1

Introduction 4

Natural Disasters 10
Earthquakes 10
Types of Earthquake 11
Measurement of Earthquakes 11
Seismic Zones of the country 12
Impacts of earthquakes 12
Mitigation of earthquakes 13
Response 13
Current Developments 16
NDMA Guidelines on Earthquake Management 16
Landslides 17
Landslide vulnerability Zones in India 17
Causes of landslides 18
Impact of landslides 18
Roles and Responsibility of the Geological Survey of India (GSI) 18
National Landslide Risk Management Strategy (NLRMS) 19
Mitigation and Prevention of landslides 19
NDMA guidelines on Landslides 20
Wireless sensor network technology for landslide detection 20
Avalanche 20
Types of Avalanches 20
Causes of Avalanche 20
Mitigation 21
Prevention 21
Glacial Lake Outburst Flood 21
NDMA Guidelines on Risk Reduction 21
Tsunami 22
Tsunami prone areas in India 22
Causes of tsunami 22
Impacts of Tsunami 22
Actions undertaken to deal with the tsunami 23
Capacity Building in terms of Tsunami 23
Dos and Don’ts for Protection from Tsunami 24
NDMA Guidelines on the management of Tsunamis 24
Current developments 24
Lightning: A Disaster 25
Desert Locusts 27
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Meteorological Disasters 28
Cyclonic Storms 28
Classification of Tropical Cyclones 29
Cyclone prone areas in India 30
National Cyclone Risk Mitigation Project 33
Integrated Coastal Zone Management Project (ICZMP) 33
Types of Floods 37
Drought 48
Types of Drought 49
Causes of Recurring Drought in India 50
Geographical Spread of Drought 50
Impacts of Drought 51
Drought Prone Area Delineation Criteria 53
Key Variables for Monitoring Drought 53
Gradation of Drought Prone Areas 54
Drought Prevention 54
Drought Mitigation 56
Drought Preparedness 68
Institutions for Drought Monitoring 69
At central level 69
Central Drought Relief Commissioner 69
Crop Weather Watch Group 70
At state level 70
State Drought Monitoring Centres 70
Scientific & Support Organisations 70
India Meteorological Department (IMD) 70
Mahalanobis National Crop Forecast Centre(MNCFC) 70
Central Research Institute for Dryland Agriculture (CRIDA) 71
Ministry of Water Resources, River Development and Ganga Rejuvenation (MoWR, RD &
GR) 71
Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) 71
State Remote Sensing Application Centres (SRSACs) 71
NDMA Guidelines about Drought Management 72
Government Initiatives 73
Drought Management Manual 2016 73
National Rainfed Area Authority 76
Extreme Weather 79
Wildfires 80
Types of wildland fires 82
Forest fire distribution in india 82
Wildfires Hazard Mitigation 83
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Heat Waves 86
Causes of Heat Wave 87
Heat-wave Action Plan 89

Man-Made Disasters 91
Chemical Disaster 91
Nuclear Disaster 97
Biological disasters 105
Oil Spills 114
Transport Accidents 115
War & Armed Conflict induced disasters 121

Disaster Management 122

Regional integrated multihazard early warning system (RIMES) 124
Role of different actors in Disaster Management 125
Community-Based Disaster Risk Management (CBDRM) 126
Steps involved in CBDRM 126
2nd ARC recommendations on Building Community Resilience 128
Case Studies 128
Role of Technology in Disaster Management 129
Aerial Robotics - 129
Modern Cameras 130
Modern Communication 131
Social Media Solutions 132
Big Data 132

Structure of Disaster Management in India 135

Disaster Management Act, 2005 135
Institute framework at National Level 136
National Disaster Management Authority 136
National Institute of Disaster Management (NIDM) 137
Disaster Management Division in the Ministry of Home Affairs 138
National Executive Committee (NEC) 138
Other committees 139
Cabinet Committee on Security (CCS) 140
National Crisis Management Committee (NCMC) 140
National Platform for Disaster Risk Reduction (NPDRR) 140

National Policies & Initiatives 143

National Disaster Management Plan (NDMP), 2016 143
National Policy on Disaster Management (NPDM), 2009 145
Prime Minister’s 10-point Agenda 147
National Disaster Response Force 147
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State Disaster Response Fund (SDRF) 148

Disability Inclusive Disaster Risk Reduction 148
National Disaster Management Guidelines on Disability Inclusive Disaster Risk Reduction 149
Disaster Resilient Infrastructure 164
NDMA Guidelines on Minimum Standards of Relief Introduction 168
15th Finance Commission Recommendation on Disaster Management 172

International Cooperation 172

World Conference on Disaster Risk Reduction 172
First World Conference on Natural Disasters in Yokohama, Japan, 1994 173
Yokohama Strategy 173
Second World Conference on Disaster Reduction in Kobe, 2005 174
Hyogo Framework for Action (2005–2015) 174
2015 Third UN World Conference on Disaster Risk Reduction (WCDRR) in Sendai 175
Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015-2030 175
United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction (UNISDR) 178
Global Facility for Disaster Reduction and Recovery (GFDRR) 178
Asian Disaster Reduction Centre (ADRC) 178
Asian Disaster Preparedness Center (ADPC) 179
SAARC Disaster Management Centre 180
Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) with target related to Disaster Risk 181
Asian Ministerial Conference on Disaster Risk Reduction 181
Global Platform for Disaster Risk Reduction 182

Major Disasters 183

Case Studies- Disaster Management - Success Stories 185

Traditional knowledge for disaster management, Andaman and Nicobar Tsunami 2004- 185
Public Address System saves life in Puducherry 185
Cyclone Fani & Cyclone Phailin 186

Introduction
Crisis
● an unstable or crucial time or state of affairs in which a decisive change is impending; especially,
one with the distinct possibility of a highly undesirable outcome.
● may be defined as “an emergency situation arising out of natural or human activity which poses a
threat to human life and property or leads to large scale disruption of normal life”.
Crisis can be classified as follows:
(i) By acts of nature-
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● Climatic events: cyclones and storms (associated sea erosion), floods and drought
● Geological events: earthquakes, tsunamis, landslides and avalanches
(ii) By environmental degradation and disturbance of the ecological balance
(iii) By accidents which can be further classified into: industrial and nuclear mishaps and fire
related accidents;
(iv) By biological activities: public health crises, epidemics etc;
(v) By hostile elements: war, terrorism, extremism, insurgency etc;
(vi) By disruption/failure of major infrastructure facilities including communication systems,
large-scale strikes etc; and
(vii) By large crowds getting out of control.

Hazard
● a dangerous condition or event that threatens or has the potential for causing injury to life or
damage to property or the environment
● a potential source of harm.
● Substances, events, or circumstances can constitute hazards when their nature would allow them,
even just theoretically, to cause damage to health, life, property, or any other interest of value.

Disaster
The United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction (UNISDR) defines disaster as:
● “A serious disruption of the functioning of a community or a society involving widespread human,
material, economic or environmental losses and impacts, which exceeds the ability of the affected
community or society to cope using its own resources.”
● The UNISDR definition provides three important components of a disaster:
○ Firstly, there should be serious disruption or abnormality in life of people;
○ Secondly, the community cannot deal with the consequences on its own and;
○ Lastly, the consequences of the event must be faced by a ‘community’, i.e., a group of
people.

The Disaster Management Act of India defines disaster as, “A catastrophe, mishap, calamity or grave
occurrence in any area arising from natural or man-made causes or by accident or negligence, which
results in substantial loss of life or human suffering or damage to and destruction of property or damage
to, or degradation of environment and is of such a nature or magnitude as to be beyond the coping
capacity of the community of the affected area.

Thus, a disaster is the result of the combination of hazard, vulnerability and insufficient capacity to reduce
the potential chances of risk.

Difference between Disaster and Hazard:

Disaster Hazard

Definition Disaster is an event that occurs suddenly/ Hazard is a threat that has potential for
unexpectedly in most cases and disrupts causing injury/ loss of life or damage to
the normal course of life in affected areas. property/environment.
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It results in loss or damage to life,

property or environment. This loss is
beyond the coping capacity of the local
affected population/society. And therefore
requires external help.

Occurrence in overpopulated areas places with less population

Severity Critical consequences and more Severity of a hazard is low compared to a

catastrophic disaster- less critical consequences.

Avoidance Can be prevented May be inevitable

Similarities Both occur unexpectedly with little or no warning, produce negative effects, and require
immediate response.
Classification of Disasters

● As per origin - Natural and man-made disasters

● As per impacts - Minor or Major
● Natural disasters -
○ sudden ecological disruptions or threats
○ exceed the adjustment capacity of the affected community and require external
assistance.
○ Natural disasters can be broadly classified into categories including -
■ geophysical - earthquakes and volcanic eruptions;
■ hydrological - floods;
■ meteorological - hurricanes;
■ climatological - heat and cold waves and droughts; and
■ biological - epidemics.
● Man-made disasters - can include hazardous material spills, fires, groundwater contamination,
transportation accidents, structure failures, mining accidents, explosions and acts of terrorism.
● Hazards are also distinguished on the basis of timing:
○ Slow Onset Disasters:
■ develop over a long period of time.
■ can be predicted by early warning systems.
■ Examples - droughts, landslides, desertification, cyclones, etc.
○ Rapid Onset Disasters:
■ appear suddenly without early warnings.
■ Examples - fires, flash floods, cloudburst, volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, etc.

Vulnerability
● means the inability (of a system or a unit) to withstand the effects of a hostile environment.
● It signifies the extent of exposure of the people to suffer damage due to hazards.
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● Acc. to UNISDR Vulnerability is “a set of prevailing or consequential conditions arising from

various physical, social, economic and environmental factors, which increase the susceptibility of
a community to the impact of hazards”.
Vulnerability = (Exposure ) + (Resistance) + (Resilience)
where, Exposure: at risk property and population;
Resistance: Measures taken to prevent, avoid or reduce loss;
Resilience: Ability to recover prior state or achieve desired post-disaster state.
● Factors Responsible for Increased Vulnerability
○ Natural Factors: Geo-Climatic Conditions, Topographic features
○ Human-Induced Factors: Population growth, urbanization, industrialization, non scientific
development practices
Types of Vulnerability:

Physical Social Vulnerability Economic Vulnerability Environmental

Vulnerability Vulnerability

Meaning Potential impact Potential impact on Potential impact on Potential impact

on the Physical society especially economic assets and on biosphere
Environment vulnerable sections processes

Direct ● Infrastructural ● Fatalities and ● Interrupted economic ● Sedimentation

Losses damage injuries activities and Pollution
● Loss of ● Loss of productive ● Destruction of
Employment human capital ecological
● Homelessness ● Economic burden of zones
● Women, response and relief
children, elderly
and specially
abled persons
are exposed to
higher risks

Indirect ● Progressive ● Disease Spread ● Increased inflation, ● Loss of

Losses deterioration ● Permanent unemployment and Biodiversity
of damaged disability poverty
infrastructure ● Low social ● Lower investments
in the cohesion ● Reduced Service
absence of sector activities
repair and ● Burden on Insurance
maintenance sector
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Risk is a “measure of the expected losses due to a hazard event occurring in a given area over a specific
time period. Risk is a function of the probability of a particular hazardous event and the losses each
would cause.”

The terms "hazard" and "risk" are often used interchangeably. However, in terms of risk assessment,
these are two very distinct terms.
● A hazard is an agent that can cause harm or damage to humans, property, or the environment.
● Risk is the probability that exposure to a hazard will lead to a negative consequence, or more
simply, a hazard poses no risk if there is no exposure to that hazard.
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Risk = Hazard * Vulnerability * Capacity to Cope

The risk of a disaster increases when as the frequency or severity of hazards increases, people’s
vulnerability increases, and people’s capacity to cope decreases.

Global Climate Risk Index, 2021

● Released annually by Germanwatch
● Analyses the extent of impacts of weather-related loss events (storms, floods, heat waves etc.).
● Quantitative Analysis in terms of fatalities and impact of extreme weather events
● Aims at contextualising ongoing climate policy debates, especially the International climate
negotiations
● Four Indicators: Death toll, deaths per 100000 inhabitants, absolute losses in PPP and losses
per GDP unit
Highlights of the Report:
● Most Affected Countries in 2019: Mozambique, Zimbabwe and the Bahamas
● Most affected countries between 2000 and 2019: Puerto Rico, Myanmar and Haiti
● Loss between 2000 and 2019: 11000 extreme weather events occurred across globe; 475000 people
lost their lives and economic loss: around US$2.56 trillion (in purchasing power parties)
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● Storms and cyclones were one of the major causes of damages in 2019. Of the ten most affected
countries, six were hit by tropical cyclones
● Climate change and extreme weather events cause the most distress to the countries which are still
developing and have a lower coping capacity. Eight out of the ten most affected belong to the low to
lower-middle-income category

India’s Status on the Report:

● India ranked 7th with a CRI score of 16.67.

● In 2019, the extended period of monsoon resulted into floods leading to death: 1800 people across 14
states; migration: 1.8 million people; economic loss: US$10 billion
● Eight tropical cyclones hit the country in 2019; worst: “Cyclone Fani” which affected 28 million people,
economic losses of US$8.1 billion

Global Risk Report, 2021

● Released by World Economic Forum (WEF)
● Aim: To highlight the risks and consequences of widening inequalities and increasing societal
fragmentation, due to the COVID-19 pandemic, in 2021 and over the next decade.
Key Highlights of the Report:

● Impact of Covid-19: huge immediate human and economic cost; increasing global poverty and
inequality; reduced social cohesion and global cooperation
● Climate concerns: The report has described these threats as an existential threat to humanity.
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● Widening digital gaps: Accelerated Digitalization has resulted in widening the digital gap
between individuals and across countries and aggravating existing inequalities, polarization, and
regulatory uncertainties.
● Intensifying pressures on businesses: Businesses under increasing pressures from
inward-looking national agendas, greater market concentration, and popular scrutiny and volatility.

Recommendations:

● Formulating analytical frameworks that take a holistic and systems-based view of risk impacts.
● Investing in high-profile risk champions to encourage national leadership and international
cooperation.
● Improving risk communications and combating misinformation.
● Exploring new forms of public-private partnership on risk preparedness.

Disaster Management
Disaster Management is defined as an integrated process of planning, organizing, coordinating, and
implementing measures that are necessary for-

1. Preventing occurrence of any disaster

2. Reducing the risk of any disaster or its consequences
3. Readiness to face any disaster
4. Promptness while dealing with a disaster
5. Assessing the severity of any disaster
6. Rescue and relief measures adopted
7. Rehabilitation and Reconstruction of affected population and infrastructure

Need for Disaster Management

● As per the Institute for Economics and Peace between 1900 and 2019 the number of
disasters increased from 39 incidents in 1960 to 396 in 2019.
● Cost of addressing damage caused by natural disasters has risen from US$50 billion
per year in the 1980s to US$ 200 billion per year in the last decade.
● As per World Meteorological Organization (WMO) weather, climate or water hazards
have occurred every day on average over the past 50 years – killing 115 people and
causing US$ 202 million in losses daily.
● Poor bear the brunt: According to the World Bank’s Disaster risk management report,
developing countries suffer the greatest costs when a disaster hits. More than 95% of all deaths
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caused by hazards occur in developing countries, and losses due to natural hazards are 20 times
greater (as a percentage of GDP) in developing countries than in industrialized countries.

The disaster management life-cycle

The comprehensive approach to disaster management
comprises prevention, preparedness, mitigation, response
and recovery to ensure a balance between the reduction of
risk and the enhancement of community resilience, while
ensuring effective response and recovery capabilities.
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Prevention Preparedness Mitigation Response Recovery

Objective ● Ensure that human ● Ensure the organized ● Ensure long term ● Set of activities ● Restore and improve,
action or natural mobilization of measures for reducing implemented after the where appropriate,
phenomena do not personnel, funds, or eliminating risk of a impact of a disaster in facilities, livelihoods
result in disaster or equipments, and disaster. order to assess the and living conditions of
emergency supplies within a safe needs, reduce the disaster affected
● Reduce -avert- avoid environment for suffering, limit the communities to
the risk by getting rid effective relief spread and the pre-disaster levels.
of the hazard or ● Build capacities before consequences of the
vulnerability a disaster situation disaster, open the way
prevails to reduce to rehabilitation.
impacts

Activities ● Hazard Identification ● Prepare database ● Undertaking actions ● Rapid Needs ● Relief: Damage and
● Vulnerability related to basic based on past Assessment loss assessment;
Assessment common services experiences and ● Resource Mobilization Integration of needs of
● Capacity building of ● Ensure effective ● Ensure responsive vulnerable sections
knowledge
community and Contingency Planning evacuation, search into recovery; Restore
implementing agencies including inter alia, ● Mobilization of the and rescue of victims health and other social
● Early Warning (EW) availability of food community along with including vulnerable services
that reach and are reserve, emergency other actors like groups ● Reconstruction of
accessible to all reserve fund, seed NGOs, civil society, ● Emergency assistance destroyed and
● Public awareness reserve, health government including identification damaged housing;
● Frame inclusive facilities, warning organizations, etc of needs for affected restoration of
disaster risk systems, logistical population when infrastructure, water,
● Preparation of
management act and infrastructure, relief providing food, health sanitation and
policy manual, and shelves development plans, care, shelter, water communication
of projects. extensive public and sanitation , ● Rehabilitation:
awareness education and Livelihoods recovery
strengthening non-food items by ensuring access to
institutional ● Ensure safe spaces for income generating
mechanisms and vulnerable groups programmes and
employment schemes;
international
Facilitate the recovery
cooperation. of property and other
important documents.
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Role of different actors in Disaster Management

Community-based disaster management
● An approach to building the capacity of communities to assess their vulnerability to hazards
and develop strategies and resources necessary to prevent and/or mitigate the impact of
identified hazards as well as respond, rehabilitate, and reconstruct following its onset.
● a bottom-up approach
● Empowers the community to be proactive in disaster management and develop strategies
● The Great Hanshin Awaji Earthquake of 1995 hit the city of Kobe and other parts of Hyogo
prefecture in Japan causing serious loss of life and property. 85 percent of the people were
rescued by the community efforts.
● Elements of community involvement: partnership, participation, empowerment and ownership
by the local people
● Community can
○ Raise public awareness about disasters.
○ Coordinate disaster management and development activities.
○ Community capacity building at the social, economic and environmental levels.
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○ Educating people on how to mitigate the consequences of disasters during relief,

recovery and reduction preventive strategies periods.
○ Providing psychological support e.g. counseling for disaster survivors.
○ Tracking people down for family reunions after disasters.
○ Utilizing interpersonal communication for disseminating warning signals.
○ Familiar with the local logistics, resource and coordination plans.
○ Promoting the needs of marginalized citizens who are displaced or who have returned
but are living in substandard conditions.

World Disaster Report 2004

● Had ‘Building Community Resilience’ as its central theme.
Recommendations:
● Systematic assessment is badly needed to enable people to cope with, recover from and
adapt to risks and adversities at household and community level
● Strengthening social capital should be the primary objective in relief, recovery or risk
reduction; rather than a byproduct.
● People-centred approaches to development
● New institutional strategies and cross-sectoral coalitions to boost the resilience of local
livelihoods in the face of multi-dimensional risks.
● Good governance is essential for communities to thrive.

Role of media in disaster management

Pre-disaster
● Can influence the government to prioritize Disaster Risk Issues.
● It can help disaster mitigation experts create early warning systems. Emergency alerts using
TV, radio, cable services across the country can be very effective.
● To educate the community in recognising symptoms and reporting them early if found.
● Ensuring cooperation of the community in risk reduction by forewarning the people about the
consequences of their dangerous actions and operations.
During disaster
● Can assist the authorities, voluntary organizations and volunteers in reaching the affected with
assistance and relief.
● Cautioning the affected or to be affected people about the Dos and Don’ts, of scotching rumours
and preventing panic and confusion.
● Identifying the needy spots and focusing attention on them, giving details on impassable roads
and downed utility lines.
● Communicating the information in advance to enable to take the necessary steps to minimize the
losses of lives and property.
● It provides the outside world with a glimpse of what that affected community is dealing with.
Post-disaster
● Collection of material resources and the enlisting of man-power by appealing to the people to
come forward to render help.
● Helping the affected in establishing contacts with their closed ones
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● Keeping a watch and report on some anti-social elements who try to take advantage of such
situations
Negative Effects of Media
● The media may exaggerate some elements of the disaster and create unnecessary panic.
● Biased coverage for the purposes of sensationalism by choosing to capture only small incidents
of devastation leads to misreporting.
● Can create tremendous "congestion" in the affected area.
● Live coverage of critical operations can disrupt the counter-terrorism strategy of the forces, as
was observed in Mumbai 26/11 attacks.

Corporate Social Responsibility and Public-Private Partnerships

● Intersectoral collaboration is part of the Sendai framework for Disaster Risk Reduction
2015–2030
● Framework advocates that the government's responsibility to assume the leadership, regulation
and coordination role while the public and private sectors and civil society should collaborate
and create opportunities for collaboration, and integrate disaster risks into businesses’
management practices
● Businesses may help in creating value in innovative social investments in the community.
● Public-private partnership increases the effectivity and efficiency of disaster management.
● Provide immunity to governments against the financial shocks due to disasters
● Ensure Good Governance by improved observance and transparency, better results with
emphasis on planning and accountability during crisis.

Public-Private Partnership in Disaster Management

Challenges in PPP in Disaster Management
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Role of Technology in Disaster Management

Disaster management requires innovative thinking and fundamental changes like adoption of new
technologies, methods, procedures, etc. for better prediction of such hazards. For example, “SATARK”
(System for Assessing, Tracking, and Alerting Disaster Risk Information based on Dynamic Risk
Knowledge), TNSMART, Early Warning Dissemination System, etc.
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Important Technologies in the field of Disaster Management and their usage

Aerial Robotics -

● Helps organizations effective mapping, analyze damage in real-time, and ensure faster, cheaper
and efficient delivery of services even to inaccessible places
● With infrared cameras and advanced listening systems help in rescue missions
● Provide access to locations that would otherwise be inaccessible.
● For example, Drones were used to find missing individuals and monitor the terrain during the
Uttarakhand floods of 2013, providing authorities with vital updated information.
● potential to change humanitarian relief.

Modern Cameras

● High-definition cameras can help in real time monitoring of natural disasters

● Can provide a moving alternate to satellite imagery
● UAVs mounted with cameras can be directed flexibly with a high spatial and temporal
resolution.
● Rapid-deployment cameras can quickly track changing weather systems.
● High resolution camera helps in mapping the terrain crucial for efficient disaster relief efforts
● Cameras placed at a strategic point enable professionals to find potential danger points
before they become a serious problem during the rescue efforts.
● Infrared and night vision enabled cameras help on locating victims
● Deploying cameras enables responders to find the easiest and safest path to victims
● Gives clearer and more focused views which makes the rescue teams well verse with location
before they move in.
● Data and images can be collected from areas that are otherwise inaccessible, allowing for
greater information flow throughout the relief center crucial for rescue efforts.
● Monitor relief efforts and allow timely action whenever required.
● Help in Efficient Planning

Modern Communication
● Geographic Information System (GIS): Help planners with quality assessments and
direct development activities, selection of mitigation measures and implementation of
disaster preparedness and response plans.
● Remote sensing: Aid in the identification of hazardous locations, the real-time
monitoring of the planet's changes, and the early detection of numerous imminent
disasters.
● Satellite communication: Provides an effective communication channel in all weather
and situations thus, ensures efficient management and mitigation

Satellites for Disaster Management Applications

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A. International Efforts
● International Charter “Space and Major Disasters” is a venture between 17 space
agencies to provide free satellite data to those affected by disasters
● UN-SPIDER facilitates the use of space-based technologies for disaster management
and emergency response.
● UNITAR/UNOSAT (Geneva) provide United Nations funds, satellite analysis, training
and capacity building
● Sentinel Asia is a regional collaboration for satellite based emergency response in Asia
Pacific.
● Currently, the U.S. is putting up its third-generation advanced fleet of Tracking & Data
Relay Satellites (TDRS).
● Russia has its Satellite Data Relay Network.
● Europe is building its own European Data Relay System.
● China is into its second generation Tianlian II series.
● Canada has Satellite RADARSAT-2 and RADARSAT Constellation Mission in place
for efficient disaster management

B. South Asia Satellite (SAS or GSAT-9)

● A geosynchronous communications and meteorology satellite launched by India in
2017
● Application: reliable weather forecasting, efficient natural resource mapping, capacity
building by providing e-governance, telemedicine, e-education and e-banking services,
better connectivity and communication, disaster information transfer between member
countries.
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C. Indian Efforts
Gagan Enabled Mariner’s Instrument for Navigation and Information (GEMINI) device
● Launched by: Union Minister of Earth Sciences
● Salient Features:
○ A portable receiver linked to ISRO satellites
○ Can send signals up to 300 nautical miles
○ Map Potential Fishing Zones
○ Ocean States Forecast gives reliable information about the state of the ocean
○ Uses data from GAGAN (GPS Aided Geo Augmented Navigation) satellite
○ Provides only one way communication channel
● Objective:
○ Effectively disseminate emergency information and communication to fishermen beyond
the range of telephonic service providers

Other Indian Satellites

Satellite About

EOS-01 ● An earth observation satellite

● Intended for applications in agriculture, forestry and disaster management
support.

RISAT-2BR1 ● A radar imaging earth observation satellite

● Provide services in the field of Agriculture, Forestry and Disaster Management.

RISAT-2B ● A radar imaging earth observation satellite

INSAT-3DR ● An advanced meteorological satellite configured with an imaging System and

an Atmospheric Sounder.
● Middle Infrared band images provide night time pictures of low clouds and fog
● Imaging in two Thermal Infrared bands provides estimation of Sea Surface
Temperature (SST) with better accuracy
● Higher Spatial Resolution in the Visible and Thermal Infrared bands
● Carries a Data Relay and Search and Rescue Transponder

INSAT-3D ● An advanced weather satellite configured with an improved Imaging System

and Atmospheric Sounder.
● Designed for enhanced meteorological observations, monitoring of land and
ocean surfaces, generating vertical profile of the atmosphere in terms of
temperature and humidity for weather forecasting and disaster warning.

