Chapter 5 procedure for data collection.

Also, the data collection process needs to be

This chapter you will learn about the five steps involved in data collection, including What participants will you study?
selecting participants, obtaining permissions, choosing measures, locating Determining the participants to study is the first step in the process of collecting data.
instruments, and administering data collection procedures. This involves deciding whether to study individuals or entire organizations, such as
The five steps in the process of data collection are as follows: schools, and what type of people or organizations to study. You also need to decide
1. Selecting participants for the study on a unit of analysis, which is the group and individuals you will study, the procedure
2. Obtaining permissions needed for the study for selecting these individuals, and assessing the numbers of people needed for your
3. Deciding on the types of data to collect data analysis.
4. Locating, selecting, and assessing instruments for data collection Identity of your unit analysis
5. Administering the data collection procedures The unit of analysis refers to the level at which data needs to be gathered, such as
individual, family, school, or school district. It is an essential decision in the process
1. Selecting participants for the study: This involves identifying the people and of collecting data and depends on the research questions or hypotheses being
places you plan to study, determining whether you will study individuals or entire investigated. The unit of analysis is crucial for determining the scope and focus of the
organizations, deciding what type of people or organizations you will actually study. For example, in some research studies, data is gathered from multiple levels
study, and how many you will need for your research. (e.g., individuals and schools), while in others, data is collected from only one level
2. Obtaining permissions needed for the study: This step involves obtaining (e.g., principals in schools).
permission from the participants to be involved in your study, as well as
permissions from leaders of institutions or organizations, individuals at specific Specify the Population and Sample
sites, and a campus institutional review board. When conducting research, it is important to specify the population and sample. The
3. Deciding on the types of data to collect: This step involves deciding what type or Population refers to the entire group of individuals who share a common
types of data to collect, specifying the variables in your research questions or characteristic, such as all teachers in a school district or all high school administrators.
hypotheses, defining these variables, and seeking measures that operationalize On the other hand, a Sample is a subgroup of the population that the researcher
these definitions. plans to study for generalizing about the entire population. It is crucial to select a
4. Locating, selecting, and assessing instruments for data collection: This step sample that is representative of the entire population to ensure the generalizability of
involves locating, modifying, or developing instruments that provide the measures the findings. The decision to select individuals or schools who are representative of
needed for your study. You can use an existing instrument or modify one rather the entire group is important in ensuring the validity of the research results.
than develop your own instrument. You need to consider whether scores from past
uses of it are reliable and valid, whether the procedure for recording information Probabilistic and Nonprobabilistic sampling
fits your research questions/hypotheses, and whether the scales will measure In research, researchers employ either probabilistic or nonprobabilistic sampling
either categorical or continuous data. approaches to select participants for their studies.
5. Administering the data collection procedures: This step involves actually collecting Probabilistic Sampling: In probabilistic sampling, researchers select individuals
the data. Your procedures need to be standardized so that there is a uniform from the population who are representative of that population. This is considered the
most rigorous form of sampling in research because the sample can be claimed to be
representative of the population, allowing for generalizations to be made. Examples Convenience Sampling: Convenience sampling involves selecting
of probabilistic sampling methods include simple random sampling, stratified participants who are readily available and easily accessible to the researcher. This
sampling, and multistage cluster sampling. method is based on the convenience of the individuals or units being sampled, rather
than on a random or systematic selection process. Researchers often use
Simple Random Sampling: In simple random sampling, every individual or convenience sampling due to its ease and practicality, but it may lead to biased results
unit in the population has an equal chance of being selected for the sample. This because the sample may not be representative of the entire population. Despite its
method involves assigning a number to each individual in the population and then limitations, convenience sampling can still provide useful information for answering
using a random numbers table or a random number generator to select the individuals specific research questions and hypotheses. An example of convenience sampling is
for the sample. It ensures that each member of the population has an equal when a researcher studies a group of individuals who are easily accessible, such as
opportunity to be included in the sample, thus providing a representative sample of students in a particular school.
the population. Snowball Sampling: Snowball sampling, also known as chain referral
Stratified Sampling: In stratified sampling, the population is divided into sampling, is a nonprobabilistic sampling method in which existing study participants
subgroups or strata based on specific characteristics (e.g., gender, age, income recruit future participants from among their acquaintances. This method is often used
level). Then, a simple random sample is selected from each subgroup. This method when the population being studied is difficult to identify or access through traditional
ensures that the sample includes specific characteristics that the researcher wants to sampling methods. Snowball sampling is particularly useful when studying hard-to-
be represented. It is used when there is an imbalance in the population on a reach or marginalized populations. However, it may lead to a biased sample because
characteristic, and the researcher wants to ensure proportional representation of the characteristics of the individuals who are referred to the study may not be
these characteristics in the sample. representative of the entire population. An example of snowball sampling is when a
Multistage Cluster Sampling: In multistage cluster sampling, the researcher researcher asks initial participants to refer other potential participants to the study.
selects a sample in two or more stages because it may be difficult to obtain a complete
list of the members of the population. The population is first divided into clusters, and Sample Size
then a random sample of clusters is selected. Finally, a random sample of individuals Sample size is a critical consideration in research, as it directly impacts the reliability
or units is selected from within each chosen cluster. This method is used when the and generalizability of study findings. The determination of an appropriate sample
population is large or when it is challenging to identify and locate individual members size is influenced by various factors, including the research design, statistical power,
of the population. It allows for a more practical approach to sampling when dealing desired level of precision, and characteristics of the population being studied.
