coils)(4 turns/coil)(2 conductors/turn) = 48 conductors
There are two poles and two current paths, so
ZP  48 cond  2 poles
K   7.64
2 a 2  2 paths

The speed is given by

 EA 12 V
   262 rad/s
K  7.64  0.006 Wb 

 1 r  60 s 
nm   262 rad/s      2500 r/min
 2 rad  1 min 
(b) If the positive terminal of the battery is connected to the rightmost brush, current
will flow into the page under the South pole face, producing a CW torque  CW
rotation.
(c) If the motor consumes 600 W from the battery, the current flow is
P 600 W
I   50 A
VB 12 V

Therefore, the induced torque will be

 ind  K I A   7.64  0.006 Wb  50 A   2.29 N  m, CW