Social Media in Disaster Management

● Prepare citizens in areas likely to be affected by a disaster;

● Broadcast real-time information both for affected areas and interested people;
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● Receive real-time data from affected areas;

● Mobilize and coordinating immediate relief efforts;
● Optimize recovery activities.
● Ensure effective and targeted delivery of aids, identification, fundraising, etc.
● For example, many individuals and organizations used Twitter in 2015 to convey critical
information (helpline phone numbers, train timetables, relief counts, weather forecasts, and so on)
regarding the Chennai floods.
● During the Hudhud cyclone that struck Visakhapatnam, PWD officials created a WhatsApp
group that acted as the main tool of communication for sharing information.

Big Data and Disaster Management

● Satellite pictures, drone footage, simulations, crowdsourcing, social media, and global positioning
systems are all examples of data sources.
● According to research by the United Nations' Asia-Pacific Social Agency, technological
advancements, Natural disasters in the Asia-Pacific region have killed two million people
since 1970, accounting for 59 percent of global deaths. Climate CHange and Global Warming
has further increased frequency and intensity of floods, cyclones and droughts in the region.
● According to the research, the big data can assist to better predict disasters in the Asia-Pacific
area and decrease their impact.

Predictive Policies
● Social media monitoring can support disaster management with real-time information
on the victim location, effects and strength of the hazard.
● A sensor network powered by Big Data can assist mitigate disaster in the following ways:
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○ Flood and cyclone predictions are now based on computer simulations, and machine
learning can aid in predicting flood location and intensity.
○ Sensor webs and the Internet of Things can help earthquake early-warning systems
work more efficiently.
Efficient Resource Allocation
● With access to mobile network insights under the GSMA’s Big Data for Social Good Initiative,
humanitarian agencies can more efficiently monitor the flow of people in the impacted areas
aiding evacuation, response and recovery efforts (e.g. Arogya Setu App during COVID-19
pandemic in India).
● Satellites and drones use remote sensing to provide immediate evaluations of damage and
people affected, allowing disaster assistance to be prioritised.
○ Drought-affected millions of small and marginal farmers can benefit from public data such
as India's digital ID system (Aadhar).
Economic Mitigation Plans
● Disasters in Asia and the Pacific further increased the economic disparity
● Help identify people in danger and post-disaster identify beneficiaries of targeted relief
packages
● Typhoons in north and east Asia have resulted in significant reductions in fatalities and economic
losses because of big data applications.

International Cooperation

World Conference on Disaster Risk Reduction

The World Conference on Disaster Risk Reduction is a series of United Nations conferences focusing
on disaster and climate risk management in the context of sustainable development.
The United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction (UNISDR) is the coordinating body
The World Conference has been convened three times. Every conference was hosted by Japan:
1. Yokohama in 1994
2. Hyogo in 2005
3. Sendai in 2015

First World Conference on Natural Disasters in Yokohama, Japan, 1994

It adopted the Yokohama Strategy for a Safer World: Guidelines for Natural Disaster Prevention,
Preparedness and Mitigation and its Plan of Action.

Yokohama Strategy
Plan of Action
● Recognizing the human and economic losses as a result of natural disasters,
● Recalling to save lives and mitigate the effects of natural disasters,
● Recalling in adopting an integrated approach to catastrophe management and promoting a
culture of prevention
 24

● Recognizing the need for effective mitigation measures for sustainable economic growth and
development
● Reaffirming the Rio Declaration, which emphasises the international community to aid affected
countries
● Reaffirming the role of the UN Secretary General in promoting and directing IDNDR activities,
● Emphasizing the need for the United Nations system to pay special attention to the least
developed and land-locked countries and small island developing States,
● Responding to the request of the General Assembly in its resolution 48/188 to:
A. Review the Decade's accomplishments at the national, regional, and international levels;
B. Plan a future course of action;
C. Exchange information on the implementation of Decade programmes and policies;
D. Raise awareness of the importance of disaster reduction policies;
➔ Emphasises on Global partnership to build a safer world, based on common interest,
sovereign equality, and shared responsibility to save human lives, protect human and natural
resources, and the environment
➔ Inviting all countries to protect individuals from physical injuries and traumas, protect property,
and contribute to progress and stability

Second World Conference on Disaster Reduction in Kobe, 2005

Hyogo Framework for Action (2005–2015)

Building the Resilience of Nations and Communities to Disasters.
It is the first plan to explain, describe and detail the role of all different sectors and actors to reduce
disaster losses.
During 2005 to 2015, set five specific priorities for action.
● Making disaster risk reduction a priority;
● Improving risk information and early warning;
● Building a culture of safety and resilience;
● Reducing the risks in key sectors;
● Strengthening preparedness for response.

2015 Third UN World Conference on Disaster Risk Reduction (WCDRR) in

Sendai
The conference adopted the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015–2030.
It was endorsed by the UN General Assembly in June 2015.

Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015-2030

It is the successor agreement to the Hyogo Framework for Action (2005–2015).
It is a comprehensive framework with achievable targets, and a legally-based instrument for disaster
risk reduction.
 25

Emphasized the need to tackle disaster risk reduction and climate change adaptation when setting the
Sustainable Development Goals, particularly in light of an insufficient focus on risk reduction and
resilience in the original Millennium Development Goals.

The Sendai Framework sets four specific priorities for action:

● Understanding disaster risk;
● Strengthening disaster risk governance to manage disaster risk;
● Investing in disaster risk reduction for resilience;
● Enhancing disaster preparedness for effective response, and to "Building Back Better" in
recovery, rehabilitation and reconstruction.

Global targets:
● Reduce global disaster mortality - Substantially reduce global disaster mortality by 2030,
aiming to lower average per 100,000 global mortality between 2020-2030 compared to
2005-2015;
● Reduce the number of affected people - Substantially reduce the number of affected people
globally by 2030, aiming to lower the average global figure per 100,000 between 2020-2030
compared to 2005-2015;
● Reduce disaster economic loss - Reduce direct disaster economic loss in relation to global
gross domestic product by 2030. Substantially reduce disaster damage to critical infrastructure
and disruption of basic services, among them health and educational facilities, including through
developing their resilience by 2030;
● Increase the number of countries with national and local disaster risk reduction strategies by
2020;
● Enhance international cooperation - Enhance international cooperation to developing countries
through adequate and sustainable support to complement their national actions for
implementation of the framework by 2030;
● Improved warning system - Substantially increase the availability of and access to multi-hazard
early warning systems and disaster risk information and assessments to the people by 2030.
 26

Priorities:
1. Understanding Risk: It is a priority 1 under Sendai Framework. It involves
a) Observation Networks, Research, Forecasting,
b) Zoning / Mapping,
c) Monitoring and Warning Systems,
d) Hazard Risk and Vulnerability Assessment (HRVA), and
e) Dissemination of Warnings, Data, and Information.
Having adequate systems to provide warnings, disseminate information is an integral part of improving
the understanding of risk.

2. Inter-Agency Coordination: The major areas where improvement in top level interagency coordination
is required are: Overall disaster governance, Response, Providing warnings, information, and data and
Non-structural measures.

3. Investing in DRR –
● Structural Measures: These consist of various physical infrastructure and facilities required
to help communities cope with disasters.
● Non-Structural Measures: consist of laws, norms, rules, guidelines, and techno-legal regime
(e.g., building codes) etc. and empower the authorities to mainstream disaster risk reduction and
translate disaster resilience into development activities.

4. Capacity Development: includes training programs, curriculum development, large- scale awareness
creation efforts, and carrying out regular mock drills and disaster response exercises.

United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction (UNISDR)

● Formed in 1999 as a specialised secretariat to aid in the execution of the International Strategy for
Disaster Reduction (ISDR).
● Headquarters - Geneva, Switzerland
● Its mission is to serve as the focal point for disaster reduction coordination within the United
Nations system, as well as to guarantee that disaster reduction initiatives are coordinated.
● It is a UN Secretariat organisational unit overseen by the UN Special Representative of the
Secretary General for Disaster Risk Reduction (SRSG).
● Functions as the custodian of the Sendai Framework, helping nations and society in its
implementation, monitoring, and assessment of progress.
● UNISDR's Strategic Framework 2016-2021 has a vision to significantly reduce catastrophe risk
and losses for a sustainable future.

Global Facility for Disaster Reduction and Recovery (GFDRR)

● Founded in September 2006 as a global partnership between the World Bank, UN agencies, and
bilateral donors; to assist poor nations in better understanding and reducing their susceptibility
to natural disasters and climate change.
● It is a World Bank-managed grant-funding mechanism that supports disaster risk management
programmes all around the world.
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● Objectives:
○ to integrate disaster risk reduction and climate change adaptation (CCA) into national
development plans, and
○ Under the International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (ISDR) system, to develop and
strengthen global and regional collaboration among various stakeholders.

Asian Disaster Reduction Centre (ADRC)

Founded in Kobe, Hyogo Prefecture, in 1998.
ADRC seeks to construct disaster-resilient communities and to establish networks among countries.

Mission and Objectives

● To Enhance Disaster Resilience of the Member Countries.
● To Build Safe Communities.
● To Create a Society Where Sustainable Development is Possible.

ADRC works with a number of United Nations (UN) agencies and international organisations to address
disaster risk reduction from a global perspective.

Asian Disaster Preparedness Center (ADPC)

● Autonomous international organisation that aims to improve people's and institutions'
resilience to disasters and the effects of climate change throughout Asia and the Pacific.
● Founded in 1986 to provide countries in the region with comprehensive technical services in the
social and physical sciences to promote long-term risk reduction and climate resilience solutions.
● Assists countries in developing disaster risk reduction systems, institutional mechanisms, and
capacities in order to become more resilient to a variety of hazards
● Creates and provides specialised capacity-building and training courses at all levels, as well
as enhancing the capacities of national training centres on disaster risk reduction.
● Supports: the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction, the Sustainable Development
Goals (SDGs), the New Urban Agenda, the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate
Change, the World Humanitarian Summit in 2016, and other relevant international frameworks
● Bangladesh, Cambodia, China, India, Nepal, Pakistan, the Philippines, Sri Lanka, and
Thailand are the nine founding members of the ADPC.
● Headquarters - Bangkok
○ Offices in Myanmar, Bangladesh, and Sri Lanka.

Approach
● Intends to promote a more integrated approach to the organization's operations.
● It is guided by the post-2015 development agenda, aiming to support the Sendai Framework for
Disaster Risk Reduction, Sustainable Development Goals, Paris Climate Agreement and the
World Humanitarian Summit.
● Risk governance, urban resilience, climate resilience, health risk management,
preparedness for response, and resilient recovery are the six strategic themes, while
 28

gender and diversity, poverty and livelihoods, and regional and transboundary cooperation
are the three cross-cutting themes.

Regional integrated multihazard early warning system (RIMES)

● Established in 2009 as an international and intergovernmental body registered with the
United Nations.
● 45 countries in the Asia Pacific and Africa Region own and manage the affairs of the body.
● India is the chairman of RIMES
● It evolved in the aftermath of the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami, to establish a regional early
warning system within a multi-hazard framework
● Generates and communicates early warning signals for preparedness and response to
transboundary hazards.
● Regional early warning center located at the campus of the Asian Institute of Technology in
Pathumthani, Thailand.
● RIMES comprises of-
➢ 21 member states- Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Cambodia, Comoros, Djibouti, India,
Kenya, Laos, Madagascar, Maldives, Mongolia, Mozambique, Myanmar, Nepal, Papua
New Guinea, Philippines, Seychelles, Sri Lanka, Timor-Leste, Tonga, and Yemen.
➢ 27 collaborating countries- Armenia, Bhutan, China, Cook Islands, Eritrea, Marshall
Islands, Mauritius, Indonesia, Fiji, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyz Republic, Pakistan, Federated
States of Micronesia, Russian Federation, Samoa, Solomon Islands, Sudan, Tajikistan,
Thailand, Tanzania, Tuvalu, Vietnam, Vanuatu, Zambia, Uzbekistan, Malawi, and Somalia.
● The mandate of RIMES includes-
➢ Monitoring of hazards, its detection, analysis, prediction, and forecasting
➢ Risk assessment
➢ Potential impact analysis
➢ Generation of risk information at different time scales
➢ Risk communication
➢ Decision-making based on risk information.

SAARC Disaster Management Centre

● Set up at Gujarat Institute of Disaster Management (GIDM) Campus,Gujarat in 2017.
● Serves eight member countries of SAARC namely Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan Sri
Lanka, Afghanistan and Bangladesh.
● Aim:
○ To provide policy advice, technical support on system development, capacity building
services and training for holistic management of disaster risk in the SAARC region.
○ It also facilitates exchange of information and expertise for effective and efficient
management of disaster risk.
 29

Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) with target related to Disaster Risk

● Disaster risk reduction (DRR) is an important aspect of social and economic development, and it
is required if progress is to be long-term.
● The United Nations' 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development acknowledges and underscores
the urgent need to reduce disaster risk. Even if disaster risk reduction isn't explicitly stated,
there are various SDGs and targets that can help reduce disaster risk and increase resilience.
● The interrelationship between disaster risk reduction and sustainable development is reaffirmed
by targets related to promoting education for sustainable development under SDG 4, such as
building and upgrading education facilities and ensuring healthy lives, as well as targets under
SDG 11 (cities) and SDG 9 (building resilient infrastructure), among others.

Paris Agreement at CoP 21

In the Paris Agreement, adopted at the 21st Conference of Parties to United Nations Framework
Convention on Climate Change in 2015, Member States committed to holding the global average
temperature increase to well below 2°C above pre-industrial levels and to pursue efforts to limit
the increase to 1.5°C, with the aim to “significantly reduce the risks and impacts of climate change”

Asian Ministerial Conference on Disaster Risk Reduction

It is an intergovernmental conference held to discuss disaster mitigation. The conference has been
held in collaboration with the United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction (UNISDR).
Objective
● Transforming the commitments made in Sendai by the governments into visible action.
● Deciding the direction for implementation and monitoring of the Sendai Framework

A ten point agenda was set.

1. Disaster resilient infrastructure should be Developed
2. Insurance coverage to all should be there, whether poor or rich.
3. To ensure greater involvement and leadership of women in disaster risk management.
4. To identify Seismic zones based on high and low risk and map the risks globally.
5. To map and exchange expertise, technology and resources in a collaborative way
6. To make universities for disaster issues in coastal regions and the hill cities.
7. To utilize social media in transforming the disaster response.
8. To enhance local capacity based on using the best traditional practices.
9. Promote Research and development.
10. Bring about greater cooperation among international response to disasters.

Global Platform for Disaster Risk Reduction

● Meets biannually and assesses the progress made in the implementation of the Sendai
Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction (SFDRR)
● In Cancun, Mexico meet in 2017 NDMA Guidelines on Museums was launched
 30

United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs

(UNOCHA)
formed in December 1991 by the General Assembly to strengthen the response of United Nations
Organizations to complex emergencies and natural disasters.
● United Nations Disaster Assessment and Coordination (UNDAC): A standby team of
disaster management professionals which are nominated and funded by member
governments, UNOCHA, UNDP and WFP, UNICEF and WHO. India joined in 2001.
● International Search and Rescue Advisory Group (INSARAG): Deals with urban search and
rescue (USAR) related issues. Members of INSARAG are both earthquake-prone and
responding countries and organisations. Instructors from India participate in the mock exercises
organized by the INSARAG. India was the Chairman of INSARAG Asia Pacific Regional
Group in 2005-06.

Disaster Management in India

Need for Disaster Management in India
As per the 2nd ARC Report
● India is very vulnerable to natural hazards because of its unique geo-climatic conditions.
● Almost 85% of the country is vulnerable to single or multiple disasters and about 57% of its
area lies in high seismic zones.
● 40 million hectares of the country’s land area is prone to flood
● 68% of the area is susceptible to drought
● Investment in disaster prevention and mitigation is highly cost effective: for example, every
dollar spent on mitigation saves three to five dollars on relief and rehabilitation
● Long-term benefits of crisis prevention and mitigation have not been incorporated into
planning and administrative systems

History of Disaster Management in India

● The Constitution of India does not explicitly provide for disaster management in India.
○ Listed under the residuary powers of the Union Government and parliament has the
competence to legislate on this subject.
● Following the declaration of the decade of 1990 as the ‘International Decade for Natural Disaster
Reduction’ (IDNDR) by the UN General Assembly, India set up a disaster management cell
under the Ministry of Agriculture in the 1990s.
● In 1999 A high powered committee under the chairmanship of J.C. Pant
● Disaster Management division came under Home Ministry
● A detailed chapter on Disaster Management in Tenth Five Year Plan
● 12th Finance Commission mandated review the financial arrangements for Disaster
Management.
● Enactment of National Disaster Management Act, 2005 and establishment of National Disaster
Management Authority (NDMA)
 31

Recommendations of [Link] Committee on Disaster Management

● Emphasized a "Culture of Preparedness".
● Aocated for hazard evaluation and risk assessment, human resource development and
updating of manuals, etc.
● Recommended setting up a system of quick response through a well-equipped network of
Control Rooms at the national, state, and sub-State levels.
● Emphasized networking of institutions and efforts to generate knowledge and awareness
about disasters.
● Advocated the involvement of the NGOs and media for the purpose of disaster management.

Institutional framework at National Level

Disaster Management Division, Ministry of Home Affairs:

● Responsible for response, relief and preparedness for natural calamities and manmade
disasters (except drought and epidemics).
● Coordinates with disaster affected State Governments, concerned line ministries/departments,
National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA), National Disaster Response Force (NDRF),
National Institute of Disaster Management (NIDM) and the Directorate General of Fire Services,
Home Guards and Civil Defence, and Armed Forces for effective disaster risk reduction.

National Executive Committee (NEC)

● It acts as the coordinating and monitoring body for disaster management.
● Chaired by the Union Home Secretary and comprises Secretary level officers from the
Ministries and departments having control of agriculture, atomic energy, defence, drinking water
supply, environment and forests, finance (expenditure), health, power, rural development, science
and technology, space, telecommunications, urban development and water resources.
● The Chief of Integrated Defence Staff of the Chiefs of Staff Committee, ex-officio, is also its
member.
Functions
● NEC is responsible for assisting NDMA in execution of various functions for disaster management
in –
○ Preparation - Prepare the National Plan to be approved by the NDMA; Prepare guidelines
for different ministries with respect to disaster management.
○ Implementation - Implementing the plans and policies of NDMA;
○ Coordination and Monitoring - Act as a coordinating and monitoring body for disaster
management;
○ Compliance - Ensuring compliance with the directives of Central Government;
○ Assisting - Provide necessary technical assistance to the State Governments and the
State Authorities for preparing their disaster management plans in accordance with the
guidelines laid down by the National Authority;
 32

○ Monitoring - Monitor the implementation of the guidelines laid down by the National
Authority for integrating measures for prevention of disasters and mitigation by the
Ministries or Departments in their development plans and projects. Monitor, coordinate and
give directions regarding the mitigation and preparedness measures to be taken by
different Ministries or Departments and agencies of the Government.
○ Evaluation - Evaluate the preparedness at all governmental levels for responding to any
threatening disaster situation or disaster and give directions, where necessary, for
enhancing such preparedness;

National Disaster Management Authority

● Apex body for disaster management,
● It consists of nine members with the Prime Minister as its ex-officio chairperson
● lays policies, plans, and guidelines for disaster management.
● Mandate to deal with all types of disasters – natural or human-induced.
● Responsible for general superintendence, direction, and control of the National Disaster
Response Force (NDRF)
● Lays policies and guidelines for National Institute of Disaster Management (NIDM)
● It oversees the provision and application of funds for mitigation and preparedness measures.
● Can also be assigned with the responsibility for the protection of cyber critical infrastructure.

National Institute of Disaster Management (NIDM)

● Nodal agency for human resource development and capacity building, research,
documentation and policy advocacy for disaster management as per NDMA guidelines
 33

● has built strategic partnerships with various ministries and government departments, academic,
research and technical organizations in India and abroad.
● It provides technical support to the state governments through the Disaster Management
Centres (DMCs) in the Administrative Training Institutes (ATIs) of the States and Union Territories.

National Disaster Response Force (NDRF)

● Established by the Ministry of Home Affairs to provide a specialist response to catastrophes in
2006 with 8 battalions (Presently 12) stationed based on the vulnerability profiles.
● Chairman of NDRF / Director General (DG): usually an IPS officer
● The 12 battalions (1149 Soldiers each):
○ Border Security Force (BSF): 3
○ Central Reserve Police Force (CRPF): 3
○ Central Industrial Security Force (CISF): 2
○ Indo- Tibetan Border Police (ITBP): 2
○ Sashastra Seema Bal (SSB): 2
 34

● Each battalion has:

○ 1149 Soldiers
○ 45 members including engineers, technicians, electricians, medical and paramedical
professionals, and dog squads.
● All battalions have been outfitted and trained to deal with both natural and man-made
calamities including chemical, biological, radiological, and nuclear incidents.
● NDRF International Operations
○ Nepal Earthquake – April 2015
○ Japan Tsunami – March 2011

Cabinet Committee on Security (CCS)

● Deals with issues related to the country's defense, law and order, and internal security,
policy matters concerning foreign affairs that have internal or external security implications, and
economic and political issues impinging on national security.
● CCS will be involved in decision making if the disaster has serious security implications.

National Crisis Management Committee (NCMC)

● Deals with major crisis that have serious or national ramifications.
 35

● These include incidents such as those requiring close involvement of the security forces
and/or intelligence agencies such as terrorism (counter- insurgency), law and order situations,
serial bomb blasts, hijacking, air accidents, CBRN, weapon systems, mine disasters, port and
harbour emergencies, forest fires, oilfield fires, and oil spills.

National Platform for Disaster Risk Reduction (NPDRR)

● Multi-stakeholders and multi-sectoral National Platform for Disaster Risk Reduction
● constituted by GOI on 26th February 2013.
● The functions of NPDRR are
○ Reviewing - progress made of disaster management from time to time
○ Appraising - the extent and manner in which the Disaster Management Policy has been
implemented by the Central and State Governments, and other concerned agencies, and
to give appropriate advice in the matter
■ Advising -
regarding coordination between the various levels of Government for development
of Disaster Risk Reduction
■ suo-moto or on a reference made by any level of Government

2nd Administrative reform commission Recommendations for above bodies:

● There is no need for a separate ministry/department of disaster management at the
national or the state level.
● The NEC need not be constituted, and the NCMC can continue to be the apex coordination
body. At the state level, the existing coordination mechanism under the Chief Secretary may
continue.
● Notwithstanding the establishment of NDRF, the role of the Armed Forces, particularly the
Army, in coming to the aid of victims of disasters should be retained and the special capabilities
acquired by the Armed Forces in search and rescue and on-the spot medical attention need to
be maintained.

Institute framework at State Level

State Disaster Management Authority
● Head - CM (respective state)
● Function -
○ lays down the DM policies and plans in the state.
○ responsible to coordinate the implementation of the state Plan
○ recommend the provision of funds for mitigation and preparedness measures and
○ review the developmental plans of the different departments of the state to ensure
integration of prevention, preparedness and mitigation measures
○ approves the State DM Plan in accordance with NDMA.
State Executive Committee
● Head - Chief Secretary
● Function -
○ To coordinate and monitor the implementation of the National Policy, the National Plan,
and the State Plans for disaster management.
 36

○ To provide information to the NDMA relating to different aspects of disaster

management.
● Its powers and functions are almost a replica of the NEC at state level.

State Disaster Response Force (SDRF)

● As per the National Policy on Disaster Management 2009, the State Governments are
required to raise their own SDRF for quickly responding to disasters.
● These SDRF are placed strategically at suitable locations well connected to the airport,
rail heads and roads for their immediate deployment at the disaster sites.
● The SDRF can also be used for Community Capacity Building and Awareness
Generation programmes within the State.
 37

District and Local Level Authorities

District Disaster Management Authority (DDMA)

● set up by the State Government.
● consists of a Chairperson and seven members.
● Chairman - Collector or District Magistrate or Deputy Commissioner
● Works as a district planning, coordinating and implementing body for disaster management.
● Function - prepares the Disaster Management plan for the District and monitors its
implementation.
● It also ensures that the guidelines laid down by the NDMA and the SDMA are followed by all
the district-level offices.
Local Authorities
● Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRI), Municipalities, District and Cantonment Boards, and Town
Planning Authorities, which control and manage civic services ensure capacity building of
their employees for managing disasters, carrying out relief, rehabilitation and reconstruction
activities in the affected areas.
● They also prepare their disaster management plans as per the national and state guidelines.

2nd ARC recommendation

● State Governments may examine the need to incorporate provisions in the state disaster
management law and also the state laws governing local bodies to provide for a well defined
role to the municipal bodies and panchayat raj institutions.
● In larger cities (say, with a population exceeding 2.5 million) the Mayor, assisted by the
Commissioner of the Municipal Corporation and the Police Commissioner, should be directly
responsible for Crisis Management.

15th Finance Commission Recommendations on Disaster Risk Management:

● Except for the North Eastern States (10%), the 15th Finance Commission proposed that state
contributions to the State Disaster Risk Fund (SDRF) remain at 25%. Since the 13th
Finance Commission recommended the same arrangement, nothing has changed.
● Mitigation funds - In accordance with the rules of the Disaster Management Act of 2005,
mitigation funds should be established at both the national and state levels.
○ The Fund should be used to support community-based and local-level activities that
decrease hazards and enhance environmentally friendly settlements and livelihoods.
● Funding Priority Areas: 15th FC has also earmarked allocations for certain priority areas,
such as :
○ Funds for the National Disaster Response Force's expansion and modernization of
fire services, as well as the resettlement of erosion-affected individuals.
○ Funds for the National Disaster Mitigation Fund (NDMF), which will be used to
provide catalytic assistance to twelve of the most drought-prone states, manage seismic
and landslide risks in ten hill states, reduce the risk of urban flooding in seven of the
most populous cities, and implement erosion mitigation measures.
 38

● The 15th FC has suggested a total corpus of Rs.1,60,153 crore for disaster management in the
states for the period 2021-26, with the Union contributing Rs. 1,22,601 crore and the States
contributing Rs. 37,552 crore.

Financial Institutions for Disaster Management

National Disaster Response Fund (NDRF)

● defined in Section 46 of the Disaster Management Act, 2005 (DM Act).
● placed in the “Public Account” of Government of India under “reserve funds not bearing
interest“.
● managed by the Central Government for meeting the expenses for emergency response,
relief and rehabilitation due to any threatening disaster situation or disaster.
● It supplements the State Disaster Response Fund (SDRF) in case of a disaster of severe
nature, provided adequate funds are not available in the SDRF.
● Financed through the levy of a cess on certain items, chargeable to excise and customs
duty, and approved annually through the Finance Bill.
● Currently, a National Calamity Contingent Duty (NCCD) is levied on goods specified in the
Seventh Schedule to finance the NDRF
● Department of Agriculture and Cooperation under the Ministry of Agriculture and Farmer
Welfare monitors relief activities for calamities associated with drought, hailstorms, pest
attacks and cold wave/frost while rest of the natural calamities are monitored by the
Ministry of Home Affairs (MHA).
● Comptroller and Auditor General (CAG) audits the accounts of NDRF.