with large or dispersed populations. In general, a larger sample size reduces the potential for sampling error and increases
the likelihood of obtaining results that accurately reflect the population. However,
Nonprobabilistic Sampling: In nonprobabilistic sampling, researchers select determining the precise sample size involves balancing statistical considerations with
individuals based on availability, convenience, or specific characteristics they seek to practical constraints.
study. This approach is less rigorous than probabilistic sampling and does not allow Some general guidelines for determining sample size in educational research include:
for generalizations to the population. Common nonprobabilistic sampling methods • Approximately 15 participants in each group for an experiment
include convenience sampling and snowball sampling. Nonprobabilistic sampling is • Approximately 30 participants for a correlational study
often used when it is not feasible to use probabilistic sampling methods or when the • Approximately 350 individuals for a survey study, with variations based on
research focus is on specific groups rather than generalizability to a larger population. several factors.
Researchers can also use sample size formulas, which take into account factors such Obtain Informed Consent
as confidence level, statistical test, and sampling error, to calculate the appropriate Obtaining informed consent is a crucial ethical requirement in research involving
sample size. Additionally, tables and software tools are available to assist researchers human subjects. Informed consent involves ensuring that participants are fully
in determining sample sizes based on specific statistical procedures and informed about the nature of the study, including its purpose, procedures, risks,
considerations. benefits, and their rights as participants, and that they voluntarily agree to participate.
Here are some key steps involved in obtaining informed consent:
What permissions will you need? 1. Provide Information: Researchers must provide participants with clear and
In most educational research studies, researchers need to obtain permissions from comprehensive information about the study. This information should include
several individuals and groups before they can gather data. Permissions may be details about the purpose of the study, the procedures involved, any potential
required from: risks or discomforts, the benefits of participation, and how the data will be
1. Institutions or organizations: Researchers may need permission from used.
institutions or organizations, such as a school district or university, to conduct 2. Ensure Understanding: Researchers should ensure that participants
research on their premises or with their members. understand the information provided. This may involve using lay language,
2. Specific sites: Researchers may need permission from specific sites, such
allowing participants to ask questions, and providing additional clarification
as a school or community center, to conduct research on their premises or
as needed.
with their members.
3. Participants or groups of participants: Researchers need to obtain 3. Voluntary Participation: Participants should be informed that their
informed consent from participants or groups of participants before they can participation is voluntary and that they have the right to withdraw from the
include them in the study. Informed consent involves providing participants study at any time without facing any consequences.
with information about the study, including its purpose, procedures, risks, and 4. Protect Confidentiality: Researchers should explain how participant
benefits, and obtaining their voluntary agreement to participate. confidentiality will be maintained and how data will be stored and used to
4. Parents of participants: If the participants are minors, researchers need to protect participants' privacy.
obtain informed consent from their parents or legal guardians. 5. Document Consent: Participants should be asked to provide written consent
5. Campus institutional review board: Researchers may need to obtain to indicate their agreement to participate in the study. A consent form
approval from their university or college's institutional review board (IRB) outlining the key information should be signed and dated by the participant.
before conducting research involving human subjects. The IRB reviews 6. Special Considerations: In studies involving vulnerable populations or
research proposals to ensure that they meet ethical and legal standards for sensitive topics, additional precautions may be necessary to ensure that
protecting human subjects.
participants fully understand the study and can provide informed consent.
To seek permission from the necessary individuals or groups, researchers should ask
for it formally in a letter. The letter should include the purpose of the study, the amount
of time required for data collection, the time required of participants, and how the data How will you administer the data collection?
or results will be used. Researchers should also state the specific activities they will Administering data collection involves the actual process of gathering data from
conduct, the benefits to the organization or individual because of the study, and the participants using the chosen instruments or methods. Here are some key
provisions they have made to protect the anonymity of study participants. By providing considerations for administering data collection:
this information, researchers can show a concern for the potential intrusion of the 1. Standard Procedures: Ensure that data collection procedures are
study into their workplaces and lives and set the stage for realistic expectations on standardized and consistent across all participants. This helps maintain the
their part. reliability and validity of the data.
2. Training: If data collection involves interactions with participants (e.g.,
interviews, surveys), ensure that data collectors are adequately trained in the
administration of instruments and in interacting with participants. This training
can help minimize bias and errors in data collection.
3. Ethical Practices: Adhere to ethical guidelines throughout the data collection
process. This includes obtaining informed consent from participants,
protecting their privacy and confidentiality, and ensuring that participants are
treated with respect and sensitivity.
4. Logistics: Consider logistical aspects such as scheduling data collection
sessions, arranging suitable locations for data collection, and providing any
necessary resources or materials.
5. Quality Control: Implement measures to monitor and control the quality of
data collection. This may involve conducting pilot tests, using standardized
protocols, and regularly reviewing the data collection process for consistency
and accuracy.
6. Data Entry: If data collection involves manual entry of responses or
observations, establish protocols for accurate and secure data entry to
minimize errors.
7. Participant Comfort: Create a comfortable and non-threatening
environment for participants during data collection to encourage open and
honest responses.