State Disaster Response Fund (SDRF)

● Established under the National Disaster Management Act, 2005 as recommended by the 13th
Finance Commission
● Utilized by the state governments to respond to declared disasters and fulfil emergency relief
expenditures.
● Every year, the Comptroller and Auditor General of India (CAG) audits it.
● Contribution:
○ For general category States and Union Territories: 75 : 25 (GOI : GOS)
○ For special category States and Union Territories (Northeastern States, Sikkim,
Uttarakhand, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir): 90 : 10 (GOI : GOS)
○ Centre’s annual contribution is distributed in two equal instalments
● Disasters covered: Drought, earthquake, fire, flood, tsunami, hailstorm, landslide, avalanche,
cloudburst, insect attack, frost, and cold waves

Prime Minister’s National Relief Fund (PMNRF)

 39

● Fund instituted in 1948 by then PM Jawaharlal Nehru, to assist displaced persons from
Pakistan.
● Currently used primarily to tackle natural calamities like floods, cyclones and earthquakes.
● Also used to help with medical treatment like kidney transplantation, cancer treatment and acid
attack.
● consists entirely of public contributions and does not get any budgetary support.
● accepts voluntary contributions from Individuals, Organizations, Trusts, Companies and
Institutions etc. The corpus of the fund is also invested in various forms with scheduled
commercial banks and other agencies.
● Disbursements are made with the approval of the Prime Minister.
● The fund is recognized as a Trust under the Income Tax Act and is managed by the Prime
Minister or multiple delegates for national causes.
● Contributions towards PMNRF are notified for 100% deduction from taxable income under
section 80(G) of the Income Tax Act, 1961.

National Disaster Response Reserve

● The 13th Finance commission recommended the creation of NDRR with a corpus of Rs.250
crore to meet the immediate requirement of relief material/equipment after a disaster.
● Aim is to mitigate the sufferings of the victims of the disaster which are beyond the coping
capacity of the States.

PM - CARES Fund
● Prime Minister’s Citizen Assistance and Relief in Emergency Situations Fund (PM-CARES Fund)
to deal with any kind of emergency or distress situation like posed by the COVID-19
pandemic.
● The Fund is a public charitable trust with the Prime Minister as its Chairman. Other Members
include Defence Minister, Home Minister and Finance Minister.
● The Fund enables micro-donations as a result of which a large number of people will be able to
contribute with the smallest of denominations.
● The Fund will strengthen disaster management capacities and encourage research on
protecting citizens.
● The Ministry of Corporate Affairs has clarified that contributions by companies towards the
PM-CARES Fund will count towards mandatory Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR)
expenditure.

National Policies & Initiatives

National Disaster Management Act, 2005
● Passed in 2005 by the government of India and came into effect in January 2006
● Aim: effective management of disasters and other concerns related to them.
● Objective: Prepare mitigation strategies, create capacity, and more in order to manage disasters.
● Features
➔ Nodal Agency: Ministry of Home Affairs
 40

➔ Institutional Structure: At the national, state, and district levels, it establishes a

systematic structure of institutions.
◆ National Level Important Entities:
● The National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA): Empowered to
frame disaster management policies and ensure that timely and effective
response methods are in place.
● The National Executive Committee (NEC): Established to assist NDMA
and is responsible for preparing the National Disaster Management Plan
and ensuring that it is "examined and updated annually."
● The National Institute of Disaster Management (NIDM): Provides
training and capacity building for natural disaster management.
● National Disaster Response Force (NDRF): Specially trained professional
troops to provide specialist catastrophe response.
◆ State and District level:
● Established to implement national plans and prepare local plans
○ State Disaster Management Authority (SDMA)
○ District Disaster Management Authority (DDMA)
➔ Finance: development of emergency response funds, the National Disaster
Response Fund, and other state and district-level funds.
➔ Civil and Criminal Liabilities:
● Anyone who refuses to obey orders is subject to a penalty of up to one
year in prison, a fine, or both under Section 51 of the Act.
● If this refusal results in the death of persons, the person responsible will
be sentenced to a maximum of two years in prison.
Challenges with the Act
● Absence of Disaster Prone Zones: Absence of declaration disaster prone zones curbs state’s
power to act and limits determination of scope of harm
● Neglects Progressive Behavior of Disasters: Does not take into consideration all those events
which are progressive in nature and cause substantial loss. For example, Diseases like Dengue,
Tuberculosis, etc. kill thousands of people every year yet they are not included in the Act.
● Structural Issues: Created various national level entities, each of whose functions appear to
overlap, making cooperation difficult. Local governments, the first responders, are scarcely
mentioned.
● Procedural Delays and Inadequate Technology: plagued by delayed responses, incorrect
execution of plans and policies, and procedural lags along with lack of technological capacity for
reliable disaster prediction and measurement makes it ineffective
● Lack of involvement of NGOs, CSOs and Local communities: Foester a hierarchical,
bureaucratic and command controlled mechanism and marginalized NGOs, local communities
and civic groups.

2nd ARC Recommendations on National Disaster Management Act, 2005

★ Primary Responsibility - Disaster/Crisis Management primary responsibility: State
Governments and Union Government: supportive role.
 41

★ Categorization of disasters - Should provide categorization of disasters (local, district, state or

national level) which along with intensity of each type will determine the authority primarily
responsible for dealing with the disaster and the scale of response and relief
★ The functions of the National Disaster Management Authority should be:
○ to recommend policies, to lay down guidelines for preparation of different disaster
management plans and standard operating procedures
○ to promote and organize vulnerability studies, research and evaluation
○ to advise on parameters of categorization and on declaration of national and state level
disasters
○ to develop expertise and knowledge in the field of crisis/disaster management and
disseminate to the field
○ to develop and organize training and capacity building programmes,
○ to coordinate the early warning systems;
○ to deploy specialized manpower and machinery in support of local/State Governments,
where required
○ to advise on constitution and use of the Disaster Management Funds and
○ to give recommendations on all matters relating to crisis/disaster management to the
government.
★ implementation of mitigation/prevention and response measures: State Governments and
the local authorities with the ministries/departments of Government of India : play a
supportive role.
★ Cast a duty to inform concerned authorities about any crisis on every public functionary
★ Create a uniform structure at the apex level to handle all crises, headed by the Prime Minister at
the national level and the Chief Minister at the state level. At the administrative level the structure
is appropriately headed by the Cabinet Secretary and the Chief Secretary respectively.
★ Make provisions for stringent punishment for misutilization of Disaster management funds
★ Local governments should be brought to the forefront for crisis/disaster management.
★ The NEC should be terminated, and the NCMC should continue to be the apex coordination
body. At the state level, the existing coordination mechanism under the Chief Secretary should
continue.

National Policy on Disaster Management (NPDM), 2009

● Developed in accordance with the Disaster Management Act of 2005.
● Vision - to create a safe and disaster-resilient India by building a holistic, proactive, multi-disaster
oriented, and technology-driven strategy.
● Features:
● The Policy covers all aspects of disaster management, including institutional, legal, and
financial arrangements; disaster prevention, mitigation, and preparedness, as well as the
techno-legal regime; response, relief, and rehabilitation; reconstruction and recovery;
capacity building; knowledge management, and research and development.
● It focuses on the areas where action is needed as well as the institutional mechanisms
that may be used to channel that activity.
● The NPDM takes into account the concerns of all members of society, including
differently abled people, women, children, and other marginalised groups.
 42

● The topic of equity/inclusiveness has been given appropriate consideration in terms

of granting aid and creating strategies for the rehabilitation of disaster-affected
populations.
● Aim: Through the involvement of the community, community-based groups, Panchayati
Raj Institutions (PRIs), local bodies, and civil society, the NPDM aims to bring openness
and accountability to all elements of disaster management.

Objectives
● Promoting a culture of prevention, preparedness and resilience at all levels through
knowledge, innovation and education.
● Encouraging mitigation measures based on technology, traditional wisdom and environmental
sustainability.
● Mainstreaming disaster management into the developmental planning process.
● Establishing institutional and techno-legal frameworks to create an enabling regulatory
environment and a compliance regime.
● Ensuring an efficient mechanism for identification, assessment and monitoring of disaster
risks.
● Developing contemporary forecasting and early warning systems backed by responsive and
fail-safe communication with information technology support.
● Ensuring efficient response and relief with a caring approach towards the needs of the
vulnerable sections of the society.
● Undertaking reconstruction as an opportunity to build disaster resilient structures and habitat
for ensuring safer living.
● Promoting a productive and proactive media partnership for disaster management.

National Disaster Management Plan (NDMP), 2016

● Published for the first time in 2016, revised in 2018.
● Aim/Goal: to make India disaster-resistant and reduce the damage caused by natural and
man-made disasters during and after they strike.
● India has integrated its national Disaster Management plan (2016) with the Sendai Framework
for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015-30 to which India is a signatory.
● provides a blueprint or guideline for government entities to follow during all phases of a
disaster.
● Objectives:
○ To improve disaster risk, vulnerability, and hazard awareness.
○ To improve disaster risk governance at all levels, from the national to the local.
○ To invest in disaster risk reduction for resilience through structural, non-structural, and
financial measures, as well as a comprehensive capacity building programme.
○ To increase disaster preparedness to respond more effectively.
○ To promote the concept of 'Building Back Better' in the areas of recovery, reconstruction,
and rehabilitation.
○ To reduce catastrophe risk and loss of life, livelihood, health, and assets by preventing
disasters and ensuring a considerable reduction in disaster risk.
○ Enhance resilience and mitigate existing disasters while preventing new ones from
arising.
 43

○ To encourage the implementation of comprehensive and integrated structural,

economic, social, legal, health, cultural, environmental, educational, political,
technological, and institutional actions to reduce hazard exposure and catastrophe
vulnerability.
○ To equip communities and local governments with the tools they need to manage and
mitigate disaster risks.
○ In all aspects of catastrophe management, to improve technical and scientific
capabilities.
○ To build capacity at all levels to respond effectively to multiple threats and to manage
disasters in a community-based manner.
○ To provide clarity on the various departments' and ministries' responsibilities and roles.
○ At all levels, establish a culture of catastrophe risk mitigation and prevention.
○ According to the NDMP, the central and state governments should work together on six
thematic areas of action:
■ Mainstream and integrate DRR and Institutional Strengthening
■ Capacity Development
■ Promote Participatory Approaches
■ Work with Elected Representatives
■ Grievance Redress Mechanism
■ Promote Quality Standards, Certifications, and Awards for Disaster Risk
Management
● After revision in 2018: NDMA has issued new instructions for resuming industrial and chemical
sectors after the lockdown period expires.
● Chemical Disasters, 2007, Management of Chemical (Terrorism) Disasters, 2009, and
Strengthening of Safety and Security for POL Tanker Transportation, 2010 are some of the
directives it has released.

Disaster Resilient Infrastructure

● Meaning: Developing or upgrading infrastructure considering the nature, intensity and frequency
of existing disaster risks along with future possibilities.
● In the backdrop of the Asian Ministerial Conference on Disaster Risk Reduction (AMCDRR)
2016, the Prime Minister of India had announced that India will work with partner countries and
stakeholders to build a coalition for promoting disaster resilient infrastructure.
● Also recognised that investment in new infrastructure will be crucial for sustainable
development.
● The objective is to generate new knowledge on hazard risk assessment, disaster resilient
technologies and mechanisms for integrating risk reduction in infrastructure financing.
● Need:
○ The Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction (SFDRR) highlights the role of
improved disaster resilience of infrastructure as a cornerstone for sustainable
development.
○ The SFDRR includes four specific targets related to loss reduction and Target (4) on
infrastructure is an important prerequisite.
 44

Structural and nonstructural measures in disaster resilient infrastructure

● Structural measures include physical construction and/or technological solution aimed to reduce
possible impacts of hazards, and achieve hazard resistance and resilience
○ include dams, flood levies, ocean wave barriers, earthquake-resistant construction
and evacuation shelters
● Non-structural measures use knowledge, practice or agreement to reduce disaster risks and
impacts, in particular through policies and laws, public awareness raising, training and education.
○ include building codes, land-use planning laws and their enforcement, research and
assessment, information resources and public awareness programmes.
● Based on structural and nonstructural measures, four broad thematic areas have been identified
○ development of disaster risk assessment methodologies, risk metrics and indicators
of sustainability for different infrastructure classes;
○ issues of standards, design and regulation for infrastructure development, operations
and maintenance;
○ financing for disaster resilient infrastructure including risk transfer mechanisms;
○ reconstruction and recovery of key infrastructure sectors after disasters.

Aspects in Disaster Resilient Infrastructure

● Disaster risk assessment: Assessment over short, medium and long term risks associated
with disaster based on time-series data on past hazards patterns (e.g. wind speeds, high flood
levels) and its capability to generate probabilistic risk assessments that can guide investment
in disaster resilient infrastructure.
● Standards of design and implementation: National frameworks for design and construction
standards need to be strengthened through better regulation, state-of-the-art technology
and innovation while ensuring accountability and maintenance.
● Financing: Develop disaster risk financing strategies at the national, sub-national and local
levels which may include budget reserve funds, catastrophic bonds, etc.
○ Lenders like banks should assess disaster risks for infrastructure assets on bank
balance sheets.
○ The cost of resilience for both short and long terms should be considered while
deciding optimal designs and standards.
● Post Disaster Reconstruction and Recovery Infrastructure: Systemic damage assessments
should be done for disasters of different magnitudes ensuring availability of liquid funds like
parametric insurance based on a rigorous analysis of data related to past damages and
losses to achieve sustainable structural designs.

Coalition for Disaster Resilient Infrastructure (CDRI)

● A multi-stakeholder global partnership of national governments, UN agencies and
programmes, multilateral development banks and financing mechanisms, the private sector, and
knowledge institutions.
● Launched by the Prime Minister of India at the UN Climate Action Summit, 2019.
● Aims to promote the resilience of new and existing infrastructure systems to climate and
disaster risks in support of sustainable development.
 45

● Members: 22 countries and 7 organisations.

● Thematic Areas: Governance and Policy, Risk Identification and Estimation, Standards and
Certification, Capacity building, Innovation & Emerging Technology, Recovery and Reconstruction,
Finance and Community based approaches.
● The CDRI Secretariat is based in New Delhi, India.

Challenges in Building Resilient Infrastructure

● Lack of Data Standardization: Spatial and temporal unevenness in data hinders good analysis
and estimation of the return periods of extreme hazard events.
● Changing Disasters: With rapid climate change, past events can’t be the absolute guide for the
future, particularly for the hydro-meteorological hazards, making the plans inadequate and
ineffective.
● Inadequate Operations and Maintenance Standards: This inadequacy may further increase
the impact of hazard events or even trigger new ones such as urban floods due to
inadequate maintenance of urban sewage systems.
● Inconsiderate for low frequency hazards which are hard to predict or model, challenge even
the most well designed infrastructure and may turn catastrophic.
● Gap in data for small-medium and large scale disasters: Presently, most of the systematic
data pertains to large disasters where damage and needs assessments are carried out using
internationally accepted methodologies but no such standards are available for small-medium
scale disasters. .
● Developing Nations’ Finances: High rate of climate based disasters in tropical developing
countries pose a greater economic threat and make infrastructure financing very difficult.
● Poor Socio-technological indicators in developing and under-developed countries: low
levels of literacy, skill development along with poor health standards and technological
backwardness make infrastructure resilience a far fetched dream.

Second ARC Recommendations on Disaster Resilient Infrastructure

● Include Structural prevention measures in long term disaster management plans for an area.
● Appropriate zoning regulations based on intensity of hazard anticipated need to be extended to
all areas.
● Strengthen the Town and Country Planning Departments of State Governments.
● Incentive based zoning regulations based on zonation maps at Local bodies level should be
promoted.
● Building bye laws should incorporate the disaster resistant features of buildings and
simplified guidelines should be issued to citizens.
● Prioritize implementation of codes in most hazard prone areas
● Compliance should be promoted and wider dissemination should be ensured.
● Set up Building Technology Demonstration Centres in rural areas and undertake
demonstrative disaster constructions in severe hazard prone areas to increase public awareness.
● Local Bodies should be strengthened and Enforcement of building regulations should be
professionalised by licensing architects and structural engineers for assessment of structures
and for certification of safe buildings.
 46

● The standards prescribed by BIS for disaster resistant buildings should be available in the
public domain, free of cost.
● Evaluation and retrofitting of existing government buildings, especially buildings housing
essential services should be prioritized.
● Scheduling of evaluation and retrofitting of such public buildings along with regulatory and
financial incentives by the local bodies should be planned
● Such measures should become an integral part of long term disaster/ crisis management
plans.
● Effective enforcement of laws on encroachments, public health and safety, industrial safety, fire
hazards, safety at public places should be ensured.
● Third party audit of all major alleged violations needs to be introduced in the respective
regulation governing the activity.
● All records pertaining to permissions/licenses should be brought in the public domain suo
motu.
● There should be periodic inspections of all such places/facilities by a team of stakeholders
assisted by experts.
● Scheme for enforcement of laws should be part of the long term mitigation plan.
● Public education on consequences of violations is important.

NDMA Guidelines on Minimum Standards of Relief Introduction

● Disaster Management Act (Section 12) mandates NDMA to recommend Guidelines for
minimum standards of relief to be provided to persons affected by disaster which shall include:
○ The minimum basic requirements to be provided in the relief camps including shelter,
food, drinking water, medical cover, sanitation
○ Special provisions to be made for widows and orphans.
○ Ex gratia assistance on account of loss of life, damage to houses and livelihood
restoration
○ State Authorities shall lay down detailed guidelines for providing standards of relief in
the state in compliance with the minimum standards in the guidelines laid down by the
National Authority.

Minimum Standards in respect of Shelter in relief camps :-

● Authorities to pre-identify locations / buildings which can be used as Relief shelters and are
well-equipped for such accommodation..
● After a disaster, to accommodate people large covered space shall be required for which
authorities should sign advance MoUs with manufacturers / suppliers of temporary camping
products to avoid delays
● In the relief centers, safety and privacy of inmates, especially for women, widows and children
should be ensured. Special arrangements for differently-abled persons, old and medically
serious patients.
● Relief centers shall be temporary in nature.
● Sufficient number of sites based on population density shall be identified as relief centers and
earmarked well in advance
 47

Minimum Standards in respect of Food in relief camps

● Milk and other dairy products for the children and lactating mothers.
● Ensure hygiene at community and camp kitchens. Date of manufacturing and date of expiry
on the packaged food items shall be kept in view before distribution.
● Ensure that men and women are supplied with a minimum calorie of 2,400 Kcal per day and
children / infants 1,700 Kcal per day.

Minimum Standards in respect of Water in relief camps

● sufficient quantity of water for personal cleanliness and hand wash.
● Ensure the minimum supply of 3 liters per person per day of drinking water which can be
adjusted by the authorities as per the geographic, demographic and social practices of the region.
To ensure safety at-least double chlorination of water should be done.
● Source of the water supply should be within the premises or within 500 meters of the relief
shelter /camp

Minimum Standards in respect of Sanitation in relief camps:

● 1 toilet for 30 persons may be arranged / built. Separate toilet and bath areas for women and
children. At least 15 liters of water per person needs to be arranged. Hand wash facilities in
toilets should be ensured. Steps may be taken to control the spread of diseases. Dignity kits
for women shall be provided with sanitary napkins and disposable paper bags with proper
labeling.
● Toilets shall not be more than 50 m away from the relief camps. Pit Latrines and Soak ways
shall be at least 30 m from any ground water source and the bottom of any latrine has to be at
least 1.5 m above the water level.
● Avoid drainage or spillage from the defecation system into surface water source or shallow
ground water source

Minimum Standards in respect of medical cover in relief camps:

● Mobile medical teams shall visit relief camps. Steps shall be taken to avoid the spread of
communicable diseases.
● Necessary arrangements may be made for psychosocial treatment.
● Helpline should be set up
● For pregnant women, necessary basic arrangements shall be made for safe delivery.
● Advance tie ups with the Govt / private hospitals and arrange suitable transportation to reach
the referred hospital.
● In order to manage mass casualties in a disaster, advance contingency plans for management
of multiple casualties shall be developed.

Minimum Standards of Relief for Widows and Orphans

● Maintaining a separate register of widowed women and children due to disaster, duly
countersigned by the concerned officials, kept as a permanent record with the District
administration.
 48

● Special care to them, certificate to widows shall be issued by the District Admn within 15 days
of disaster and similar certificates to orphaned children
● Reasonable amount for funeral rites to be given to the widows
● Necessary financial compensation and other government assistance need to be arranged
within 45 days of the disaster to the widow and to the orphaned children.
● For ex gratia assistance on account of loss of life, damage to houses and restoration of means
of livelihood, the norms provided by Govt of India (Ministry of Home Affairs) for assistance from
SDRF should be the minimum standards of relief.

Community-Based Disaster Risk Management (CBDRM)

A bottom-up approach in which at-risk communities are actively engaged in the identification,
analysis, treatment, monitoring, and evaluation of disaster risks to reduce their vulnerabilities and
enhance their capacities.
It is a process of change (attitude, behavior, and capacity) for enhancing the resilience of the
community.
The community is the first line of responders which makes it essential to educate them and impart
them with skills and training to ensure a coordinated response while dealing with a disaster.
● The Disaster Management Act 2005- Emphasises on developing the capacity of communities.
● National Disaster Management Policy, 2009- The policy recognizes community as the
bedrock of the process of disaster response and hence includes the Community Based
Disaster Preparedness.
● National Disaster Management Plan, 2016- The first national plan for disaster management in
India ensuring the pro-active involvement of communities, proper community outreach,
empowerment, and gender equity in program formulation and implementation to effectively
manage disasters. The plan emphasizes a greater need for Information, Education, and
Communication activities to prepare communities in coping better with disaster risks.

Steps involved in CBDRM

1. Community Preparedness- involvement of the community with their traditional coping
mechanisms to reduce their vulnerabilities with available resources which lead to multi-pronged
development interventions and to a self-reliant disaster-proof community. Following steps
can be undertaken-
● Community-Based Disaster Preparedness Plans (CBDP) can be prepared where the
community decides activities to prevent socio-economic losses during a disaster.
● Deliberation of responsibilities amongst the members of the community on receiving a
warning.
● Proper training would be provided.
● A well acquainted community for preventive and preparedness measures will
substantially reduce the damage caused by disasters.

2. Community Empowerment- Community capacity building where goals and strategies,

resources are decided and monitored by the community itself. Community empowerment
 49

demands their participation in risk assessment, mitigation planning, capacity building, participation
in implementation, and development of a system for monitoring the disaster risk.

3. Time and resource budgeting- Resource Inventory needs to be prepared to analyze the local
resources available within the community. A well-framed timeline needs to adhere to achieving
the desired results.

4. Convergence- Convergence of Government schemes and programs implemented at the

national and state level empower communities. Standard forums of convergence need to be
formally created and must have common points like community mobilization and awareness
generation and must devise locally and culturally appropriate participation methodologies.

5. Gender-sensitive CBDRM- Societies where the socioeconomic status of women is low,

natural disasters kill more women than men and also at a younger age than men. The reason
for this lies in the fact that women, in general, have unequal access to opportunities and
unequal exposure to risks, making them more vulnerable to natural disasters. Several steps can
be undertaken in this regard-
● Gender-inclusive elements need to be included such as gender-inclusive risk
assessment and vulnerability and/or capacity analysis and targets for women’s
involvement in developing risk and hazard maps.
● Ensure 40% of women’s participation in local disaster risk management committees
● Support skill-building on coping strategies that would facilitate women and girls in
disaster settings.
● A gender-sensitive early warning system using communication channels that are easily
understood, used, and accessible to both men and women.
● Regular preparedness drills involving both women and men are to be conducted.
● Ensuring that women and girls have relevant documents like identity cards and bank
accounts to access disaster response support.
● Support women’s organizations to organize microinsurance policies to allow
community women to protect their tools and sources of livelihood.

6. Inclusive approach- The special needs of physically and mentally challenged and socially
disadvantaged groups need focused attention particularly in the aftermath of a disaster
situation.

2nd ARC recommendations on Building Community Resilience

● Location-specific training programs for the community should be executed through the
panchayats.
● An appropriate component of disaster awareness should be introduced in schools, colleges,
universities, and in professional and vocational education.
● Disaster awareness should be included in training programs for elected leaders, civil
servants, police personnel, and personnel in critical sectors such as revenue, agriculture,
irrigation, health, and public works.
 50

● Orientation and sensitization programs highlighting issues and concerns in disaster

management should be taken up for legislators, policymakers, and elected leaders of urban local
bodies and Panchayati raj institutions.
● NIDM and NDMA would have to play a vital role in working out the details of these suggestions
for implementation by different authorities.

Case Studies
1. Flood at Kolhapur (2009)- in 2009 Kolhapur witnessed a devastating flood where the
waterlogging in the region resulted in cut off from other parts and help could not reach. With the
support of Aapda Mitra (Scheme of NDMA where volunteers selected from Civil Defence, Home
Guards, Youths, and community are trained in disaster response in the selected most flood-prone
districts of India), several got saved due to effective communication and efficient response
by the Aapda Mitra.

2. Cyclone Fani (Odisha, 2019)- The 2019 Cyclone Fani, a “rarest of the rare” summer cyclone,
could have wreaked huge casualties across the districts of Puri and Khurda but for the massive
pre-disaster planning undertaken by the state government. The government of Odisha
successfully managed to minimize the loss of life through a great community outreach
system by which people are being reached on time.
Through a network of shelters and committees and training, the state involved the entire
community to cope with the massive destruction that Cyclone Fani brought with itself.

3. Kutch Earthquake (Gujarat, 2001)- in 2001 a devastating Bhuj Earthquake killed between
13,805 and 20,023 people, injured another 167,000, and destroyed nearly 340,000 buildings. In
Kutch, the earthquake destroyed about 60% of food and water supplies and around 258,000
houses, 90% of the district's housing stock. But by 2003 94% houses could be repaired and 53%
were reconstructed. It was the result of the Gujarat Earthquake Reconstruction and
Rehabilitation Policy. The policy established a community-driven housing recovery process.
The communities affected by the earthquake were given the option for complete or partial
relocation to in-situ reconstruction.
 51

Disability Inclusive Disaster Risk Reduction

● Means building capacities of all DRR stakeholders to integrate disability needs in their
mitigation, prevention, preparedness and relief programmes
● Aim: to reduce the damage caused by natural hazards
● Integrates disaster management, mitigation and preparedness, considering the plurality and the
diversity amongst the persons with disabilities encompassing children, women, elderly,
scheduled caste, scheduled tribes, LGBT with disabilities.
● DiDRR considers the whole community but due to greater risk involved, it pays specific
attention to persons with disabilities and their families (as per the article 11 and 32 of the
Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities)

Need:

● Large Population: About one billion of the world's populations live with some form of disability".
Of the 26.8 million in India (2.2% of the total population) men with disabilities constitute 56% and
women with disabilities make up the rest 44% as per the Census 2011.
● Greater vulnerability due to physical limitations
● Higher mortality rate
● Lack of public sensitivity and associated taboos
● Disable women are highly prone to sexual and gender-based violence and trafficking during
disasters
● Increased vulnerability of children with a disability making them prone to crimes against them
and deprive them of basic education and health facilities
● Lack of adequate data especially regarding persons with psychological disabilities
● Poor planning results in limited access to services
● Lack of knowledge about the needs of such persons; Portable and temporary structures do not
focus on disability needs
● Lack of required skills and training to manage and help these people
● Lack of disability-specific critical care units at the time of emergencies
● Lack of Persons with Disabilities specific policies
● Lack of Disability oriented relief protocols and services

United Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities

● adopted in December 2006.
● marks a “paradigm shift” in attitudes and approaches to persons with disabilities.
● Change perception towards persons with disabilities from viewing them as “objects” to
“subjects” with rights,” who are capable of claiming those rights and making decisions
● a human rights instrument with an explicit, social development dimension and reaffirms
human rights and fundamental freedoms to persons with disability.
● identifies areas of adaptations to effectively exercise their rights and areas of protection of rights.
● obligates States parties to undertake “all necessary measures to ensure the protection and
safety of persons with disabilities in situations of risk, including situations of armed conflict,
humanitarian emergencies and the occurrence of natural disasters.”
 52

● Compels States to ensure and promote the full realization of all human rights and
fundamental freedoms for all persons with disabilities without discrimination of any kind on
the basis of disability
● recognizes the importance of international cooperation to address the limited capacities of
some States to respond to situations of risk and humanitarian crises.

National Disaster Management Guidelines on Disability Inclusive Disaster Risk Reduction

In September 2019, the NDMA issued comprehensive guidelines under the title, ‘National Disaster
Management Guidelines on Disability-Inclusive Disaster Risk Reduction, 2019’(NDMA 2019).
First comprehensive set of guidelines issued by any country globally on disability-inclusive
disaster risk reduction (DiDRR).
marked the responsibilities of ministries/line departments from national to local level for carrying out
work related to each dimension of the guidelines.

Preparedness and Mitigation Strategies:

● Prior mapping of locations of persons with disabilities,

● listing of resource needs; identification and mapping of health care institutions;
● location and mapping of special educators, therapists and professionals
● accessible transport facilities
● Ensure accessibility to health services and life-saving devices and medicines
● Organize periodic Mock drills for evacuation and training protocols to increase awareness
among them
● Ensure that warning alerts are suitable to the diversity of disabilities through repeated and
alternative formats such as audio and sign language
● Design a formal EWS for all persons with disabilities.
● Incorporate media advisories in formats accessible to the diversity of disability needs.

Response Strategies:

● Relief infrastructure should be made accessible

● Ensure delivery of necessary items through volunteers and trained relief workers
● Ensure availability of aids and assistive devices at the relief centres.
● Ensure availability of critical care units at relief centres
● Ensure accessible, safe and reliable transport para-transport for door-to-door evacuation

Recovery Strategies:

● Reconstruction needs to include disability-friendly infrastructure

● Ensure access to various reliefs and government schemes even for those with newly acquired
disabilities
● Ensure regional availability of specialized rehabilitation services

Women and Children with Disabilities specific strategies:

 53

● Establish safe houses for such women and children managed by women and children-oriented
organizations
● Ensure their rehabilitation by building their capacity and ensuring access to basic education
● Teachers and caregivers should be trained to deal with these children
● Strong child protection mechanisms need to be operational in a disaster region to protect the
rights of children and reduce their exploitation.

Elderly Persons specific strategies:

● Dedicated care homes should be set up to address the needs of elderly people
● Ensure access to resources especially, food, potable water, safe shelter and hygiene necessities
and sanitation

Marginalized section specific strategies

● Need for capacity building of persons with disabilities belonging to marginalised sections of the
society to connect them with the mainstream.

Persons with Psycho-social Disability

● Increase awareness about the rights of persons with such disabilities and connect them with
the mainstream
● Provide periodic counselling and services to prepare them for disastrous situations

Other Measures adopted by Government

● The National Policy for Persons with Disabilities 2006 includes the employment status of
persons with disabilities in post-disaster situations to ensure effective recovery and rehabilitation.
● Rights of Persons with Disabilities Act, 2016
○ Developed based on the United Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons with
Disabilities.
○ Identifies 21 disabilities and defines them as persons with long term physical, mental,
intellectual or sensory impairment which hinders full and effective participation in society
equally with others.
○ The RPWD Act mandates the participation of persons with disabilities in the DRR
process.
○ Article 8 of the act ensures them equal protection and safety in situations of risk, armed
conflict, humanitarian emergencies and natural disasters (referring the Disaster
Management Act 2005 clause (e) Section 2)
○ The District Disaster Management Authorities are mandated to:
■ maintain the records of these persons in the district
■ inform them of any such situations of risk to enhance disaster preparedness.
■ Consult the State Commissioners regarding the accessibility requirements of
persons with disabilities.
 54

● Rights of Persons with Disabilities Rules 2017 elaborate an implementable strategy

specifically in the accessibility of infrastructure, transport, information and communication
technology
● In September 2019, National Disaster Management Authority issued National Disaster
Management Guidelines on Disability Inclusive Disaster Risk Reduction (DiDRR) in line with
the above provisions.
● Mental Health Care Act 2017: Provides for an extension upto seven days for the period of a
medical emergency (which is limited to seventy-two hours or till the person with mental illness
has been assessed at a mental health establishment, whichever is earlier) during a declared
disaster
● National Disaster Management Guidelines on Psycho-social Support and Mental Health
Services (PSSMHS) in Disasters: Addresses the range of psychosocial and mental health
problems arising in the aftermath of disasters.

The other laws related to disability in the country do not mention disaster but provide the instruments to
access rights.

● National Trust for Welfare of Persons with Autism, Cerebral Palsy, Mental Retardation and
Multiple Disabilities Act, 1999 aims "to enable and empower persons with disability (persons
covered by the National Trust) to live as independently and as fully as possible within and as
close to the community to which they belong".
● The Rehabilitation Council of India (RCI) Act 1992/ 2000 Amendment regulates the training
and programs in the field of rehabilitation of persons with disabilities; standardizes courses;
recognizes institutions /organizations running rehabilitation courses. It also promotes research
and most importantly keeps a register for the registration of professionals in the field.

Comprehensive Disability-Inclusive Guidelines for the Protection and Safety of Persons with
Disabilities (Divyangjan) during COVID-19

Issued by the Department of Empowerment of Persons with Disabilities (DEPwD) under the Ministry
of Social Justice and Empowerment

Key Guidelines:

● Training: All persons responsible for handling emergency response services should be trained on
○ the rights of persons with disabilities.
○ the risks associated with additional problems for persons having specific impairments.
● Ensuring Essentials to PwDs: All states and UTs should ensure services like caregiver support,
supplies and medical aid at the doorstep of PwDs.
○ Caregivers should be allowed to reach PwDs by exempting them from restrictions
during lockdown or providing passes in a simplified manner on priority.
● Helpline Number: States should set-up 24x7 helplines for persons with disabilities.
● Information: All videographic awareness material related to COVID 19 should be with
subtitles and there should be sign language interpretation for persons with hearing
impairment.
 55

● For Resolving Disability Specific Issues: The states should make the State Commissioner for
PwDs the nodal officer to resolve disability specific issues during the crisis period

Disasters and Vulnerability of women

● Due to pre-existing structural gender inequalities, women are more vulnerable than men
● Women are more vulnerable to disasters due to their inferior economic, social, and political
status resulting into poor preparedness, response and recovery
● The following are some of the possible causes of increased vulnerability:
○ Socio-Culture Aspects:
■ Gender disparities in society, including access to basic human rights, level of
education and literacy, values, customs, and ideological convictions, makes women
more exposed to disasters than males.
○ Economic Aspects:
■ Limited Access to assets such as financial, human, social, and ecological capital
■ Poor social mobility leads to reduced economic opportunities and, as a result,
increased vulnerability.
○ Organization/Administration Aspects:
■ Public information and transmission are less effective in reaching these
groups. Volunteers lack a compassionate approach to coping with their
vulnerabilities.
■ There is a low level of engagement in decision-making.

Recommendations of 2nd ARC

● Pre-disaster phase:
○ Identified women vulnerabilities during the vulnerability analysis, and they should be
addressed as part of any mitigation effort.
○ Develop disaster mitigation plans in conjunction with women organizations.
● During disaster:
○ Women oriented relief measures should be devised
○ Through health care and counselling, special attention must be paid to their bodily and
mental well-being.
● Post-disaster or recovery phase:
○ Women's economic independence should be promoted by capacity building through
skill development, self-help groups, microfinance and marketing services.
○ Widows and women should receive trauma counselling and psychiatric assistance
included in the disaster recovery strategy.
○ NGOs should be encouraged to play a significant role in their restoration.

Better results can be achieved by strengthening political commitment, improving the linkages between
disaster and gender perspectives, improving data collection, raising awareness, and mainstreaming
gender perspectives in capacity building.
 56

Natural Disasters in India

India: Vulnerability Profile
● One of the ten worst disaster-prone countries in the world.
● Vulnerable to a large number of natural, as well as, human-made disasters due to its unique
geo-climatic and socio-economic conditions
○ 58.6 percent of landmass prone to earthquakes (moderate to very high intensity)
○ Over 40 million hectares (12%) of land is prone to floods and river erosion
○ Close to 5,700 km, out of the 7,516 km long coastline prone to cyclones and tsunamis
○ 68% of cultivable area vulnerable to droughts
○ Hilly areas are at risk from landslides and avalanches.
○ Vulnerability to disasters/emergencies of Chemical, Biological, Radiological and Nuclear
(CBRN) origin also exists.
● As per World Bank, economic loss accounted for 2% of the GDP due to disasters in India.
Regional Vulnerability of India:
● The geo-tectonic features of the Himalayan region and adjacent alluvial plains make the region
susceptible to earthquakes, landslides, water erosion, etc.
● Though peninsular India is considered to be the most stable portion, there are occasional
earthquakes in this region too.
● Alluvial plains drained by Himalayan river system experience frequent flooding due to river
channel siltation, especially in the plains of Uttar Pradesh and Bihar.
● The western part of the country, including Rajasthan, Gujarat and some parts of Maharashtra are
drought prone due to scanty rainfall and lack of major rivers.
● The disturbance in the pressure conditions over oceans, results in cyclones in coastal regions.
● The Geo-tectonic movements going on in the ocean floor make the coastal region prone to
tsunamis too.

Common Types of Disasters in India:

The High Power Committee on Disaster Management identified 32 types of disasters.

Water and Climate related disasters a) Floods and drainage management

b) Cyclones
c) Tornadoes and Hurricanes
d) Hailstorms
e) Cloud burst
f) Heat wave and Cold wave
g) Snow avalanches
h) Droughts
i) Sea erosion
j) Thunder and lighting
k) Tsunami (added in 2005)

Geological disasters a) Landslides and mudflows

 57

b) Earthquakes
c) Dam failure/Dam bursts
d) Mine disasters

Chemical, industrial and nuclear disasters a) Chemical and industrial disasters

b) Nuclear disasters

Accident related disasters a) Forest fires

b) Urban fires
c) Mine flooding
d) Oil spills
e) Major building collapse
f) Serial bomb blasts
g) Festival related disasters
h) Electrical disasters and fires
i) Air, road and rail accidents
j) Boat Capsizing
k) Village fire

Biological disasters a) Biological disasters and epidemics

b) Pest attacks
c) Cattle epidemics
d) Food poisoning

Earthquakes
● Violent shaking of the ground and everything above it.
● Most unpredictable and highly destructive of all-natural disasters.
● Causes -
○ Natural causes: sudden release of energy due to tectonic activities, volcanic eruption,
rock fall, landslides, etc.
○ Man-made causes: Mining, impounding dams and reservoirs, etc.
● The energy released produces waves that travel in all directions.
● The point where energy is released is called the focus or hypocenter
● The point on the surface of the earth that first experiences the waves is called the epicenter. It is
vertically above the focus.
● The circum-Pacific seismic belt, also called the “Ring of Fire”, is found along the rim of the Pacific
Ocean, where about 81 percent of earthquakes occur.
● Over 59 percent of India’s land area is under threat of moderate to severe seismic hazards.
Earthquake waves are of two types
1. Body waves- Generated due to the release of energy at the focus and move in all
directions travelling through the body of the earth. These are of two types-
➔ P-waves (primary waves) -
★ Move faster
★ First to arrive at the surface.
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★ Similar to sound waves

★ Travel through gaseous, liquid, and solid mediums.
➔ S-waves (secondary waves)-
★ Arrive at the surface with some time lag.
★ Can travel only through solid materials.

2. Surface Waves- Move along the surface and are the last to report on
seismographs. These waves are the most destructive of all. These are of two types-
➔ Love Waves-
★ Fastest surface wave
★ moves the ground from side to side.
➔ Raleigh Waves-
★ Roll along the ground just like a wave rolls across a lake or an ocean.
★ Moves the ground up and down, and side-to-side in the same direction
that the wave is moving.
★ Most of the shaking felt from an earthquake is due to the Rayleigh
wave.

Types of Earthquake
1. Tectonic earthquakes: Caused by the movement of tectonic plates within the earth’s crust. Are
the most common types of earthquakes and cause the maximum devastation.
2. Volcanic earthquakes: Occur before or after the eruption of a volcano and are less prevalent
compared to tectonic quakes.
3. Collapse earthquake: Occurs in underground mines.
4. Explosion earthquakes: man-made earthquakes, caused by high-intensity explosions such as
nuclear explosions.

Earthquakes based on the depth of focus

1. Shallow earthquakes- 0-70 km deep
2. Intermediate earthquakes- 70-300 km deep
3. Deep earthquakes- 300-700 km deep.

Measurement of Earthquakes
1. Seismograph- Measures vibrations caused by earthquakes.
2. Richter Scale- Measures the magnitude of the earthquake and is expressed in absolute
numbers of 0-10.
3. The Mercalli scale- Measures the Intensity of an earthquake, in the range of 0-12.
4. Medvedev-Sponhener-Karnik (MSK or MSK-64) Intensity Scale-
● measures the severity of ground shaking based on observed effects in an area of the
earthquake occurrence.
● Classifies earthquakes from I (least perceptible) to XII (most severe).
● Readings are based on factors such as how people perceive the shaking.
 59

● MSK-64 is used in India, Israel, Russia, and throughout the Commonwealth of

Independent States.
● In India, seismic zoning has been done based on this scale.

Seismic Zones of the country

● There are four seismic zones (II, III, IV, and V) in India.

Seismic Zone II Includes areas with minor damaging earthquakes corresponding to

intensities V to VI of Modified Mercalli (MM) scale

Seismic Zone III Includes areas that are exposed to moderate damage corresponding to
intensity VII of the MM scale

Seismic Zone IV Includes areas of major damage corresponding to intensity VII and higher of
MM scale

Seismic Zone V Earthquakes with magnitudes over 7.0 have occurred in these areas, and
have had intensities higher than IX

Impacts of earthquakes
1. On ground-
● Fissures in the crust of the earth.
● Fires
● Landslides
● Disrupting population settlements, loss of lives and livelihoods, migration to safer areas.
● loss of agricultural productivity.
 60

2. On Manmade Structures-
● cracking of buildings, roads, and other infrastructure
● A tectonic plate can slide over another, creating unevenness on the ground.
● Building collapse
● All residential and business complexes are damaged
● underground pipelines and railway lines are broken
● transport and communications lines are disturbed
● dams on the river collapse resulting in floods.

3. On water bodies-
● Waves usually higher than normal which can intrude on human settlements, agriculture,
forests, etc
● Dams can burst if enough pressure is generated by earthquakes.
● Natural disasters like Tsunami, landslides, avalanches
● River channels may block resulting into change in river course
● Tsunami

Mitigation of earthquakes
● Establishment of seismological centers for regular monitoring and fast dissemination of
information.
● Preparing a vulnerability map/zonation of the country
● National building codes and guidelines for the safe construction of buildings against
earthquakes.
● Upgradation of important buildings by retrofitting techniques.
● Community education and preparedness.
● Conduct mock drills and training
● Examination of Soil type before construction, Soft soils should be avoided
● Location for construction should be considered river banks should be avoided
● Use of traditional knowledge while constructing houses: example bhongas in the Kutch
Region of Gujarat, dhajji diwari buildings in Jammu & Kashmir, brick-nogged wood frame
constructions in Himachal Pradesh and ekra constructions made of bamboo in Assam
● Community driven response mechanism developed through prough proper training of
community at risk
● Develop Early Earthquake warning and Security Systems with higher precision should be
developed (a pilot project has been developed by IIT Roorkee)
● Insurance and Risk transfer instruments should be devised and promoted

Challenges for Earthquake Mitigation in India

● Inadequate enforcement of earthquake-resistant building codes and town planning byelaws;
● Absence of earthquake-resistant features in constructions in urban and rural areas.
● Lack of formal training among professionals in earthquake-resistant construction practices.
● Lack of adequate preparedness and poor response capacity of various stakeholder groups.
● Lack of awareness among various stakeholders about the seismic risk;
 61

● Absence of systems of licensing of engineers and masons.

Government Efforts:
● High Powered Committee in 1999 and a National Committee after the Gujarat Earthquake -
to make recommendation on effective preparedness and mitigation measures
● Tenth Five year Plan Document - a detailed chapter on Disaster Management
● 12th Finance Commission - mandated to review the financial arrangements for Disaster
Management and preparedness
● Disaster Management Act, 2005 for effective management of disasters and other concerns
related to them
● NDMA Guidelines on Earthquake Management
● Central ministries and departments and state governments follow standards for
seismically safe design and construction of buildings.
● Priority buildings such as Raj Bhavans, Courts, etc should be seismically
strengthened and the responsibility to identify such structures rests with the State
Governments.
● Building and other safety codes must be adhered to.
● Preparation of handbooks on earthquake safety, homeowner's seismic safety manuals,
a manual on structural safety audit, and video films for the general public to raise
awareness.
● Streamlining of NGOs and Volunteer Groups.
● Incident Command System coordinated by the local administration with the
involvement of the community, corporate sector, and specialized teams to undertake
response measures.
● As per NDMA Guidelines, there are six pillars for Earthquake management-
1. Earthquake Resistant Construction
2. Selective Seismic Strengthening and Seismic Retrofitting
3. Regulation and Enforcement
4. Awareness and Preparedness
5. Capacity development (Education, R&D, Training and Documentation)
6. Emergency Response Capability Enhancement
● Building Material and Technology Promotion Council developed Vulnerability Atlas of India
(1996, 2006 and 2019) and issued guidelines for improving Earthquakes prone Housing
Construction

Current Developments
1. India Quake App-
● Developed by the National Centre for Seismology and launched by the Ministry of Earth
Sciences.
● Provides automatic dissemination of earthquake parameters such as location, time,
and magnitude after the occurrence of an Earthquake.
2. National Earthquake Risk Mitigation (Preparatory phase)
● A Centrally Sponsored Plan Scheme in 2013 by Building Materials & Technology
Promotion Council (BMTPC).
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● Implemented by NDMA in coordination with the State Governments/UT that lies in

seismic zones IV & V in the country.
● Aims to increase awareness for adoption of model building bye-laws and earthquake
resistant construction and planning standards.
3. The National Building Code of India (NBC),2016 by BIS
● Provides guidelines for regulating building construction activities across the country.
● Serves as a Model Code for adoption by all agencies involved in building construction
works.
● Contains administrative regulations, development control rules, and general building
requirements; fire safety requirements; stipulations regarding materials, structural design,
and construction (including safety); building and plumbing services; approach to
sustainability; and asset and facility management.

Landslides
● Movement of rock mass or debris down the slope.
● A type of mass wasting
● Around 30 percent of the World’s landslides occur in the Himalayan ranges.

Landslide vulnerability Zones in India

● In India, about 0.42 million sq. km or 12.6% of the land area, excluding snow-covered areas, is
prone to landslide hazards.
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● India has been divided into several vulnerability zones based on frequency, geology,
geomorphic events, and human activities.

Very High -Relatively young mountains in Himalayas and Andaman and Nicobar
Vulnerability - the Western Ghats and Nilgiris
Zone -The north-eastern regions
- highly unstable zone

High Himalayan states and the states from the north-eastern regions except the plains
 64

Vulnerability of Assam
Zone

Moderate to -Trans-Himalayan areas of Ladakh and Spiti (Himachal Pradesh), Aravalis, rain
Low shadow areas in the Western and Eastern Ghats, and Deccan plateau.
Vulnerability Landslides due to mining activities- in states like Jharkhand, Orissa, Chhattisgarh,
Zone Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Goa, and
Kerala

Other Areas Rajasthan, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal (except district Darjeeling),
Assam (except district Karbi Anglong), and Coastal regions of the southern States.

Causes of landslides
1. Natural Causes-
● Heavy Rainfall. Example- the recent flash floods in Dharamshala, Himachal Pradesh,
and landslides in Uttarakhand.
● Earthquakes-destabilize the mountains and the rocks causing them to tumble
downwards.
● Volcanic explosions.
● Melting of Glaciers.
● Seepage

2. Man-made causes-
● Deforestation.
● Shifting or Jhum Cultivation
● Construction of houses and other buildings
● Infrastructural developmental activities like building of roads, dams etc.
● Mining operations result in a huge amount of vibrations, especially blasting techniques.

Impact of landslides
● Short term impact:
○ Loss of natural beauty
○ Roadblocks, destruction of railway lines
○ channel blocking due to rock-falls
○ diversion of river courses due to landslides causing flood and
○ Loss of life and property
● Long term impacts:
○ Changes in the landscape that can be permanent,
○ the loss of cultivable land
○ the environmental impact in terms of erosion and soil loss,
○ population shift and relocation of populations and establishments
○ drying up of sources of water
 65

Government Efforts to Mitigate Landslides

Geological Survey of India (GSI)

● Nodal agency for landslide studies in India and is responsible for-
➢ Coordinating and undertaking geological studies for mitigation of landslide hazards.
➢ Mapping of landslide hazard zones
➢ Monitoring of landslides.
➢ Studying the factors responsible for landslides and suggesting precautionary and
preventive measures
● The action plan by GSI includes-
➢ Deriving uniform methodologies for Landslide Hazard Zonation (LHZ) on macro and
meso scales.
➢ State Governments suggest routes for landslide hazard zonation, while GSI will carry
out the survey.
➢ Landslide hazard zonation- To cover inhabited or sites proposed for infrastructural
development.
➢ Continuous monitoring of slides that may pose danger to communication routes or could
cause blockage of drains.
➢ Early warning system for landslides
➢ Cooperation with agencies involved in infrastructure development.
➢ Awareness programs in hazard-prone areas.
➢ Coordination among various agencies.

Hazard zonation mapping-

process where hazardous spots are identified so that steps are taken in order to meet any disaster that
would occur.

Mapping of hazard zones can be done on the basis of:

● Areas that experience frequent ground-shaking due to earthquakes

● Areas of intense human activities such as the construction of roads, dams, etc.
● High rainfall regions with steep slopes
● for individual districts/roads/routes using past occurrence data, GIS / remote sensing
technology, and aerial photographs.
● ISRO developed Maps for pilgrim routes in Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Meghalaya

Significance:

● Hazard mapping of landslide areas will help authorities in the prevention and mitigation of
such crises.
● helps the decision makers for better planning and precautionary measures
● keep the National Disaster Response Force (NDRF) and SDRF personnel on stand by in
these areas
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National Landslide Risk Management Strategy (NLRMS)

Released by NDMA. It includes-
● Landslide Hazard Zonation maps to be prepared at the macro and meso level using advanced
state-of-the-art tools such as Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV), Terrestrial Laser Scanner, and very
high-resolution Earth Observation (EO) data.
● A participatory approach has been defined so that each section of the community is involved in
the awareness drive.
● A Centre for Landslide Research Studies and Management (CLRSM) to be created to
establish a techno-scientific pool of expertise in the country.
● Technical recommendations for developing and implementing rainfall thresholds, Numerical
Weather Prediction (NWP), Automatic Rain Gauges, etc. have been included.

National Landslide Risk Mitigation Project

● Approved by erstwhile Planning Commission
● Being run by NDMA
● Beneficiaries - almost all hilly states except J&K
● Aim - to reduce the risk and impact of disasters

NDMA guidelines on Landslides

● Updating the inventory of landslide incidents on a continuous basis.
● Landslide hazard zonation mapping in macro and meso scales.
● Detailed studies and monitoring of selected landslides.
● Early warning systems
● Site-specific studies of major landslides and plan treatment measures.
● awareness and preparedness among various stakeholders.
● Landslide education, training of professionals, and capacity development of organizations.
● Development of new codes and guidelines on landslide studies and revision of existing ones.
● Establishment of an autonomous national center for landslide research, studies, and
management.

Suggestive Measures
Structural Measures
● Restriction of construction and other developmental activities in the high vulnerability zones.
● Large-scale afforestation programs and construction of bunds to reduce the flow of water.
● Retaining walls on mountain slopes to stop the land from slipping.
● Installation of drainage pipes for rainwater, slope drainage.
● Supporting structures such as anchors and piles can restrain landslides.
● Ground reinforcement using Rock bolts, steel sets, wire mesh, and shotcrete.
● Provide safe working conditions during construction.

Non-structural Measures
● Mapping of zones to locate areas commonly prone to landslides.
 67

● Terrace farming in the northeastern hill states.

● Identifying areas of rockfall and subsidence of buildings, cracks.
● Keeping the drains clean to prevent any blockage
● Directing the stormwater away from slopes
● Inspecting drains for any kind of litter, leaves, plastic bags, rubble, etc.
● Planting more trees.
● Ensure that the toe of the slope is not cut.
● Flexible Hydraulic and electrical connections.
● Wireless sensor network technology for landslide detection
● Provides the capability for gathering real-time context-aware data.
● The data from these systems are continuously transmitted to the control center.
● A three-level warning system is developed to issue real-time landslide warnings.

Avalanche
● Swift movement of a large detached mass of snow, ice, and associated debris such as rocks
and vegetation down the slope.
● Vary in size- from a small shift of loose snow to huge slabs of snow.
● The speed may reach 130 km/hr
● Used as a measure to trigger international wars to kill enemy troops on snow-covered terrain

Types of Avalanches
1. Rock Avalanche- consists of a large mass of scattered rocks
2. Snow Avalanche- these usually occur in the vicinity of glaciers
3. Debris Avalanche- consists of a variety of unconsolidated material like stones, soil, etc.

Features of avalanches:
● Avalanches launch from the most unstable part of the slope, and generally higher on the
mountain called the starting zone.
● Once the avalanche starts to slide, it continues down the avalanche track, the natural path it
follows downhill.
● The avalanche finally comes to a stop at the bottom of a slope, in the runout zone, where the
snow and debris pile up.

Causes of Avalanche
● Steep slopes
● Heavy snowfall on mountain slopes
● Strong winds
● Vertical layers of snowfall which may move downward as a result of gravity
● High temperature- melting of snow
● Seismic waves generated by earthquakes
● Development activities on mountain slopes
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● Deforestation
● Winter sports activities (Human activities)

Prevention

● Early warnings should be generated by examining snow cover structure

● Study Meteorological factors affecting snow depositions using Satellite remote sensing,
optical and microwave imagery
● Construction of Detention and mitigation walls on slopes.
● Building of avalanche rakes (large fences) on slopes
● Diversion structures such as dams or wedges at the base of the slope to stop, or deflect the
snow in an avalanche.

Mitigation
1. Structural measures:
● Planting (Avalanche Prevention Forest)
● Stepped Terraces
● Avalanche Control Piles
● Avalanche Control Fence
● Suspended Fences
● Snow Cornice Control Structures
● Protection structures such as stopping, deflecting and retarding structures.
2. Non-structural measures
● removing snow deposits on slopes by blasting,
● predicting avalanches
● evacuating people from vulnerable areas.

Response
● Training for self-rescue should be provided in potential risk regions
● Well-equipped Quick Response Team should be posted in such regions, including personnels
from local administration and NDRF.

Glacial Lake Outburst Flood

● Proglacial Lakes: Lakes formed by retreating glaciers and bounded by moraines, boulders and
other sediments or glaciers.
● Glacial Lake Outburst Flood: Sudden flooding occurred due to breach of boundaries of
proglacial lakes resulting into rapid and large downstream discharges into nearby streams or
rivers
Reasons
● Increased water level/pressure resulting into rapid influx of water
● Weak boundary structure
● Earthquake or cryoseismic events
● Avalanche
 69

● Volcanic eruptions
● Climate change/Global Warming
● Heavy Rainfall
● Increased developmental activities and weakening of base structure
Recent GLOF Events
● Kedarnath tragedy in 2013,
● Flash floods in the Chamoli district of Uttarakhand in February 2021
Regions Prone to GLOF
● Hindu Kush Himalayan Region
● Himalayan states in India: Jammu & Kashmir, Ladakh, Uttrakhand, Himachal Pradesh

NDMA Guidelines on Risk Reduction

● Identifying Potentially Dangerous Lakes- based on field observations, past events,
geomorphologic and geotechnical characteristics.
● Technology Use- Synthetic-Aperture Radar imagery to automatically detect changes in water
bodies, Remote monitoring of lake bodies.
● Channeling Potential Floods- Reducing the volume of water with methods such as controlled
breach, pumping or siphoning out water, and making a tunnel through the moraine barrier or
under an ice dam.
● Uniform Codes for Construction Activity- Need to develop a broad framework for infrastructure
development, construction, and excavation in vulnerable zones. Land-use planning in the GLOF
prone areas needs to be accepted.
● Early Warning Systems (EWS)- The present number of implemented and operational GLOF EWS
is very small, even at the global scale. This needs to be enhanced.
● Training Local Manpower- In planning and setting up emergency shelters, distributing relief
packages, identifying missing people, and addressing the needs for food, healthcare, water
supply, etc.
● Comprehensive Alarm Systems- cell and smartphones can complement or even replace
traditional alarming infrastructure based on sirens.

Tsunami
● Also called ‘harbour wave’ or ‘seismic sea wave’.
● A series of very large waves with extremely long wavelengths, in the deep ocean.
● The length from crest to crest maybe 100 km and more.
● Mostly generated by large and shallow earthquakes which usually occur near geological plate
boundaries, or fault-lines, where geological plates collide.
● The speed of waves is more in the shallow water than in the deep ocean
● Impact is less over the ocean and more near the coast.

Tsunami prone areas in India

● The whole coastline of mainland India along with Islands.
● December 2004 tsunami- Affected areas include Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Pondicherry,
Kerala, and Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
 70

Causes of tsunami
● Tsunamis can be generated only through the vertical movement of the seafloor
● Earthquakes that occur along the subduction
boundaries of plates along the ocean trenches.
● Underwater explosion caused by nuclear testing.
● Volcanoes erupting near coastal boundaries.
● Landslides when moving into the Oceans, bays, and
lakes can generate Tsunami
● Meteorite Impacts

Impacts of Tsunami
● Colossal loss of lives as well as the
infrastructure.
● Much destruction in coastal areas due to high
population density and the center of economic
activities.
● Flooding and contamination of drinking water
● Diseases
● Loss of biodiversity
● Contamination of soil.
● Nuclear pollution.
● Emergence of psychological problems among
the survivors.

Actions undertaken to deal with the tsunami

● India joined the Indian Ocean Tsunami Warning and Mitigation System after the December
2004 tsunami disaster.
● The Government of India has put in place an Indian Tsunami Early Warning System (ITEWS) in
2007 for the mitigation of such oceanogenic disasters.
● Integrated Coastal Zone Management Program implemented by MoEFCC, which considers
several coastal problems.

The Intergovernmental Coordination Group for the Indian Ocean Tsunami Warning and
Mitigation System (ICG/IOTWMS)
● Formed in response to the tsunami that occurred on December 26th, 2004
● Secretariat- IOC-UNESCO Regional Programme Office in Perth, Western Australia.
● Indonesia is the present Chair of the system, while India and Iran are its vice-chair.

Indian Tsunami Early Warning System (ITEWS)-

● Established in 2007 and is based at and operated by INCOIS, Hyderabad.
● Integrated effort of different organizations- Department of Space (DOS), Department of Science
and Technology (DST), the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR), Survey of India
(SOI), and National Institute of Ocean Technology (NIOT).
● Comprises a real-time network of seismic stations, tide gauges, and a 24X7 operational tsunami
 71

warning centre.
● Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission (IOC) of UNESCO accredited Indian Tsunami
Early Warning Centre (ITEWC) as Tsunami Service Provider (TSP) for 28 Indian Ocean Rim
(IOR) countries, along with Indonesia and Australia in 2011, for issuing regional warnings.

Capacity Building in terms of Tsunami

● Research and development to encourage the development of standardized methods for tsunami
risk assessment and scenario development.
● Large-scale digital maps to be developed based on past experiences.
● Database of Tsunami Risk and Vulnerability in the coastal areas with information on trends of
storm surge, local bathymetry, etc.
● Monitoring seismic activity
● Provide warnings based on seismic models
● Issue periodic bulletin
● Early dissemination of warnings to all, down to the last mile – remote, rural or urban
● Structural measures like-
➢ Shelters from storm surges and tsunamis
➢ Construction of large-scale submerged sand barriers
➢ Periodical dredging of the inlets and associated water bodies
➢ Construction of submerged dykes

Dos and Don’ts for Protection from Tsunami

Before Tsunami
● Residential areas should be set away from the coast or other high-risk waters.
● Evacuation routes should be planned where tsunamis could present a risk.
● Use a Weather Radio or local radio or television station to keep informed warnings and any
events.

During Tsunami
● Watch out for an earthquake that lasts 20 seconds or longer.
● Protect oneself from earthquake damage.
● Moving quickly to higher ground away from the coast.

NDMA Guidelines on the management of Tsunamis

● Assessment of vulnerability and risk mapping in the tsunami hazard zones- based on coastal
land use maps and coastal bathymetry.
● Detection of tsunami waves- A 17-station Real-Time Seismic Monitoring Network (RTSMN) are
used to detect the propagation of Tsunami waves in the Open Ocean.
● Warning systems- Tsunami Bulletins and warning systems to be developed.
● "Tsunami Escape '' direction sign boards must be set up in coastal areas.
● Use of technology- Visual and radio media to spread information and create public awareness.
● Structural Mitigation Measures-
 72

➔ construction of cyclone shelters

➔ plantation of mangroves and coastal forests along the coastline
➔ development of a network of local knowledge centers (rural/urban) along the coastlines
➔ construction of location-specific seawalls and coral reefs
➔ development of breakwaters along the coast
➔ development of a “Bio-Shield” along the coastline
➔ identification of vulnerable structures
➔ appropriate retrofitting for tsunami/cyclone resistance, etc.
● Regulation and Enforcement of Techno-Legal Regime- Strict implementation of the coastal zone
regulations, adoption of the model techno-legal framework
● Role of Local community- Proper training and sensitization is a must. SHGs, NGOs, CBOs can be
involved in search and rescue operations.
● Awareness generation and training among the fishermen, coast guards, officials from the fisheries
department and port authorities and local district officials, etc. Regular drills should be conducted
to test the efficacy of the DM plans.

Current developments
1. Sagar Vani App-
● Developed by the Indian National Centre for Ocean Information Services (INCOIS) under
the Ministry of Earth Sciences.
● Disseminates ocean-related information and advisory services such as Potential Fishing
Zone (PFZ) advisories, High Wave Alerts, and Tsunami early warnings.

Meteorological Disasters
● A Violent, sudden and destructive change to the environment related to, produced by, or
affecting the earth's atmosphere, especially the weather-forming processes.
● Caused by extreme weather such as rain, drought, snow, extreme heat or cold, ice, or wind.
● Increased in recent years due to climate change and causes huge direct economic losses and
human mortality

India Meteorological Department

● Estd. - 1875.
● an agency of the Ministry of Earth Sciences of the Government of India.
● National Meteorological Service of the country and the principal government agency in all
matters relating to meteorology and allied subjects.
● The Director General of Meteorology is the Head of the India Meteorological Department, with
headquarters at New Delhi. There are 4 Additional Directors General at New Delhi and 1 at
Pune.
● Main Objectives:
○ To take meteorological observations and to provide real time and futuristic informations.
○ To warn against severe weather phenomena.
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○ To provide meteorological statistics.

○ To conduct and promote research in meteorology and allied disciplines.

Types Of Meteorological Disasters

Cyclonic Storms
○ destructive meteorological phenomenon
○ forms when a large air mass rotates around a central low atmospheric zone.
○ originate over oceans and usually move towards land
○ cause great destruction to life and property.
○ Tropical Cyclone (TC) is the term used globally to cover tropical weather systems in which winds
equal or exceed ‘gale force’ (minimum of 34 knots, i.e., 62 kmph).

○ The 1970 Bhola Cyclone is considered to be the deadliest cyclone ever recorded, striking
Bangladesh and causing 500,000 deaths.

Classification of Tropical Cyclones

● The criteria followed by the Meteorological Department of India (IMD) to classify the low-pressure
systems in the Bay of Bengal and in the Arabian Sea as adopted by World Meteorological
Organisation (WMO) are as under:
Type of Cyclone Associated Wind Speed in the Circulation

Low pressure Area Less than17 knots (<31 kmph)

Depression 17 to 27 knots (31 to 49 kmph)

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Deep Depression 28 to 33 knots (50 to 61 kmph)

Cyclonic Storm 34 to 47 knots (62 to 88 kmph)

Severe Cyclonic Storm 48 to 63 knots (89 to 118 kmph)

Very Severe Cyclonic Storm 64 to 119 knots (119 to 221 kmph)

Super Cyclonic Storm 120 knots and above (222 kmph and above)

Distribution of Cyclones in India

● More cyclones occur in the Bay of Bengal than the Arabian Sea (4:1)
● The East coast is more prone as compared to the West coast.
● An analysis of the frequencies of cyclones on the East and West coasts of India during 1891-2000
show that nearly 308 cyclones (out of which 103 were severe) affected the East coast.

● According to the meteorological department, there are 13 coastal states Gujarat, Maharashtra,
Goa, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Odisha and West Bengal and Union
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Territories of Daman & Diu, Puducherry, Lakshadweep Islands, Andaman & Nicobar Islands in
India are Cyclone prone region.
● Four states - Andhra Pradesh, Odisha, Tamil Nadu and West Bengal and one Union Territory -
Pondicherry on the East Coast are most vulnerable to cyclone disasters.

Cyclone Mitigation as proposed by the UN-HABITAT

● Hazard Area Mapping – Using hazard mapping it's easy to predict the vulnerable areas affected
by the storms. It maps the pattern of old cyclones using their wind speed, areas affected, flooding
frequency etc.
● Engineered Building/Structures – To withstand the wind forces and heavy rains. Construction of
a steep slope roof to avoid the risk of being blown away. Anchoring strong posts with solid
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footings on the ground. Plantations of trees at a safe distance from the house to help break the
wind forces.
● Cyclone Sheltering – At national, state and regional level, to help the vulnerable community from
cyclones. The shelters should be built considering the population density, transportation and
communication, distance from the affected areas of the past, and the areas’ topography.
● Mangrove Plantation – The mangrove forest help in breaking the forces of wind and water and
curb the intensity of devastation.
● Artificial Hills – As the refuge during flooding, and should be taken up in the right areas.
● Public Awareness – Public participation in planning, mitigation and response can minimize the
damage.
● Strong Institutional Mechanism- At national, state and district level the institutional mechanism
should have all required human and material resources ready.

Government Measures
● The India Meteorological Department (through the area cyclone warning centres (ACWCs)/
cyclone warning centres (CWCs) maintains a warning service.
● In order to cater to the needs of Cyclone Warning Services and Marine weather services, there
are seven Warning Centres covering the east & west coasts of our country.
● Among these, three are Area Cyclone Warning Centres (ACWCs) located at Chennai, Mumbai
and Kolkata and the remaining four are Cyclone Warning Centres (CWCs) located at
Ahmedabad, Thiruvananthapuram, Visakhapatnam and Bhubaneswar.
● Specially designed receivers have been installed at the vulnerable coastal areas in Andhra
Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Odisha, West Bengal and Gujarat for direct transmission of warnings to the
officials and public in general using the broadcast capability of INSAT.
● IMD is now upgrading all these existing networks of Cyclone Warning Dissemination Systems
(CWDS)/ DCWDS by the ISRO developed DTH based Disaster Warning Dissemination Systems
(DWDS).

Cyclone Warning System

● Indian National Centre for Ocean Information Services (INCOIS) has set up a Storm Surge
Early Warning System (SSEWS) for the Indian coasts in active collaboration with IMD.
● INCOIS has developed a device named GEMINI (GAGAN Enabled Mariner’s Instrument for
Navigation and Information) a simple handheld device that receives the information transmitted
through GAGAN and feeds that to the mobile handset through Bluetooth connection.
● An App developed by INCOIS converts the satellite messages in the form of readable maps
and text. The decoded information can be viewed on the mobile in any of the languages spoken
in the coastal states of India. The Mobile app receives the GPS information (Current Position,
Satellite Date & Time) as well as the following broadcasted messages.
○ Potential Fishing Zone Advisory
○ High Wave Alert & Strong Wind Alert
○ Cyclone and Tsunami Warning Information
○ Maximum Wind Speed, Maximum Wave Height, Maximum Current Speed
○ Bathymetry, Distance & Direction
● SCATSAT-1 – Satellite developed by ISRO for weather forecasting and cyclone detection.
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● ISRO uses geo-stationary and low earth orbit satellites for providing experimental inputs on
cyclogenesis, cyclone track, cyclone intensity.
● INSAT series of satellites with frequent imaging provide the cyclone parameters for near real time
analysis.
● ISRO is developing an indigenous radar that will send out early cyclone warnings. The Doppler
Weather Radar (dwr) will improve existing capabilities for early cyclone warnings especially in the
east coast of the country.
● INSAT-3D is a meteorological, data relay and satellite aided search and rescue satellite. It is an
advanced weather satellite of India configured with an improved Imaging System and
Atmospheric Sounder.

National Cyclone Risk Mitigation Project

● Implemented by NDMA in coordination with participating State Governments and NIDM
● To undertake structural and non-structural measures to mitigate the cyclone’s effects.
● It is designed for coastal states and UTs of India.
● The aim of the project is to protect the vulnerable local communities from the impact of cyclones
and other hydro-meteorological calamities.
● The World Bank is providing financial assistance for this project.

Integrated Coastal Zone Management Project (ICZMP)

● The ICZMP has been expanded, upscaled and termed as” Enhancing Coastal and Ocean
Resource Efficiency (ENCORE)” Project.
● The ENCORE is based on the results, success stories, experiences and lessons learnt from the
ICZM Project.
● The ENCORE Project will be a part of the envisaged National Coastal Mission and an
expansion of the ICZM Project and will be implemented in all the 13 coastal States/UTs.
● Following are the broad components –.
○ Conservation and protection of coastal and marine resources.
○ Pollution abatement, management, and eco-tourism Infrastructure development.
○ Livelihood enhancement/security of coastal com
○ Environment education, research, and capacity building.
● The program aims at extending ICZM approaches adopted in the ICZM Project for the process of
managing the coastline and its developmental pressures vis-a-vis its conservation and climate
change adaptation needs with coastal communities as the main partners in all coastal States/UTs
of India

IMD Four Stage Cyclone Warnings for Indian Coast

Stage Warning Meaning

Stage 1 Cyclone Watch Issued 72 hours in advance, it discusses the likelihood

of the development of a cyclonic disturbance in the
north Indian Ocean and the coastal region likely to
experience adverse weather.
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Stage 2 Cyclone Alert Issued 48 hours in advance of the commencement of

adverse weather over the coastal areas.

Stage 3 Cyclone Warning Issued 24 hours in advance of the commencement of

adverse weather over the coastal areas. The location of
landfall is discussed at this stage.

Stage 4 Landfall Outlook Issued 12 hours in advance of the commencement of

adverse weather over the coastal areas. The track of
the cyclone after the landfall and the possible impact
inland is discussed at this stage.

NDMA Guidelines for Cyclone

● Early Warning System
○ Establish a state-of-the-art cyclone EWS involving observations, predictions, warnings and
customized local-scale advice for decision-makers (national/state/district level) for
managing the impact of cyclones.

● Aircraft Probing of Cyclone (APC) facility

● Commission an Aircraft Probing of Cyclone (APC) facility for India with a combination of
manned aircraft and high altitude Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAV) which can effectively
fill the critical observational data gaps in the case of cyclones over the Bay of Bengal and
the Arabian Sea to a great extent.
● An actual flight by an aircraft into and around the tropical cyclone during various stages of
its development and movement can provide invaluable data for studying and
understanding the structure and movement of a cyclone, thus reducing track and intensity
prediction errors significantly.

National Disaster Communication Infrastructure (NDCI)

● Commission National Disaster Communication Infrastructure (NDCI) at the NDMA/MHA, State
Disaster Management Authorities (SDMAs) of coastal states/UTs and District Disaster
Management Authorities (DDMAs) of the 84 coastal districts vulnerable to cyclones with the
adoption of state-of-the-art operational infrastructure covering the following:
● High End Computing (scalable 30–50 Teraflops peak performance), Storage (800 Terabytes) and
Communication Network (Gigabit Ethernet) Infrastructure;
● 3-D Virtual Reality Visual Studio;
● Centralized Comprehensive Databank for Cyclone Risk Management.
● Comprehensive state-of-the-art Operation Centres for effective coordination of Disaster Response
Actions at the state and local levels.
● Expanding the warning dissemination outreach
● Expanding the warning dissemination outreach by using the services of Direct-To-Home (DTH)
transmission in remote and rural areas (Panchayats) which cannot be otherwise covered, to
introduce weather channel and broadcast cyclone warnings from high-power coastal radio
stations including the use of satellite radio service like World Space, Ham radios, community radio
and VHF network.
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Other Actions
● Structural safety of lifeline infrastructure in coastal areas
● Establishing a robust system of locating multi-purpose cyclone shelters and cattle mounds
● Ensuring cyclone resistant design standards are incorporated in the rural/ urban housing schemes
in coastal areas
● Building all-weather road links to all coastal habitations, between habitations and cyclone
shelters/cattle mounds
● Maintaining the full designed carrying capacity of main drains and canals along with feeder
primary/secondary/ tertiary channels, creating additional flood flow canals in frequently inundated
areas
● Construction of saline embankments to prevent ingress of saline water associated with cyclonic
storm surge
● Encouraging public-private partnership with corporate/trusts.
● Mapping and delineation of coastal wetlands, patches of mangroves and shelterbelts,
identification of potential zones for expanding bio-shield spread based on remote sensing tools.
● Regulating infrastructure and development activities in coastal zones.
● Monitoring of water quality as well as the carrying and assimilative capacities of open waters with
institutionalised remedial measures.
● Developing Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) frameworks for addressing the
sustainability and optimal utilisation of coastal resources as also cyclone impact minimisation
plans.
● Evolving ecosystem restoration plans for degraded ecological zones.
● Developing delta water management and freshwater recharge/management options.
● Coastal bio-shields spread, preservation and restoration/ regeneration plans.
● Implementing coastal flood zoning, flood plain development and flood inundation management
and regulatory plans.
● Groundwater development and augmentation of freshwater requirements in coastal urban
centres.
● Development of Aquaculture Parks in the identified potential zones.
● Setting up an exclusive eco-system monitoring network to study the impact of changing climate.
● Developing integrated hazard mitigation framework taking into account cyclone and associated
storm surge, wind hazard, rainfall-runoff, river flood and Geographical Information System (GIS)
models for estimating possible areas of inundation along with the depth of inundation (levels),
possible damage to infrastructure, crops, houses, etc., evaluating not only the vulnerability but
also the changing profile of vulnerability from time to time.
● Integrate ongoing efforts of the Survey of India, Department of Space under National Spatial Data
Infrastructure, National Database for Emergency Management and MoEF initiatives for speedy
completion of digital spatial data generation to cover 84 coastal districts that are vulnerable to
cyclones, for evolving holistic cyclone risk reduction strategies on priority. High resolution (at least
0.5 m interval) coastal Digital Elevation Models (DEMs) are to be developed for micro-scale
delineation of cyclone risk, hazard and vulnerability.

Major Devastating Cyclones in India

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● Cyclones generally tend to form in the North India Ocean between April and November each year.
Usually, there is a primary peak in November and a secondary peak in May.
● The storms can affect the entire coast of India. However, the east coast is more prone compared
to the west.

The 1970 Bhola cyclone

● deadliest natural disasters ever recorded.
● formed over the Bay of Bengal in November 1970 and made landfall on the coast of East Pakistan
(now Bangladesh) before continuing on to West Bengal.
● At its peak, the cyclone generated winds of up to 115 mph devastating the coastal regions it
encountered.
● Between 300,000 and 500,000 people were killed during the disaster

The 1991 Bangladesh cyclone

● Over the Bay of Bengal was the 1991 Bangladesh cyclone. By the time it reached land in
Bangladesh and eastern India, winds of up to 155 mph were recorded, making it one of the most
powerful on record.
● Caused a deadly storm surge that was 20ft high. claimed the lives of at least 138,866 people.
● In the fallout of the storm, various countries carried out one of the largest military relief efforts on
record, Operation Sea Angel.

The 1999 Odisha cyclone

● At the peak of the storm, winds of up to 160 mph were recorded, as well as a record-low pressure.
● As well as hitting the state of Odisha in India, Thailand, Myanmar, and Bangladesh also all felt the
impact. Nearly 10,000 people died, and it caused around $4.44 billion worth of damage.

Cyclone Amphan
● This storm is one of the worst to hit the region since 2007, and the first ‘super’ storm since the
1999 Odisha cyclone. The storm killed at least 72 people in West Bengal and a further 12 in
Bangladesh.
● The storm reached land on May 20 near the city of Kolkata, leaving 14 million people without
power and chaos in its wake. It’s estimated that cyclone Amphan caused over $13 billion of
damage, as winds reached up to 160 mph.

Cyclone Nisarga
● Cyclone Nisarga formed over the Arabian Sea at the beginning of June, 2020 . As it began to
gather strength, experts feared that the storm could strike the city of Mumbai. Typically, tropical
cyclones form less frequently over the Arabian Sea and usually head west towards Oman.
● At the time, Mumbai was the city in India that was the worst hit by the coronavirus. In early June,
there were over 40,000 confirmed cases.

Tornadoes
● Tornadoes are extremely dangerous and violent rotating air columns that move at high speeds
across a large area and damage everything in their path.
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● The base of a tornado is always in touch with the Earth’s surface, while the top is in contact with a
cumulonimbus cloud.
● A tornado generally appears like a condensation funnel, with the narrow edge touching the Earth.
● The wind speed of a tornado can vary from less than 117 km/h to greater than 480 km/h.

Thunderstorms
● A meteorological phenomenon associated with intense lightning and its acoustic effect, thunder.
A.k.a electrical storms or thundershowers.
● usually accompanied by heavy rainfall and strong winds. Occasionally, snow, hail or sleet might
also fall

Blizzards
● Severe snowstorm with a strong and sustained wind speed of more than 35 mph
● Lasts for several hours and causes great harm to life and property in the area of occurrence.
● Not only caused by falling snow but might also result from strong winds blowing away loose snow
on the ground.

Hailstorms
● A phenomenon in which ice pellets fall to the ground as a form of solid precipitation.
● The irregular lumps of ice that fall during such storms are called hailstones.
● Modern technology makes it possible to detect hail forming thunderstorms using sophisticated
meteorological instruments. Hail is highly damaging to property, as well as vegetation and crops.
● In the absence of proper cover, hailstones of large size can also cause physical harm to people
and animals.
● One of the most damaging hail events occurred in Munich, Germany on July 12, 1984, causing
damages worth at least $2 billion in insurance claims.

Lightning: A Disaster
● Occurrence of a natural electrical discharge of very short duration and high voltage between a
cloud and the ground or within a cloud.
● Generated in giant moisture-bearing
clouds that are 10-12 km tall having their
bases about 1-2 km from the Earth’s
surface.
● There are two types of lightning-
1. Intercloud or intracloud (IC)
lightning: These are visible and
harmless.
2. Cloud to ground (CG) lightning:
This is harmful as the high electric
voltage discharge for a very short
time leads to electrocution.
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According to a pre-print accepted for the journal Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics-
● the frequency and intensity of lightning strikes in India are expected to increase by 10-25 percent
and 15-50 percent by the end of this century.
● Lightning strikes kill more people in India than any other extreme weather event, causing more
than 2000 deaths every year.

Global studies regarding Lightning

● A 2015 study found out that an increase of one degree Celsius would increase the frequency of
lightning strikes by 12 percent.
● Urbanisation, increased population, and a warmer climate guarantees an intensification of human
exposure to lightning hazards.
● An increase in lightning incidents may be directly related to the climate crisis and the availability of
more moisture over land due to warming.
● Scientists also found out the link between cloud burst events, which cause sudden heavy rainfall
often triggering flash floods, and forest fires.

Lightning in India

● 18.5 million lightning strikes between April 1, 2020, and March 31, 2021, according to India’s
second annual report on lightning released by Lightning Resilient India Campaign (LRIC). This is
an increase of 34 percent compared to the previous year.
● At least 1,697 people died due to lightning between April 1, 2020, and March 31, 2021.
● Of this, 401 died in Bihar, followed by Uttar Pradesh (238 deaths) and Madhya Pradesh (228
deaths).
● Odisha, Madhya Pradesh,
Chhattisgarh, West Bengal,
Jharkhand have witnessed
the maximum lightning
strikes.
● Odisha, with the highest
strikes of 14.20 lakh plus,
has recorded 207 deaths
whereas states like Uttar
Pradesh and Bihar incur
double the losses with half
the strikes.
● Lightning strikes increased in
Punjab 331 percent, followed
by Bihar (168 percent),
Haryana (164 percent), and
Puducherry (117 percent).
● Losses due to lightning
➔ Human and wildlife loss
➔ Economic losses like communication networks, power plants, and so on are often
destroyed by lightning events.
➔ Devastating wildfires.
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Government safety guidelines to reduce the lightning impact

● The National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) guidelines-

➔ community-centric approach
➔ conducts workshops with all stakeholders to discuss preparedness and mitigation
measures for reducing the impact of thunderstorms & lightning
➔ dissemination of early warnings at a local level, SOPs, and so on.
● Lightning Warning System- location-specific forecast up to 48 hours about the occurrence of
thunderstorms, lightning, squally winds, gusty winds, hailstorms.
● ISRO’ s satellite INSAT-3DR provides information about convective clouds, which is uploaded
every 15 mins.
● Damini App-
➔ monitors lightning occurrences all over India
➔ alerts the user of lightning near them by a GPS notification under 20 km and 40 km.
➔ triggers warnings about lightning strikes three hours in advance which can help reduce
losses to life and property.
● Lightning Resilient India Campaign: A joint initiative of Climate Resilient Observing-Systems
Promotion Council ( CROPC), NDMA, India Meteorological Department (IMD), Union Ministry of
Earth Science, World Vision India, UNICEF among others. The campaign aims to reduce the
number of deaths to less than 1,200 a year by 2022.

Suggestions

● IMD’s timely weather warnings need to reach out to people at remote corners.
● Develop a protocol on early warning and forecasting dissemination on thunderstorms and
lightning.
● States should undertake lightning micro-zonation for the regions depending on their geography to
handle the disaster and death risks better.
● Multi-stakeholders engage at the national and state level with governments, academia,
non-profits, and communities.

Flood
● Floods are among the most frequent and costly natural disasters.
● Conditions that cause floods include heavy or steady rain for several hours or days that saturates
the ground.
● A flood is an excess of water (or mud) on land that's normally dry and is a situation wherein the
inundation is caused by high flow, or overflow of water in an established watercourse, such as a
river, stream, or drainage ditch; or ponding of water at or near the point where the rain fell.
● Types of Floods
○ Flash Floods:
■ Floods occur within six hours, mainly due to heavy rainfall associated with towering
cumulus clouds, thunderstorms, tropical cyclones or during passage of cold
weather fronts, or by dam failure or other river obstruction. This type of flood
requires a rapid localized warning system.
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○ River Floods:
■ Floods caused by precipitation over a large catchment’s area, melting of snow or
both. Built up slowly or on a regular basis, these floods may continue for days or
weeks. The major factors of these floods are moisture, vegetation cover, depth of
snow, size of the catchment’s basin, etc.
○ Coastal Floods:
■ Floods associated with cyclonic activities like Hurricanes, Tropical cyclones, etc.
generating a catastrophic flood from rainwater which often aggravate wind-induced
storm and water surges along the coast.
○ Ice Jam:
■ Floating ice can accumulate at a natural or human-made obstruction and stop the
flow of water thereby causing floods. Flooding too can occur when the snow melts
at a very faster rate.
○ Glacial Lake Outbursts Flood (GLOF):
■ Many of the big glaciers which have melted rapidly and gave birth to the origin of a
large number of glacier lakes.
■ Due to the faster rate of ice and snow melting, possibly caused by global warming,
the accumulation of water in these lakes has been increasing rapidly resulting in
sudden discharge of large volumes of water and debris and causing flooding
downstream.
● Characteristics of flood
○ Depth of water- Building foundations and vegetation will have different degrees of
tolerance to bring inundated water.
○ Duration – Damage to structures, infrastructure vegetation related to duration l of time with
water inundation.
○ Velocity – High velocities of flow create erosive forces, hydrodynamic pressure, which
destroy foundation supports and may occur on floodplains or in the main river channel.
○ Frequency of occurrence – The frequency of occurrence measured over a period of time
determines types of construction or agricultural activities on the floodplain.
○ Seasonality – Flooding during a growing season destroys crops while cold weather, floods
seriously affect the community.
Causes of Floods
● Natural
○ Intense rainfall when the river is flowing full.
○ Excessive rainfall in river catchments or concentration of runoff from the tributaries and
river carrying flows in excess of their capacities.
○ Cyclones and very intense rainfall when the EL Nino effect is on a decline.
○ Synchronization of flood peaks in the main rivers or their tributaries.
○ Landslides leading to obstruction of flow and change in the river course.
○ Poor natural drainage system.
○ Backing water in tributaries at their confluence with the main river.

● Anthropogenic
○ Dams or artificial levees breaking.
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○ Illegal construction on the natural drainage system.

○ Haphazard urbanization
○ Encroachment of wetlands

Flood prone areas in India

● As per the Geological Survey of India (GSI), the major flood prone areas of India cover almost
12.5% area of the country. 23 out of 37 States/UTs are vulnerable to floods.
● The principal reasons for flood lie in the very nature of natural ecological systems in this country,
○ The monsoon
○ The highly silted river systems
○ The steep and highly erodible mountains, particularly those of the Himalayan ranges.
● The average rainfall in India is 1150 mm with significant variation across the country.
● Most of the floods occur during the monsoon period and are usually associated with tropical
storms or depressions, active monsoon conditions and break monsoon situations.
● Floods occur in almost all river basins in India. The main causes of floods are,
○ Heavy rainfall
○ Inadequate capacity of rivers to carry the high flood discharge
○ Inadequate drainage to carry away the rainwater quickly to streams/rivers.
○ Ice jams or landslides blocking streams;
○ Typhoons and cyclones also cause floods.
○ Flash floods occur due to high rate of water flow as also due to poor permeability of the
soil.
● Areas with hardpan just below the surface of the soil are more prone to floods as water fails to
seep down to the deeper layers.
● Brahmaputra, Ganga, Narmada, Tapti, Mahanadi, Krishna & Kaveri are the most flood prone
areas.
● The states falling within the periphery of "India Flood Prone Areas" are West Bengal, Orissa,
Andhra Pradesh, Kerala, Assam, Bihar, Gujrat, Uttar Pradesh, Haryana and Punjab.
● Assam, West Bengal & Bihar are amongst the high flood prone states, below them, Punjab & U.P.
● Rajasthan, Gujarat, Haryana & Punjab see frequent events of Flash Floods.
● Tamil Nadu witnesses floods between the months of November to January due to retreating
monsoon.
● Heavy rain in the Himalayas during the South west monsoon causes floods in the rivers of U.P.,
Bihar, W. Bengal & Assam while Central & Southern rivers get flooded by heavy rainfall due to
depression in Bay of Bengal during south-west monsoon season.
● In Bihar 100% and in U.P. 82% flood is caused due to land depression and well-marked low
pressure.
● In West Bengal the main reason for flooding is cyclonic circulation. Whereas in Punjab, Gujarat,
Rajasthan & Jammu & Kashmir the main reason is low-pressure areas.
● The flood in Orissa and Andhra Pradesh is due to monsoon depression.
● In a study published in journal Nature Communications in October 2019, researchers estimated
that coastal flooding risk in India had increased significantly. Some 36 million people in India were
under risk, which was six times more than the earlier estimates.
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Consequences of floods
1. Immediate impacts
● Includes loss of human life, damage to property, destruction of crops, loss of livestock, and
deterioration of health conditions owing to waterborne diseases.
● As communication links and infrastructure such as power plants, roads and bridges are
damaged and disrupted, some economic activities may come to a standstill, people are
forced to leave their homes and normal life is disrupted.
2. Long Term impacts
● Disruptions to supplies of clean water, wastewater treatment, electricity, transport,
communication, education and health care.
● Loss of livelihoods, reduction in purchasing power and loss of land value in the floodplains
can leave communities economically vulnerable.
● Traumatised victims and their families for long periods of time.
● Displacement from one's home, loss of property and disruption to business and social
affairs can cause continuing stress. For some people the psychological impacts can be
long lasting.
3. Impact on Agriculture
● Flooding in key agricultural production areas can lead to widespread damage to crops and
fencing and loss of livestock.
● Crop losses through rain damage, waterlogged soils, and delays in harvesting are further
intensified by transport problems due to flooded roads and damaged infrastructure.
● The flow-on effects of reduced agricultural production can often impact well outside the
production area as food prices increase due to shortages in supply.
● On the other hand, flood events can result in long-term benefits to agricultural production
by recharging water resource storages, especially in drier, inland areas, and by
rejuvenating soil fertility by silt deposition.
4. Impact on Environment
● In many natural systems, floods play an important role in maintaining key ecosystem
functions and biodiversity.
● They link the river with the land surrounding it, recharge groundwater systems, fill
wetlands, increase the connectivity between aquatic habitats, and move both sediment
and nutrients around the landscape, and into the marine environment.
● For many species, floods trigger breeding events, migration, and dispersal. These natural
systems are resilient to the effects of all but the largest floods.
● The environmental benefits of flooding can also help the economy through things such as
increased fish production, recharge of groundwater resources, and maintenance of
recreational environments.
● Floods tend to further degrade already degraded systems.
● Removal of vegetation in and around rivers, increased channel size, dams, levee bank
and catchment clearing all work to degrade the hill-slopes, rivers and floodplains, and
increase the erosion and transfer of both sediment and nutrients.
● While cycling of sediments and nutrients is essential to a healthy system, too much
sediment and nutrients entering a waterway has negative impacts on downstream water
quality.
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● Other negative effects include loss of habitat, dispersal of weed species, the release of
pollutants, lower fish production, loss of wetlands function, and loss of recreational areas.
● Many of our coastal resources, including fish and other forms of marine production, are
dependent on the nutrients supplied from the land during floods.
● The negative effects of floodwaters on coastal marine environments are mainly due to the
introduction of excess sediment and nutrients, and pollutants such as chemicals, heavy
metals and debris.
● These can degrade aquatic habitats, lower water quality, reduce coastal production, and
contaminate coastal food resources.

Flood Preparedness and Mitigation

● Regulation and Enforcement
○ Unplanned and unregulated developmental activities in the flood plains of the rivers and
encroachments into the waterways have led to increase in flood losses as well as flood
risk.
○ The colossal loss of lives and property due to the flooding of the towns and cities and the
areas which get flooded almost every alternate year is a recent phenomenon and effective
steps are required for regulating unplanned growth in the flood plains and preventing
encroachment in the waterways.
● Capacity Development
○ The capacity development covers the aspects of flood education, target groups for
capacity development, capacity development of professionals, training, research and
development and documentation with respect to flood management.
○ The proposals for strengthening the existing systems are also given therein. An action
plan for capacity development has also been formulated.
● Flood Response
○ An effective and prompt response to floods is very important for minimising the loss of
lives and properties and providing immediate relief to the affected people.
○ The role of communities and NGOs is vital in search, rescue and relief operations.
Immediate medical assistance to the affected people and steps for prevention of outbreak
of epidemics after the floods are essential components of flood response. As per
provisions of the DM Act, 2005, the GOI has constituted
Structural measures
● Embankments
○ This has been one of the major structural approaches in which the river is restricted to its
existing course and prevented from overflowing the banks.
● Dams, Reservoirs and other Water Storage Mechanism
○ Dams, reservoirs and other water storages, both natural and man-made, are an effective
means for reducing the flood peaks in the rivers.
○ The important role played by them in flood moderation and comprehensive mechanism for
the operation and regulation of reservoirs, which takes into account the international,
inter-state and inter-regional aspects, have been dealt with in the fifth chapter.
● Channel Improvements
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○ The aim of Channel Improvements is to increase the area of flow or velocity of flow or both
to increase carrying capacity.
○ Normally this measure involves high cost and there are also problems of topographical
constraints to execute such a measure.
● Desilting and Dredging of Rivers
○ The de-silting approach is still to be perfected in the sense that various committees and
expert groups appointed by Government of India are yet to recommend this measure as
an effective mitigation strategy.
○ However, selective desilting and dredging of rivers at outfalls/confluences or local reaches
can be adopted.
● Drainage Improvement
○ This aims at the construction of new channels or improving the capacity of existing
channels to decongest and prevent flooding. However, what is important is to ensure that
such an approach does not cause congestion and flooding in downstream areas.
● Diversion of Flood Water
○ This involves diverting all or part of floodwater into natural or artificial constructed channels
which may be within or outside the floodplain.
○ The diverted water may or may not be returned to the river downstream.
○ Usually effective to prevent flooding around cities, the flood spill channel for Srinagar and
the supplementary drain in Delhi are examples of this approach.
● Catchments Area Treatment
○ The aim in this approach is to provide protection to catchment areas through measures
such as afforestation which minimize siltation of reservoirs and silt load in the rivers.
○ This can be a very useful approach to control flood peaks and the suddenness of runoffs.
● Sea Walls/Coastal Protection Works
○ The construction of Seawalls and other such work, try to prevent flooding from Sea water.
○ These are highly cost-intensive apart from the fact that the complexity of sea behavior and
other environmental aspects should also be considered.
Non-structural measures
● Flood Plain Zoning
○ The basic idea here is to regulate land use in the floodplain in order to restrict the
damages.
○ It aims at determining the location and extent of areas for developmental activities so that
damage is minimized.
○ It lays down guidelines for various types of development so that adequate mitigation is
built for the worst flood scenario.
● Flood Forecasting and Warning
○ A nationwide flood forecasting and warning system is developed by Central Water
Commission (CWC) and this initiative has also been supplemented by states who make
special arrangements for strategically important locations in their states.
○ The forecasts can be of different types such as forecast for water level (stage forecast),
discharge (flow forecast) and area to be submerged (inundation forecast). The forecast
when carries definite risk information is called a warning.
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○ The flood forecasting services involve collection of hydrological data (gauge, discharge),
meteorological data such as rainfall.
● Flood Proofing
○ These are measures designed to minimize the impact when flood water comes such as
raised platform for shelter to population, cattle etc., raised platform for drinking water hand
pumps, bore wells above flood level, house/building architecture, provision for relocating
vial installation such as communication, power etc.

NFRMP-National Flood Risk Mitigation Project

● NDMA has formulated a NFRMP as a comprehensive project for strengthening flood
preparedness, mitigation and management in the country.
● NFRMP aims to assist the central ministries, states governments to address the issue of
preparedness and mitigation for floods with a view to minimize vulnerability to floods and
consequent loss of lives, livelihood, property and damage to infrastructure.

Flood Management Programme

● In order to provide financial assistance to the State Governments for undertaking flood
management works in critical areas a state sector scheme, namely, “Flood Management
Programme” (FMP) was launched by the Ministry of Water Resources under Central Plan, at a
total cost of Rs. 8,000 crore during XI Plan.
● Under the Programme, central assistance was provided to State Governments for taking up works
related to river management, flood control, anti-erosion, drainage development, flood proofing,
restoration of damaged flood management works and anti-sea erosion.

Flood Management and Border Areas Programme (FMBAP)

● A comprehensive scheme FMBAP with merged components from the XII Plan Schemes viz.
Flood Management Programme (FMP) and River Management Activities & Works related to
Border Areas (RMBA) schemes was approved by the Union Cabinet.
● The Scheme has a provision only for clearing the committed liabilities of ongoing and completed
projects as per extant XI/ XII Plan guidelines and that no new project to be included under FM
component of FMBAP Scheme till then.

Urban Flood:
● As land is converted from agricultural fields or woodlands to roads and parking lots, it loses its
ability to absorb rainfall. Urbanization decreases the ability to absorb water 2 to 6 times over what
would occur on natural terrain.
● During periods of urban flooding, streets can become swift-moving rivers, while basements can
become death traps as they fill with water.
● Some of the most significant events of urban flooding include Mumbai Floods of 2005, Kolkata in
2007, Delhi in 2009, Bangalore in 2015 and the Hyderabad floods of 2020.
● Then the threat of climate change induced sea-level rise is also looming large, threatening all the
coastal cities.
● Causes of Urban Floods:
○ Meteorological Factors: Heavy rainfall, cyclonic storms, and thunderstorms
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○ Hydrological Factors: Overbank flow channel networks, the occurrence of high tides
impeding the drainage in coastal cities.
○ Anthropogenic Factors:
■ Climate change: Climate change due to various anthropogenic events has led to
extreme weather events.
○ Inadequate Drainage Infrastructure:
■ Cities like Hyderabad, Mumbai rely on a century-old drainage system, covering
only a small part of the core city.
■ In the last 20 years, the Indian cities have grown manifold with its original built-up
area.
■ As the city grew beyond its original limits, not much was done to address the
absence of adequate drainage systems.
■ Stormwater drainage systems whose capacities are overwhelmed when a rainfall
of high intensity happens.
○ Terrain Alteration:
■ Lasting irreversible damage has been done to the city by property builders,
property owners, and public agencies by flattening terrain and altering natural
drainage routes.
○ Reducing Seepage:
■ Indian cities are becoming increasingly impervious to water, not just because of
increasing built up but also because of the nature of materials used (hard,
non-porous construction material that makes the soil impervious).
○ Poor Implementation:
■ Even with provisions of rainwater harvesting, sustainable urban drainage systems,
etc, in regulatory mechanisms like the Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA),
adoption at user end as well as enforcement agencies remains weak.
○ Encroachment on Natural Spaces:
■ The number of wetlands has reduced to 123 in 2018 from 644 in 1956.
■ Green cover is only 9 per cent, which ideally should have been at least 33 per cent.
○ No Community Participation:
■ Flood control measures planned without participation of the affected community are
unsustainable as they do not meet the needs of relevant stakeholders.

Mitigation of Urban Flooding

● Sponge Cities:
○ The idea is to make cities more permeable so as to hold and use the water which falls
upon it.
○ Sponge cities absorb the rain water, which is then naturally filtered by the soil and allowed
to reach urban aquifers.
○ This allows for the extraction of water from the ground through urban or peri-urban wells.
○ This water can be treated easily and used for city water supply.
● Wetlands
○ There is a need to start paying attention to the management of wetlands by involving local
communities.
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○ Terrain alteration needs to be strictly regulated and a ban on any further alteration of
terrain needs to be introduced.
○ To improve the city’s capacity to absorb water, new porous materials and technologies
must be encouraged or mandated across scales.
○ Examples of these technologies are bioswales and retention systems, permeable material
for roads and pavement, drainage systems which allow storm water to trickle into the
ground, green roofs and harvesting systems in buildings.
● Drainage
○ Watershed management and emergency drainage plan should be clearly enunciated in
policy and law.
○ Urban watersheds are micro ecological drainage systems, shaped by contours of terrain.
○ Detailed documentation of these must be held by agencies which are not bound by
municipal jurisdictions; instead, there is a need to consider natural boundaries such as
watersheds instead of governance boundaries like electoral wards for shaping a drainage
plan.
● Water Sensitive Urban Planning:
○ These methods take into consideration the topography, types of surfaces (permeable or
impervious), natural drainage and leave very less impact on the environment.
○ Vulnerability analyses and risk assessments should form part and parcel of city master
plans.
○ In a changing climate, the drainage infrastructure (especially storm water drainage) has to
be built considering the new ‘normals’.
○ Tools such as predictive precipitation modelling can help do that and are also able to link it
with the adaptive capacity of urban land use.
● Need for Climate Resilient Infrastructure
○ According to UN projections, by 2050 more than 68% of the world’s population could be
concentrated in urban areas.
○ Additionally, daily life in urban areas is highly dependent on certain critical services and
products provided by critical infrastructures (CIs).
○ Therefore, it is especially relevant to understand how Climate Change affects urban CIs in
order to develop mechanisms to improve their capacity to handle crises derived from
Climate Change.
○ Bioswales are made along roadsides so that rainwater from the road flows towards them
and percolates into the ground.
○ In this context, resilience-based strategies provide a holistic approach, considering both
predictable and unpredictable threats.
○ Other such methods include permeable material for roads and pavement, green roofs and
harvesting systems in buildings.
● Early Warning Systems and Communication
○ Dissemination of flood warnings must be carried out, using a wide range of latest
technologies.
○ This would help in giving real-time data where traditional systems fail.
○ Tools such as predictive precipitation modelling can help do that and are also able to link it
with the adaptive capacity of urban land use.
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● Rainwater Harvesting
○ Due to urbanization, groundwater recharge has decreased and the peak runoff from
rainfall and consequent flooding has increased.
○ It will serve the twin purposes of lowering the peak runoff and raising the groundwater
table.
○ Many municipal corporations in India have already made rainwater harvesting compulsory.
● Conservation of Water Bodies
○ Urban water bodies like lakes, tanks, and ponds also play a very important role in the
management of urban flooding by reducing the stormwater run-off by capturing it.
● Role of Science and Technology
○ The management of urban flooding has to be treated holistically in a multi-disciplinary
manner.
○ Science and technology can play a significant role in improved monitoring, modelling/
forecasting, and decision-support systems.
○ Setting up a vulnerability-based geospatial framework to generate and analyze different
scenarios.
○ It helps in identifying and planning for the most effective/ appropriate actions in a dynamic
way to incorporate day-to-day changes that take place in urban areas, having the potential
to alter the prevailing vulnerability profile.

National Disaster Management (NDMA) Guidelines on Urban Flood Management

● Create a National Hydro-meteorological Network.
● The guidelines say that for providing early warning, the Central Water Commission (CWC) should
maximize the real-time hydro-meteorological network to cover all urban centres to effectively deal
with the problem of urban flooding
● Use of Doppler Weather Radar to be expanded to cover all urban areas in the country
● An inventory of the existing stormwater drainage system to be prepared. The inventory will be
both watershed-based and ward-based.
● Catchment to be the basis for planning and designing the stormwater drainage systems in all
ULBs
● All future road and rail bridges in cities crossing drain to be designed such that they do not block
the flows resulting in backwater effect
● Every building in an urban area must have rainwater harvesting as an integral component of the
building utility.
● Low-lying areas in cities have to be reserved for parks and other low-impact human activities.
● Encroachments on the drain should attract penal action.
● Pre-monsoon desilting of all major drains to be completed by March 31 each year.
● Urban Flooding has to be dealt with as a separate disaster, de-linking it from riverine floods which
affect the rural areas.
● Suitable interventions in the drainage system like traps, trash racks can be provided to reduce the
amount of solid waste going into the storm sewers.
● Inlets to be provided on the roads to drain water to the roadside drains and these have to be
designed based on current national and international practices.
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● Every building in an urban area must have rainwater harvesting as an integral component of the
building utility.
● Concept of Rain Gardens to be incorporated in planning for public parks and on-site stormwater
management for larger colonies and sites that are to be developed.
● Flood hazard assessments should be done on the basis of projected future scenarios of
intensities and duration of the rainfall and land-use changes.

Case Study of Mumbai Floods 2005

Lessons:
1. The limitations of the weather prediction and early warning system were exposed.
2. Response of Government agencies was quick. Army was deployed within 12 hours of heavy
rainfall on the first day i.e. 27th July, 2005.
3. Declaration of holidays on 27th and 28th July, 2005 reduced distress.
4. Civil society responded in a big way.
5. Massive immunization and effective mobilization of health services prevented major epidemics.
6. While unprecedented rainfall was the main reason for the Mumbai flood in 2005, major
contributing factors were unplanned urban development in complete disregard of the delicate
environment and ecology of the area, such as:
● 900 green plots were de-reserved to make way for real estate developments.
● 730 acres of mangrove wetland filled in Mahim creek for the development of Bandra-Kurla
complex.
● Western Expressway was widened despite objections from BMC thereby seriously
compromising the drainage system.
● Course of the Mithi river was diverted for expansion of the airport runway.
● Transferable Development Right was allowed indiscriminately without consideration of
carrying capacity of the area.
7. The drainage system was clogged by solid wastes.
8. The Disaster Management Plan was not updated.
9. Community was not involved in the planning process.

NDMA Guidelines on Flood Management

● Construction of Embankments - for prevention of flooding after carrying out detailed
hydrological and morphological studies
● Detailed Study - The CWC and the state governments have to study the problem of rise in river
beds in a scientific manner and explore the techno-economic viability of desilting/dredging as a
remedial measure to mitigate the effects of rise in the river beds.
● Appropriate channel improvement - To increase the velocity and/or the area of flow and reduce
the flood level in the river depending upon site-specific conditions.
● Remove Blockage - State governments should prohibit the blocking of the natural drainage
channels and sluices with an appropriate law and improve their capacity and construct new
channels and sluices to ensure flow of excess rainwater in the area.
● Diversion - State governments should study the feasibility of implementing the schemes for
diverting excess water to existing or new channels by bye-passing towns and cities to prevent
flooding.
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● Watershed management measures - such as afforestation, check dams, detention basins etc.
● Appropriate anti-erosion measures - such as revetments, slope pitching, permeable and
impermeable spurs using conventional materials and/or geo-synthetics for protection of towns,
cities, industrial areas, groups of thickly populated villages, railway lines, roads and embankments
from erosion by rivers in a time-bound manner.
● Sea walls/coastal protection works have to be planned and executed by the respective coastal
states/port authorities, keeping in view the complexity of sea behaviour and other environmental
aspects.
● Adequate number of raised platforms/flood shelters at suitable locations in the floodplains
with basic amenities such as drinking water, sanitation, medical treatment, cooking, tents, lantern
etc.
● Basin-wise flood hazard mitigation models have to be developed.
● A mechanism has to be developed wherein representatives of the CWC, IMD, NRSA and the
states interact with each other, exchange data on a real-time basis and formulate the flood
forecasts and warnings.
● With cooperation from Nepal, Bhutan and China, data has to be collected on a real-time basis.
● The state governments have to enact and enforce appropriate laws for implementing flood plain
zoning regulations.
● The reclamation of the existing wetlands/natural depressions has to be prohibited by state
governments and they must formulate an action plan for using them for flood moderation.
● Training and capacity building measures have to be taken up for designated authorities dealing
with the disaster.
● A number of organizations, like NGOs, self-help groups, CBOs, youth organizations such as NCC,
NYKS, NSS etc., women’s groups, volunteer agencies, Civil Defence, Home Guards, etc. must be
encouraged to volunteer their services in the aftermath of any disaster.
● The state governments have to utilise different types of media, especially print, radio, television
and Internet, to disseminate timely and accurate information.
● A team comprising a social worker, a psychologist and a psychiatrist should provide counselling to
victims.
● Measures should be taken to strengthen the Ganga Flood Control Board and Brahmaputra Board.

Drought
● Significantly lower than normal levels of rainfall in an area over a sustained period of time can
lead to unusual dryness of the soil. Such soil is unable to support plant life including agricultural
crops, resulting in a drought.
● Drought is a temporary aberration unlike aridity, which is a permanent feature of climate. Seasonal
aridity (i.e. a well-defined dry season) also needs to be distinguished from drought.
● Thus drought is a normal, recurrent feature of climate and occurs in all climatic regimes and is
usually characterized in terms of its spatial extension, intensity and duration.
● Conditions of drought appear when the rainfall is deficient in relation to the statistical multi-year
average for a region, over an extended period of a season or year, or even more.
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● It has been shown that about 68% of cropped area in India is vulnerable to drought, of which 33%
receives less than 750 mm of mean annual rainfall and is classified as “chronically drought-prone”
while 35% which receive mean annual rainfall of 750-1125 mm is classified as “drought-prone”.
● The drought-prone areas of the country are confined primarily to the arid, semi-arid, and
sub-humid regions of peninsular and western India.

Types of Drought
Meteorological Drought
● It is defined as the deficiency of precipitation from expected or normal levels over an extended
period of time.
● Meteorological drought usually precedes other kinds of drought.
● Meteorological drought is said to occur when the seasonal rainfall received over an area is less
than 25% of its long-term average value.
● It is further classified as moderate drought if the rainfall deficit is 26–50% and severe drought
when the deficit exceeds 50% of the normal.
Hydrological Drought
● It is best defined as deficiencies in surface and subsurface water supplies leading to a lack of
water for normal and specific needs.
● Such conditions arise, even in times of average (or above average) precipitation when increased
usage of water diminishes the reserves.
Agricultural Drought
● It is usually triggered by meteorological and hydrological droughts, which occurs when soil
moisture and rainfall are inadequate during the crop growing season causing extreme crop stress
and wilting.
● Plant water demand depends on prevailing weather conditions, biological characteristics of the
specific plant, its stage of growth and the physical and biological properties of the soil.
● Agricultural drought thus arises from the variable susceptibility of crops during different stages of
crop development, from emergence to maturity.
● In India, it is defined as a period of four consecutive weeks (of severe meteorological drought)
with a rainfall deficiency of more than 50% of the long-term average (LTA) or with a weekly rainfall
of 5 cm or less from mid-May to mid-October (the Kharif season) when 80% of India‟s total crop is
planted or six such consecutive weeks during the rest of the year (NRSC, Decision Support
Centre).
Ecological Drought
● Ecological drought is an “episodic deficit in water availability that drives ecosystems beyond
thresholds of vulnerability, impacts ecosystem services, and triggers feedbacks in natural and/or
human systems.
● Ecological drought may be driven by natural phenomena, such as lack of rainfall or warming
temperatures, and it may result in or be exacerbated by multiple competing demands on existing
limited water supplies.
● Thus, land use and water allocation decisions may drive or exacerbate ecological drought; for
example, modification of hydrological processes to store water prior to drought may reduce water
available to ecosystems.
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● Examples of drought impacts to ecological systems may include:

○ Reduced plant growth over a season or permanently
○ Local species reduction or extinction.
○ Landscape-level transitions, such as forest conversion to non-forested vegetation, may in
turn reduce water retention in soils.
○ Freshwater ecosystems may change flow regimes, increase water temperature, and
deteriorate water quality, which may result in fish kills, reduced opportunities for recreation,
and decreased hydropower production.

Causes of Recurring Drought in India

● Considerable annual / seasonal/regional variations in spite of a high average annual rainfall of
around 1,150 mm.
● A relatively short window of less than 100 days during the South-West Monsoon season (June to
September) when about 73% of the total annual rainfall of the country is received.
● Uneven distribution of rainfall over different parts of the country in that some parts bear an
inordinately high risk of shortfalls, while others tend to receive excessive rainfall.
● Even though India receives abundant rain on an average, for the country as a whole, much of the
excess water, which otherwise could have contributed towards enhancing natural resilience
towards drought, gets lost as run-offs.
● The variability in rainfall exceeds 30% in large areas of the country when compared to Long
Period Average (LPA) and exceeds 50% in parts of drought- prone Saurashtra, Kutch and
Rajasthan.
● Low average annual rainfall of 750 mm over 33% of the cropped area in the country heightens the
susceptibility to drought.
● Over-exploitation of ground water and sub-optimum conservation and storage capacity of surface
water leading to inadequate water availability for irrigation, particularly in the years of rainfall
deficiency.
● Steady decline in per capita water availability for humans and animals even in non-drought years
● Out migration of cattle and other animals from drought hit areas heightens the pressure on
resources in surrounding regions.
● Limited irrigation coverage (net irrigated area in the country is less than 50%) exacerbates the
impact of drought on account of complete dependence of agriculture in such areas on rainfall.

Geographical Spread of Drought

● 68% of cropped area in India is vulnerable to drought, of which 33% receives less than 750 mm of
mean annual rainfall and is classified as “chronically drought-prone” while 35% which receive
mean annual rainfall of 750-1125 mm is classified as “drought-prone”.
● The drought-prone areas of the country are confined primarily to the arid, semi-arid, and
sub-humid regions of peninsular and western India.
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Impacts of Drought

○ Drought produces both direct and indirect impacts.

○ Direct impacts or primary impacts are usually physical / material and include reduced
agricultural production; increased fire hazard; depleted water levels; higher livestock and
wildlife mortality rates; and damage to wildlife and fish habitats.
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○ When direct impacts have multiplier effects through the economy and society, they are
referred to as indirect impacts.
○ These include a reduction in agricultural production that may result in reduced income for
farmers and agribusiness, increased prices for food and timber, unemployment, reduced
purchasing capacity and demand for consumption, default on agricultural loans, rural
unrest, and reduction in agricultural employment leading to migration and drought relief
programmes.
○ The impacts of drought are generally categorized as economic, environmental, and social:
● Economic impacts
○ Production losses in agriculture and related sectors, especially forestry and fisheries,
because these sectors rely on surface and subsurface water supplies.
○ It causes a loss of income and purchasing power, particularly among farmers and rural
populations dependent on agriculture.
○ All industries dependent upon the primary sector for their raw materials would suffer losses
due to reduced supply or increased prices.
○ Drought thus has a multiplier effect throughout the economy, which has a dampening
impact on employment, flow of credit and tax collections.
○ If the drought is countrywide, macroeconomic indicators at the national level are adversely
impacted.
● Environmental impacts
○ Environmental impacts, such as lower water levels in reservoirs, lakes and ponds as well
as reduced flows from springs and streams would reduce the availability of feed and
drinking water and adversely affect fish and wildlife habitat.
○ It may also cause loss of forest cover, migration of wildlife and their greater mortality due
to increased contact with agricultural producers as animals seek food from farms and
producers are less tolerant of the intrusion.
○ A prolonged drought may also result in increased stress among endangered species and
cause loss of biodiversity.
○ Reduced streamflow and loss of wetlands may cause changes in the levels of salinity.
○ Increased groundwater depletion, land subsidence, and reduced recharge may damage
aquifers and adversely affect the quality of water (e.g., salt concentration, increased water
temperature, acidity, dissolved oxygen, turbidity).
○ The degradation of landscape quality, including increased soil erosion, may lead to a more
permanent loss of biological productivity of the landscape.
● Social Impacts
○ Social impacts arise from lack of income causing out migration of the population from the
drought-affected areas.
○ People in India seek to cope with drought in several ways which affect their sense of
well-being: they withdraw their children from schools, postpone daughters‟ marriages, and
sell their assets such as land or cattle. In addition to economic hardships, it causes a loss
of social status and dignity, which people find hard to accept. Inadequate food intake may
lead to malnutrition, and in some extreme cases, cause starvation.
○ Access and use of scarce water resources generate situations of conflict, which could be
socially very disruptive.
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○ Inequities in the distribution of drought impacts and relief may exacerbate these social
tensions further.

Drought Prone Area Delineation Criteria

● Rainfall (long term average - 30 to 50 yrs) (Short Term average – 5 to 10 years for giving real
picture as a rainfall pattern may change over the period for e.g. Cherrapunji)- Rainfall related
indices have been recommended as the first trigger in the assessment of drought. In the event of
rainfall inadequacy of a certain magnitude, the first trigger is set off which would then obligate
State Governments to consider other impact indicators related to agriculture (crop sowing
coverage), remote sensing, soil moisture, and hydrology.
● Cropping pattern (past 3 to 5 years) - For finding out average use of groundwater and irrigation
systems. Field level verification of ground truthing of crop damage through sample field survey in
10% of the villages selected randomly
● Available supplement irrigation- Such as well, tank, ponds, ground water etc.
● Satellite derived indicators (last 10 years)- The level of severity of drought will be based on the
recorded values against the impact indicators.
● Soil map - to help see the water holding capacity of the soil. Percentage Available Soil Moisture.
● Ground water availability map
● Cattle population and fodder demand - The drought and the intensity of the calamity will be
declared on the basis of findings from the field survey.
● Socio-economic data- such rural/urban, agriculture/industrial/service sector.
● Other water demands like for drinking, industrial use etc.
● Collection and creation of database and spatial framework for analysis

Key Variables for Monitoring Drought

State Governments monitor drought by obtaining information from various sources on key variables of
drought which include rainfall, reservoir / lake water levels, surface water / groundwater soil moisture and
sowing / crop conditions etc.
● Meteorological Data – Rainfall and other parameters like Temperature, Wind speed and Relative
Humidity (subject to availability)
● Weather forecast - Short, medium, extended range
● Soil Moisture (subject to availability)
● Sown Area / Crop Health / Stress
● Satellite based Vegetation Index
● Stream Flow - Discharge
● Groundwater Levels
● Reservoir and Lake Storage / Level
● Impacts – distress sale and migration of cattle, human migration, fodder availability, drinking
water, animal health, employment opportunities in agriculture sector
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Drought Declaration by IMD

India Meteorological Department (IMD) has replaced the word “drought” to describe poor rainfall with
“deficient year” and “large deficient year”.

New Terminology Old Terminology Description

Normal Normal Percentage departure of realized rainfall is within +/-

10% of the Long Period Average

Below Normal Below Normal Percentage departure of realized rainfall is<10% of

the Long Period Average

Above Normal Above Normal Percentage departure of realized rainfall is >10% of

the Long Period Average

Deficient Year All India Drought When the rainfall deficiency is more than 10% and
year 20-40% area of the country is under drought
conditions

Large Deficient All India Drought When the rainfall deficiency is more than 10% and
Year year when the spatial coverage of drought is more than
40%

Dry Spell
● Defined as low rainfall (less than 50%) or no rainfall for a short period usually of 4 Weeks(up to 3
Weeks in case of light soils).
● In Sandy soil of arid areas (less than 500 mm rainfall) like Rajasthan, two consecutive weeks of
dry spell may be considered along with rainfall deviation.

Gradation of Drought Prone Areas

● High, Moderate, Low
● Areas should also be graded on the basis of degree of drought proneness since it would affect the
steps required for greater preparedness. This would require multiple criteria approach that
includes
○ Sensitivity to Rainfall Variation;
○ Frequency of Occurrence of Drought;
○ Vulnerability of Community (people and livestock) to Drought

Drought Prevention

Judicious use of surface and groundwater

● In drought-prone areas rainwater is the main source of surface and ground water recharge.
● Because of more intense use of groundwater in most parts of the country during the last few
years, recharge of ground water did not take place. The early decade of 1990-2000, witnessed
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many advances in the airborne instrumentation, radars, flares and software. Water management
issues of current concern, therefore, are:
○ (a) less exploitation of groundwater for irrigation,
○ (b) increased concentration of salts in the soil profile and groundwater,
○ (c) increased concentration of specific ions like fluorides and nitrates in water and
○ (d) lack of availability/reduced availability of drinking water for animals in natural storage
structures such as ponds, lakes etc.

Micro Irrigation Systems

● The overall development of the agriculture sector and the intended growth rate in GDP is largely
dependent on the judicious use of the available water resources.
● While the irrigation projects (major and medium) have contributed to the development of water
resources, the conventional methods of water conveyance and irrigation, being highly inefficient,
has led not only to wastage of water but also to several ecological problems like water logging,
salinisation and soil degradation rendering productive agricultural lands unproductive.
● The use of modern irrigation methods like drip and sprinkler irrigation is the only alternative for
efficient use of surface as well as ground water resources.
● The Department of Agriculture, Cooperation and Farmers' Welfare in 2006 launched a Centrally
Sponsored Micro Irrigation Scheme under which out of the total cost of the MI System, 40% will
be borne by the Central Government, 10% by the State Government and the remaining 50% will
be borne by the beneficiary, either through his/her own resources or soft loan from financial
institutions.
● The evapotranspiration losses could be minimized and crop yield optimized by micro-irrigation
systems.

Post Harvest Management

● India suffers an estimated food grain and agriculture produce loss of Rs 50,000 crores every year
due to the lack of adequate post harvest infrastructure and inefficient supply chain management
by the country‟s farmers.
● India loses about 35-40% of the fruits and vegetable produce due to improper Post Harvest
Management. India wastes fruits and vegetables every year equivalent to the annual consumption
of the United Kingdom.
● To avoid the Post Harvest Losses a chain of cold storages, need to be created along with Post
Harvest Management practices like pre cooling, cold storages and refrigerated transport.
● Preharvest losses due to diseases and pests need to be minimized through better management
practices.
● In the absence or lack of proper pre and post harvest crop management the impact of drought
gets compounded.

Afforestation
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● It is well-known that the development of forests in areas, which are susceptible to periodic
recurrence of drought, is indeed a very effective drought-resistant measure.
● Drought-affected areas have vast expanses devoid of vegetation, depleted of tree growth and
exposed parent rocks and boulders.
● The accelerated run-off in these areas is so large that all the surrounding agricultural land cannot
even support marginal or subsistence agriculture.
● To remedy this, vegetation on hill slopes, catchments and other vulnerable areas need to be
undertaken, particularly where rainfall is low.
● Plantation and green cover may be encouraged to help check soil erosion and the use of organic
compost and biodegradable mulching will enable the absorption and retainment of minerals for a
long time thereby reducing the risk of leaching.
● Trees and vegetation not only protect the soil, improve its water holding capacity, minimize runoff,
regulate drainage (both surface and underground), but also preserve and improve the productive
capacity of the soil and fertility of agricultural land in the vicinity.
● The foliage produced any effective vegetation, whether trees, shrubs, bushes or even
well-pastured grass, forms a sheltering shield or canopy which breaks down the intensity of
torrential rain and thus reduces its erosive action on the soil.
● Furthermore, when this water with reduced velocity reaches down, it does not flow down to the
rivers but is absorbed due to the vegetation and helps recharge ground and surface water
resulting in the creation of perennial rather than seasonal storage in the reservoirs.
● Therefore, multi-tier plantation of grasses, bushes, shrubs and trees of local multipurpose
varieties should be promoted as these are more tolerant to temperature / climatic conditions.
● Before the afforestation programme is taken up, a thorough inspection and classification of the
areas needs to be conducted. The land identified for afforestation should be divided into three
categories:
○ (i) areas with adequate depth of soil to make afforestation feasible;
○ (ii) areas with shallow soils fit for supporting grass and shrub growth but not fit for tree
growth;
○ (iii) badly degraded and eroded areas unfit for tree growth and shrubs and where only soil
and moisture conservation operations should be carried out.
● In drought-prone areas, planting of drought-resistant varieties of trees should be considered.
● Fruit trees, such as sitafal (annona squamosa) and drought-resistant fodder species, may not only
be useful as an afforestation measure, but also enable the supply of fodder to the cattle.
● Different species of bushes and shrubs should be planted, which not only prevent soil erosion but
also provide a leaf-hedge against cattle and barrier against fire when planted like a boundary or
fence.

Drought Mitigation
● Mitigation actions, programs, and policies are implemented during and before drought to reduce
the magnitude of risk to human life, property, and productive capacity.
● Considering the increase in the frequency of droughts in different parts of the country, it is
necessary that there is a shift in public policy from drought relief to drought mitigation measures.
● These measures are important for adapting to climate change, restoring ecological balance, and
bringing development benefits to the people.
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Cloud seeding in Drought Prone Regions of India

● The interior part of peninsular India is a rain shadow region. The seasonal monsoon rainfall in
these areas is lower compared to all India mean monsoon rainfall. The rainfall variability is larger.
The region is drought prone.
● The cloud seeding programs with modern technology have been carried out by state governments
of Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Maharashtra since 2003.
● The State Government of Andhra Pradesh, during 2003, in the context of erratic rainfall and
prolonged dry spells, launched a cloud seeding programme to induce rain in the drought-hit
Anantapur district.
● Two earlier experiments had been conducted in the Rangareddy and Anantapur districts of
Andhra Pradesh in the early 1990s. This was done again in 2007.
● Cloud seeding does not produce rain. It enhances rainfall which otherwise would have fallen in
the area.
● The efficacy of the cloud seeding is debated as it is not often supported through properly
designed experiments.

Crop Insurance
● An important instrument to combat the adverse financial impact of droughts on the farmers is
agricultural insurance.
● Though the agricultural insurance schemes have not been very successful, the GoI has taken
several initiatives towards increasing its coverage and reach.
● An All-India Comprehensive Crop Insurance Scheme (CCIS) for major crops was introduced in
1985. It was subsequently replaced by the National Agricultural Insurance Scheme (NAIS) in
1999.
● The Government of India also set up the Agriculture Insurance Company of India (AIC) in 2003 to
serve the needs of farmers better and to move towards a sustainable actuarial regime.
● As the coverage of agricultural insurance in the country increases, insurance schemes for drought
protection will become more viable.
● Recent schemes like PM Fasal Bima yojana provide wider coverage to the farmers.
● PM Fasal Bima yojana provide
○ It provides a comprehensive insurance cover against failure of the crop thus helping in
stabilising the income of the farmers.
○ All food & oilseed crops and annual commercial/horticultural crops for which past yield
data is available.
○ The prescribed premium is 2% to be paid by farmers for all Kharif crops and 1.5% for all
rabi crops. In the case of annual commercial and horticultural crops, the premium is 5%.
○ Premium cost over and above the farmer share was equally subsidized by States and GoI.
○ However, GoI shared 90% of the premium subsidy for North Eastern States to promote the
uptake in the region.
○ The scheme was compulsory for loanee farmers availing Crop Loan/Kisan Credit Card
(KCC) account for notified crops and voluntary for others.

Pradhan Mantri Kisan Maan Dhan Yojana (PM-KMY)

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● Launched in September 2019, the central sector scheme aims to provide the social security net
for the Small and Marginal Farmers (who own cultivable land up to 2 hectares).
● It provides for payment of minimum pension of Rs. 3000/- per month to the eligible small and
marginal farmers on attaining the age of 60 years.
● It is a voluntary and contributory pension scheme, with an entry age of 18 to 40 years.
● The monthly contribution by farmers ranges between Rs.55 to 200.
● The Central Government will contribute an equal amount in the pension scheme.
● The Life Insurance Corporation of India (LIC) is the Pension Fund Manager for the Scheme.
● On exit from the scheme, the beneficiary will receive his/her accumulated share and the
Government’s contribution will be deposited in the LIC Fund.
● After the subscriber’s death, the spouse or heir shall be entitled to receive 50% of the pension as
family pension, provided he/she is not already an SMF beneficiary of the Scheme.
● On the death of the subscriber during the period of contribution, the spouse shall have the option
of continuing the Scheme by paying regular contribution.

Pradhan Mantri Kisan Samman Nidhi (PM-KISAN)

○ Launched in February 2019, the central sector scheme provides for transfer of an amount of Rs.
6000/- per year in three equal instalments each of Rs. 2000/- directly into the bank account of
beneficiary farmer families.
○ The Scheme initially covered only small and marginal farmer families as beneficiaries, subject to
certain exclusion criteria for higher-income status. The Government later extended the scheme to
all farmer families irrespective of landholding size.
○ The entire responsibility of identification of beneficiary farmer families rests with the State/UT
Governments.

Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayee Yojana (PMKSY)

● Formulated with the vision of extending the coverage of irrigation ‘Har Khet ko pani’ and improving
water use efficiency ‘More crop per drop’ in a focused manner with end to end solution on
source creation, distribution, management, field application and extension activities.
● It was approved by the Central Government in 2015-16.
● PMKSY has been formulated as an umbrella scheme amalgamating ongoing schemes viz.
Accelerated Irrigation Benefits Programme (AIBP) of the Ministry of Water Resources, River
Development & Ganga Rejuvenation (MoWR, RD&GR), Integrated Watershed Management
Programme (IWMP) of Department of Land Resources (DoLR) and the On Farm Water
Management (OFWM) of Department of Agriculture, Cooperation & Farmers Welfare (DAC&FW).
● The major objective of PMKSY is to achieve convergence of investments in major and medium
irrigation projects with command area development to provide assured irrigation, improve on-farm
water use efficiency to reduce wastage of water, enhance the adoption of precision-irrigation and
other water saving technologies (More crop per drop), scientific and sustainable development of
watersheds, enhance recharge of aquifers and introduce sustainable water conservation practices
and attract greater private investment in precision irrigation system.

National Rainfed Area Programme

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● Objective - to increase agricultural productivity in rainfed areas in a sustainable manner by

adopting appropriate farming system based approaches, minimize adverse impact of possible
crop failure due to drought and other calamities through diversified and composite farming system
etc.
● The National Rainfed Area Authority (NRAA) in the Department of Agriculture, Cooperation &
Farmers Welfare is an advisory body for policy and programme formulation and monitoring of
schemes / programmes related to degraded land development for horticulture and integrated
agricultural development in rainfed areas.
● The Central Government approved the involvement of NRAA for providing technical inputs in
policy planning, implementation and monitoring of PMKSY especially in the areas of rain water
conservation / watershed development and its management including other agricultural and allied
sectors.

Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme (MGNREGS)

● Considering the importance of water conservation, and given all the scientific and technological
advances at their command, the Ministry of Rural Development in consultation and agreement
with the Ministry of Water Resources, River Development & Ganga Rejuvenation and the Ministry
ofAgriculture and Farmers Welfare has developed an actionable Framework to ensure that
MGNREGA funds are used in accordance with the best practices in the sector.
● The need for drought proofing villages in water stressed blocks was being felt for many years.
● Many State Governments have started excellent initiatives for water conservation in the last few
years using Mahatma Gandhi NREGA funds viz. the ‘Mukhyamantri Jal Swavalamban Abhiyan’ in
Rajasthan, the ‘Dobha’ or Farm Ponds construction in Jharkhand, the ‘Mission Kakatiya’ in
Telangana.
● ‘Neeru Chettu’ in Andhra Pradesh, ‘Kapil Dhara’ in Madhya Pradesh, bore well recharge in
Karnataka, ‘Jalyukt Shivar’ in Maharashtra are some of the recent initiatives.
● The present Framework draws on many of the good practices in these States and some other
initiatives.
● The Framework strives to leverage the synergies between Mahatma Gandhi NREGA, Pradhan
Mantri Krishi Sinchayee Yojana, IWMP and Command Area Development & Water Management
programmes, given their common objectives.
● Types of common works undertaken under these programmes/ schemes are water conservation
and management, water harvesting, soil and moisture conservation, groundwater recharge, flood
protection, land development, Command Area Development & Water Management (CAD&WM).
● These programmes were addressing the above mentioned activities with their own set of planning
tools, processes, technical expertise and financial resources which is now envisioned to be used
in coordination to bring the advantages of each programme/scheme to strengthen a concerted
action for water conservation and management.

Community Participation in Drought Mitigation

● Community participation is an essential feature of drought mitigation programmes. As local water
management and rainwater harvesting hold the key to drought mitigation, Government policies
should emphasize community-based water resource management.
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● Community-based institutions, such as WUAs, can play important roles in managing water
resources at the micro level.
● The Prime Minister's Fasal Bima Yojna (PMFBY) and Pilot Unified Package Insurance Scheme
may be promoted vigorously in drought affected districts.

Build on Micro-level Experiences:

● The villages of Sukhomajri in Haryana and about 100 communities in Alwar have improved their
socio-economic conditions through community-led water management.
● These communities used traditional water harvesting structures, such as village tanks and johads,
which increased the groundwater table in the area, resulting in increased water storage and
substantial increase in crop production and resultant income.
● Ralegan Siddhi and Hirve bazar from Ahmednagar district are the other successful examples of
community-based initiatives in water resource management. These micro-level success stories
need to be spread to other parts of the country for other communities to replicate.

Innovate Community-based Institutions:

● Several models of community-based institutions have emerged, which are effectively managing
surface and groundwater.
● In Odisha, the ‘Pani Panchayat programme’ assigns various roles to the community and the local
self-government in water management and is preparing community-based drought management
plans. In Ojhar, Maharashtra WUAs are enabling farmers to manage irrigation water.
● In Banikhet, Himachal Pradesh the lift irrigation project deals with various aspects of water use,
such as water charges, local maintenance. In Rajasthan, communities are participating in checks
on rainwater loss and thus ensuring the enhancement of groundwater.
● State Governments need to build on these examples and encourage the formation of community
based organizations for effective management of water resources.
● As discussed above, State Governments need to encourage the formation of WUAs for
community based management of water delivery systems.
● Maharashtra has taken the lead in 1990 in forming WUAs, and its State Government has handed
over the management of the entire irrigation systems of Niphad block, where the irrigation dam is
situated, to the WUA network.
● WUA-like initiatives have been launched in Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Rajasthan, Madhya
Pradesh and Odisha, which also suffer from water scarcity. Legislations dealing with transferring
of water management to WUA- like groups are being formulated in all these States.

Organize Community-based Consultations through Gram Sabha:

● Community-based consultations refer to community decisions, collective contribution, self-
regulations, and negotiations with the Government conducted through Gram Sabhas, in particular
and PRIs in general.
● These processes can be very important for the management of water, fodder and crops at the
community level.
● Further, these processes can also lead to meeting the basic entitlements through provision of
work and food to people affected by drought.
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Strengthen Women’s Self-help Groups:

● Self-help groups empower women and help them to access resources. Women start economic
activities and generate an independent stream of income.
● While it has an empowering impact on women, it also increases resilience of the households in
responding to drought.
● Those households who depend solely on agriculture for their livelihoods suffer badly due to
income and consumption losses, while diversified households cope with the impact better.
● These self-help groups could be formed and strengthened through many interventions at the
community level.
● Women’s self-help groups can play an important role in a large number of measures targeted at
drought mitigation.
● They could be involved in rainwater harvesting, running PDS shops, Aanganwadis and day care
centres and overseeing water distribution and utilization in their community. Since women are the
most affected in a drought situation, they could plan several measures that reduce their hardships
and promote greater equity and efficiency in natural resource management.
● During a drought situation, the well being of these groups can only be ensured through the active
support of women’s groups.

Empower Panchayati Raj Institutions:

● Several drought relief and mitigation measures could be implemented through the PRIs more
effectively.
● The necessary budget allocations and implementation support should be provided to these
institutions for launching programmes in drought-affected areas. PRIs improve the delivery
mechanism and reduce the impact of drought.

Water Harvesting and Conservation

● Water harvesting and conservation refer to processes and structures of rainfall and run- off
collection from large catchment areas and channeling them for human consumption.
● In India, these processes and structures have been in existence since antiquity, but the increasing
frequency and severity of droughts and population growth have focused on the revival of these
practices and structures.
● Every household’s minimum water requirements can be easily met by collecting rainwater locally
from village / community ponds / large man made containers, by diverting and storing water from
local streams / springs and by tapping sub-surface water below river / stream beds.
● There are two methods for water conservation:
○ (i) artificial recharge of groundwater.
○ (ii) traditional methods.
● While the artificial recharge of groundwater is used extensively in all the watershed development
programmes being implemented, traditional methods of water collection and harvesting through
ponds / tanks are even more important for assuring continuous and reliable access to water.
● Both methods include measures which are low-cost, community-oriented and
environment-friendly.
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● These methods are considered very useful for groundwater recharge both when rainfall is
deficient and when there are flash floods (that result in overtopping of defined courses of rivers /
streams and their spreading into flood plains).
● Harvesting and conservation of floodwater to rejuvenate depleted high-capacity aquifers by
adopting integrated groundwater recharge techniques, such as dams, tanks, anicuts, percolation
tanks, could improve water availability and create a water buffer for dealing with successive
droughts.

Artificial Recharge of Ground Water

● A typical watershed development programme has several components, depending on the
topography (shape, configuration and slope of the land), nature and depth of soil cover, type of
rocks and their pattern of formation and layout, water absorbing capacity of land, rainfall intensity
and land use. These include the following:

Contour Bunding
● farming practice of plowing and/or planting across a slope following its elevation contour lines.
● a method of plowing furrows that follow the curves of the land rather than straight up and down
slopes
● forms ridges, slows the water flow and helps save precious topsoil

Contour Trenching
● ditches carved into a hillside to follow a contour and run perpendicular to the flow of water.
● The ditch's excavated soil is utilised to create a berm on the ditch's downward edge.
● useful on a porous land surface as rainwater that gets collected in the trenches can quickly
percolate into the ground.

Contour Cultivation
● the process of tilling sloped ground following lines of regular height to conserve rainwater and
decrease soil erosion.
● done across the slope by cultivating crops and trees on the contour.

Bench Terracing
● Practiced on steep hilly slopes where agriculture has replaced natural forest and grasslands for a
long time.
● involves converting the original ground into level steplike fields constructed by half cutting and half
filling, which reduces the degree of the slope.

Graded Bunding
● Constructed in relatively high rainfall areas. The excess water has to be removed out of the field
to avoid water stagnation, especially in deep black soils.
● These bunds are outlets for safe removal of water. The channels of graded bunds are wide and
shallow.

Gully plugging
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● small conservation structure across small gullies and streams in hilly areas to slow the run-off of
the flowing water.
● Gullies result from functional disorder of the land, improper land use and are the most visible
result of severe soil erosion.
● are small drainage channels, which cannot be easily crossed by agricultural equipment.
● Gully plugging measures include vegetative plantings and brushwood check dams, boulder
bunds, brick masonry and earthen bunds or a combination of both and sand bag plugs.

Check Dams / Nala Bunding Construction

● Check dam / nala bunding work consists of construction of a masonry embankment across a
stream or nalla with surplusing arrangement (waste weirs, at suitable intervals).
● These works are undertaken to hold maximum runoff water to create temporary flooding in the
stream with arrangements to drain water at suitable intervals. Such embankments depend on the
slope of the nalla or off-stream and the quantity of water expected to flow.

Gabion Structure
● commonly constructed check dam across small streams to conserve stream flows with practically
no submergence beyond the stream course.
● Locally available boulders are stored in a steel wire.
● This is put up across the stream’s mesh to make a small dam by anchoring it to the streamside.
● The excess water overflows from this structure storing some water in reserve which serves as a
source of recharge.
● The silt content of stream water in due course is deposited in the interstices of the boulders to
make it more impermeable.
● These structures are common in Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh and Andhra Pradesh.

Stream Bank Protection

● Eroding stream banks not only damage adjoining agricultural lands but also contribute large
quantities of sediment load to the river systems.
● Under the watershed management programme, bank protection of only small / minor streams is
included. However, works of this nature should only be taken up if the benefits justify the cost of
construction.

Farm Ponds
● In any watershed management programme farm ponds are an important component and useful in
storing water for irrigation.
● They also retard sediment and flood flows to the downstream river system.
● In relatively flat terrain with good soil cover, a farm pond has an earth section with usually 3:1 side
slopes on the waterside and 2:1 side slopes on the downstream face (a uniform side slope of
2½:1 on both sides can be adopted at some sites).
● The sides are sodded. A natural depression nearby should be used as an earthen spillway with
minimum channel section construction.
● A pipe drop inlet spillway and an irrigation outlet are also provided. A key trench is dug to provide
good bondage between the original ground and the filled earth.
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● Storm riprap against wave action may be required in some cases. The pond crest usually serves
as a farm road (providing 4.25 m roadway for motorable roads).

Percolation Tanks (PT) / Spreading Basin

● One of the effective measures by which groundwater recharge can be achieved, is by the
construction and use of percolation tanks. The efficacy and feasibility of percolation tanks is better
established in hard rock formation where the rocks are highly fractured and weathered.
● In Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka and Gujarat, numerous
percolation tanks are constructed in basaltic lava flows and crystalline rocks.
● Percolation tanks are constructed for very small catchments up to 10–12 sq. km., where minor
irrigation schemes, bandharas or other storage schemes are not technically and economically
feasible.
● Percolation tank schemes are intended mainly for recharging aquifers and improving the
groundwater supply to the wells for drinking water and irrigation. In comparison to ponds,
percolation tanks conserve water to a greater extent because the filling and recharge occur mostly
during the monsoons when the evaporation rate is about half of the potential rate in summer
through which ponds contain water.
● Selection of a suitable site for the construction of percolation tanks and subsequent maintenance
is crucial for its effective functioning. Where hydro-geological conditions are favourable,
percolation rates may be increased by constructing recharge (intake) wells within percolation
tanks.

Anicuts
● An anicut is a small water harvesting masonry dam constructed across a stream to hold sufficient
water and submerge the upstream area during the rainy season.
● The height of the anicut above ground level is about 22 feet. Anicuts are built to serve many
purposes among which, recharge of groundwater in adjacent wells, providing water for
consumption for animals, for bathing and providing a reservoir of water in water- scarce years, are
critical.
● If the submerged area is large, bed cultivation is practised using the stored soil profile moisture.
● Anicuts are constructed all over the country and are considered very useful in those States where
droughts are very common.
● Anicut construction can be undertaken on a large-scale to seek community participation in
watershed development and make them self-reliant in water resource use.

Subsurface Barriers
● A subsurface barrier is the most suitable artificial structure for promoting groundwater recharge.
● Since it is constructed below the riverbed on impervious subsurface strata, the structure is secure
from floods, does not need elaborate overflow arrangements or periodic desilting and has limited
evaporation.
● In addition, sub-surface structures do not require extensive areas of land for their implementation
and hence have minimal ecological repercussions following their construction.
● The construction of a subsurface barrier needs a concrete or brick masonry wall, 30–60 cm wide,
extending down to the impermeable / compact basement.
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● A sub- surface barrier should also be constructed with angular rock pieces arranged in the form of
a 100 cm wide dry masonry wall or with a 250-micron polyethylene sheeting, properly embedded
in the soil. Some arrangement for subsurface outflow from the dyke is often desirable to avoid
water-logging.
● Two subsurface dykes of 100 m length each, within 300 m upstream and downstream of the water
supply well, can capture and infiltrate enough water to service potable water requirements of a
village with a population of up to 500.

Injection Wells
● Injection wells are structures similar to a tube well but with the purpose of augmenting the
groundwater storage of a confined aquifer by pumping in treated surface water under pressure.
● Injection wells are advantageous where land is scarce.
● Hydraulically, the effective induction of water in an injection well is determined by the pumping
rate, permeability of the aquifer, distance from the stream, natural groundwater gradient and the
type of well.
● In alluvial areas, an injection well for recharging a single aquifer or multiple aquifers can be
constructed on a normal gravel packed pumping well. An injection pipe with an opening against
the aquifer to be recharged may be sufficient.
● However, if there are a number of permeable zones separated by impervious rocks, a properly
designed injection well with an inlet pipe against each aquifer to be recharged needs to be
constructed.
● The injection wells as a means of artificial recharge are comparatively costlier and require
specialized techniques of tube well construction supported by operation and maintenance to
protect the recharge well from clogging.

Traditional Water Harvesting and Conservation

● In India, water harvesting and conservation has been practised for a long time by local
communities through traditional methods and structures.
● Different ecoregions have their own water harvesting and conservation structures, which the State
Governments should aim to revive and rejuvenate through special schemes. Some of the
important structures are discussed below:

Dug Well Recharge

● In alluvial as well as hard rocky areas, there are thousands of dug wells either gone dry or with
declining water levels.
● These dug wells can be used as structures to recharge. Ground water reservoirs (storm water,
tank water, canal water) can be diverted into these structures to directly recharge the dried /
drying aquifer.
● By doing so the soil moisture losses during the normal process of artificial recharge are reduced.
● A dry / unused well can be recharged by installing a pipe to the bottom of the dug well or below
the water level to avoid scouring of the bottom and entrapment of air bubbles in the aquifer.
● The quality of source water including the silt content should be such that the quality of the
groundwater in the reservoir is not deteriorated.
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● The bottom of the dug well should be cleaned and all fine deposits should be removed before
recharging. The recharge water should be silt-free.
● The well should be cleaned regularly and periodic chlorination should be done to prevent
bacteriological contamination.
● In Maharashtra, a two-pit well recharging technology has been used successfully to recharge dug
wells.
● Two percolation pits are dug next to the well, one large and one small. The smaller pit is filled with
stones, gravel and coal, which acts as a filter.
● A cement pipe fitted with a wire mesh filter is fixed at the bottom of the smaller pit. This pipe
opens into the well.
● Rainwater that collects in the larger pit, flows into the smaller pit and is filtered before it flows into
the well through the pipe.
● The silt that accumulates in the pits can be used in the fields. In this way, soil is conserved as
well.

Village Pond / Tank

● Village ponds / tanks are the most commonly used method to collect and store rainwater.
● Most ponds have their own catchments, which provide a requisite quantity of water during the
rainy season.
● Where the catchments are too small to provide enough water, water from nearby streams is
diverted through open channels to fill the ponds. In some places water from irrigation canals is
also used to fill ponds.
● Ponds are excavated in different shapes and sizes depending on the nature of the terrain,
availability of land and water requirements of the village community.
● Pond water is available for 2 months to a year after the rains, depending on the catchment
characteristics and the amount and intensity of rainfall.

Tankas / Kunds / Kundis

● In the desert and arid areas of Rajasthan people build unique underground structures of various
shapes and sizes to collect rainwater for drinking purposes.
● These structures called tankas, kunds or kundis are constructed in a variety of places, such as
courtyards, in front of houses and temples, in open agricultural fields, barren lands.
● These are built both for individual households as well as for village communities using locally
available materials.
● While some structures are built in stone masonry with stone slab coverings, others are built with
only rudimentary plastering of bare soil surfaces of the tank with cement or lime and covered with
Zizyphus nummularia thorns. Some “kuccha'' structures have a convex covering of local wood
with mud plaster.
● Inlet holes are provided in the convex side at the ground level to facilitate entry of rainwater into
the tank. In “pucca” structures (e.g. tanka) the wall of the tank is projected above the ground to
provide inlet holes.
● Since tankas are the main source of drinking water in these areas, people zealously protect and
maintain them.
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● Just before the onset of the monsoons, the catchment area of the tanka is cleaned up to remove
all possible pollutants, and human activity and grazing of cattle in the area is prohibited.
● Even though the average annual rainfall in these areas varies from 200 mm to 300 mm with the
minimum as low as 120 mm, these structures provide enough drinking water to tide over the water
scarce summer months. In many, the stored water lasts for the whole year.
● Useful even during years of below-normal rainfall.

Khadin
● a runoff farming and groundwater recharging system, is popular in hyper-arid parts of Rajasthan.
● Its main feature is a very long (100–300 m) earthen embankment built across the lower hill slopes
lying below gravel uplands. Sluices and spillways allow excess water to drain off.
● based on the principle of harvesting rainwater on farmland and subsequent use of this
water-saturated land for crop production.
● developed based on rainfall probability, available catchment area and its runoff generation
potential.
● Apart from the submerged area, khadin beds are cultivated from top to bottom, the line of
receding moisture. Ponding of water in a khadin induces continuous groundwater recharge.

Vav / Vavdi / Baoli / Bavadi / Jhalara

● traditional stepwells in Rajasthan and northern India.
● Often rectangular in design, these structures have steps on three or four sides.
● collect subterranean seepage of a talab or a lake located upstream.
● Mainly set up by the nobility in cities and big towns to provide water supply to the community.

Hill Slope Collection

● This system is common in many hilly areas with good rainfall (in Uttarakhand, Himachal Pradesh,
Meghalaya, Arunachal Pradesh).
● It consists of lined channels that are built across the hill slopes to intercept rainwater.
● These channels convey water for irrigating terraced agricultural fields.
● The water is also used to fill small ponds for domestic use and for cattle.

Spring Water Harvesting

● In the Lahaul and Spiti areas of Himachal Pradesh, water from hill streams are diverted through
small excavated channels, called kuls, for domestic use and irrigation. In Jammu region these are
called kuhals.
● This practice can also be seen in Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya, Nagaland, Manipur, Sikkim and
Darjeeling area of West Bengal.
● Where the springs are merely in the form of water trickling through layers and joints in rocks, split
bamboo channels are used to trap and convey water up to the village / hamlet for drinking
purposes.

Rainwater Harvesting in Urban Areas

● Rainwater harvesting involves the collection, storage and distribution of rainwater from the roof,
for use inside and outside the home or business.
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● In most urban centres, rainwater harvesting has become necessary to address the acute water
scarcity, which they experience and the flooding during short spells of heavy rainfall.
● Most of the rain falling on the surface tends to flow away rapidly leaving very little for recharge of
groundwater. Capturing the runoff is therefore an important solution to the worsening urban water
situation.
● Rainwater harvesting has several benefits. It helps in utilizing the primary source of water, and
prevents the runoff from going into sewers or storm drains, thereby reducing the load on treatment
plants.
● It also reduces urban flooding and by recharging water into the aquifers, helps in improving the
quality of existing groundwater through dilution.
● Rainwater harvesting can be harvested from the following surfaces:
● Rooftops: If buildings with impervious roofs are already in place, the catchment area is effectively
available free of charge and can provide enough supply.
● Paved and unpaved areas: Landscapes, open fields, parks, stormwater drains, roads and
pavements and other open areas can be effectively used to harvest the runoff. The main
advantage in using the ground as a collecting surface is that water can be collected from a larger
area. This is particularly advantageous in areas with low rainfall.
● Waterbodies: The potential of lakes, tanks and ponds to store rainwater is immense. The
harvested rainwater not only meets the water requirements of the city, it also recharges
groundwater aquifers.
● Storm water drains: Most of the residential colonies have a proper network of stormwater drains.
If maintained neatly, these offer a simple and cost-effective means for harvesting rainwater.
● The decision on whether to store or recharge water depends on the rainfall pattern and the
potential to do so, in a particular region. The subsurface geology also plays an important role in
making this decision.
● For example, in Delhi, Rajasthan and Gujarat where the total annual rainfall occurs during 3 or 4
months, are examples of places where groundwater recharge is usually practised.
● In places such as Kerala, Mizoram, Tamil Nadu and Bengaluru where rain falls throughout the
year barring a few dry periods, a small-sized tank for storing rainwater is enough, since the period
between two spells of rain is short.
● Wherever sub-strata are impermeable, recharging would not be feasible. Hence, it would be ideal
to opt for storage.

Drought Preparedness
● The Green India Mission– aims to restore 10 Mha in 10 Years with a project cost of about US$ 8
billion; focus on restoration of ecosystem services, using landscapes and watershed units.
● Integrated Watershed Management Programme – targeted development of 75 million hectares of
rainfed/degraded area in a phased manner during 2007-2027.
● The Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme – strong focus on land,
water and afforestation activities
● The mission for Sustainable Agriculture – including climate-smart agriculture, National Food
Security Mission, National Mission on Micro Irrigation among others.
● Making use of Traditional Knowledge Systems in programs /Missions. Seeing watershed as key
biophysical unit for drought proofing & resilience
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Climate Variability and Adaptation

● Climate variability refers to the climatic parameter of a region varying from its long- term mean.
● Every year in a specific time period, the climate of a location is different. Some years have below
average rainfall, some have average or above average rainfall.
● Due to the phenomenon of climate change affecting India, such variability would have an impact
on agriculture.
● As a result of variability, the hydrological cycle is likely to be altered and the severity of droughts
and intensity of floods in various parts of India is likely to increase.
● Further, a general reduction in the quantity of available run-off is predicted.
● Simulations using dynamic crop models indicate a decrease in yield of crops as temperature
increases in different parts of India. Incidence of pests and diseases may increase with climate
variability and climate change.
● With long dry spells and more intense rainfall, the resulting decline in water quality will lead to
greater risk of water-borne diseases.
● Changing temperatures and rainfall in drought-prone areas are likely to shift populations of insect
pests and other vectors and change the incidence of existing vector-borne diseases in both
humans and crops.
● Adaptation to climate variability is a process of practicing the cultivation methods to moderate,
cope with or take advantage of the consequences of climatic events.
● Adaptation options need to benefit the community and ensure community participation so that
experiences of local-level adaptation strategies can be shared.
● To implement adaptation measures in the agriculture sector, it is necessary to understand the
potential impacts of climate change and local perceptions.
● The basic understanding in the context of climate change adaptation in drought prone areas is
that the adaptation option should have the potential to improve the livelihood assets (human,
natural, financial, physical and social) of rural people.
● Through efforts to determine the viability of adaptation options, it is actually possible to create a
menu of adaptation options for the development planning process with the potential to be
integrated into the existing institutional agenda.
● Short-term cropping, inter-cropping, small-scale fodder cultivation, small-scale fish cultivation in
mini-ponds, homestead gardens and farm ponds for rainwater harvesting are some of the
examples of adaptation practices that can be adopted at the local level.

Institutions for Drought Monitoring

At central level

● Central Drought Relief Commissioner

○ Additional Secretary in the Department of Agriculture, Cooperation and Farmers Welfare
(DAC&FW) serves as the CDRC and is assisted by the Disaster Management (DM)
Division in the Department.
○ A Drought Management Cell in the DM Division is created to help collate information for
diverse sources, monitor drought conditions, issue advisories, coordinate with other
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Ministries of the Central Government, State Governments and relevant agencies to

mitigate/combat the effect of drought

● Crop Weather Watch Group

○ The Crop Weather Watch Group (CWWG), in the DAC&FW, can act as an Inter-Ministerial
mechanism, which should meet at least once a week during June to September period to
monitor drought situation in the country.
○ The CWWG will be responsible for the evaluation of multi-source information and data
from scientific and technical bodies to determine the likely impact of meteorological and
other environmental parameters on agriculture.
○ The CWWG could also consider video conferences with State Governments every week,
particularly, during the June-Sept period, to keep a close watch on the developments in the
agricultural scenario and forge a common plan of action with all stake-holders, should the
need arise

At state level

● State Drought Monitoring Centres

○ The State Governments to consider setting up of Drought Monitoring Centres (DMCs)
staffed by a multidisciplinary team of meteorologists, hydrologists and agriculture scientists
to provide critical inputs to the State Executive Committee / State Disaster Management
Departments / Other Institutional Structures established by the States.
○ The DMCs will collect, collate and analyze information on drought parameters from
National and State level agencies e.g., the IMD, NRSC/ SRSCs, MNCFC, CWC, CGWB,
State agricultural department etc.

Scientific & Support Organisations

● India Meteorological Department (IMD)

○ Under Agro-Advisory Services, the Agricultural Meteorology Division of IMD (located at
Pune), provides district level 5-day forecasts and crop wise agro-advisories. These
advisories are prepared in collaboration with Agro-Met Field Units (AMFU), located in
State Agricultural Universities (SAUs) and ICAR centres.

● Mahalanobis National Crop Forecast Centre(MNCFC)

○ MNCFC was established as an attached office of DAC&FW in 2012 to use space
technology for agricultural assessment.
○ MNCFC, operationally, carries out drought assessment and monitoring under the National
Agricultural Drought Assessment and Monitoring System (NADAMS) after the technology
was transferred from the National Remote Sensing Centre in the Department of Space
(Government of India).
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○ District/sub-district level monthly drought assessments are carried out for 14 major
drought-prone agricultural States of India under the NADAMS project.
○ The drought assessment is carried out in the MNCFC using long-term satellite data
(NOAA-AVHRR, MODIS, Resourcesat 2 AWiFS) on multiple vegetation indices, Rainfall
Deficiency (or SPI) using meteorological data, Soil Moisture Index (from
agro-meteorological modeling and satellite data), irrigation statistics and sown area
figures.

● Central Research Institute for Dryland Agriculture (CRIDA)

○ The CRIDA, Hyderabad and the All India Coordinated Research Projects on
Agro-meteorology and Dryland Agriculture (AICRPAM and AICRPDA), each with 25
centres under SAUs across the country take part in drought studies pertaining to
assessment, mitigation, risk transfer, and development of decision support software for
drought-prone States.
○ CRIDA has prepared comprehensive District Agriculture Contingency Plans for more than
600 districts in the country, which State Governments and district level authorities can use
as guidance documents to deal with drought.

● Ministry of Water Resources, River Development and Ganga Rejuvenation (MoWR, RD & GR)
○ The Central Water Commission (CWC) and the Central Ground Water Board (CGWB)
under the (MoWR, RD & GR) are the two lead organizations in the country which monitor
reservoir and ground water status.
○ The data on river flows, reservoir storage levels and groundwater status can prove to be
extremely useful in making a realistic assessment of water availability for agricultural crops
in the event of drought-like developments.

● Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO)

○ Space Applications Centre, Ahmedabad and National Remote Sensing Centres,
Hyderabad carry out applications related to remote sensing, including those in agriculture.
○ These Centres, along with 4 Regional Remote Sensing Centres, located in Bengaluru,
Kolkata, Jodhpur and Nagpur can provide R&D and technical support for drought
assessment/monitoring activities through satellite data products available on
Meteorological and Oceanographic Satellite Data Archival Centre (MOSDAC) and Bhuvan
platforms.
○ The satellite derived products available on Bhuvan can be useful for drought assessment,
including the computation of Normalized Difference Vegetation Index, Soil moisture etc.

● State Remote Sensing Application Centres (SRSACs)

○ Most State Governments have established state level Remote Sensing Application
Centres realizing the potential of remote sensing techniques.
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○ Many of these centres have matured over a period of time with required infrastructure and
human resources for carrying out remote sensing applications including those critical for
agriculture.
○ These centres have not only participated in many national level programmes but have
developed valuable State level geospatial database.
○ These centres can help the State Governments in satellite data analysis for agricultural
drought assessment.

NDMA Guidelines about Drought Management

● Creation of Drought Monitoring Cells (DMCs) cells at state level with requisite staff.
● Preparation of vulnerability maps for each state by the State DMCs.
● Development of real-time drought related information by using information and communication
technology.
● The watershed development approach would be taken up for drought management.
● Integration of ground-based information with the space-based information for comprehensive
reporting.
● Assessment of damage would include agricultural production, depletion of water resources,
livestock population, land degradation and deforestation as well as human health.
● Revamping of the Drought Management Information System of the Department of Agriculture.
● To enable micro level analysis and forecasting, automatic weather stations and rain-gauges have
been put in place.
● Development of drought resistant crop varieties through large scale research.
● The mitigation measures to be taken would include cloud-seeding and conduct of pilot studies in
all categories of drought prone areas for suggesting long term mitigation measures.
● Formulation of a cloud seeding policy.
● Promoting crop diversification through sprinklers/Drip irrigation systems (micro irrigation
techniques).
● Prompt provision of credit in the drought affected areas; and extension of marketing and price
support.
● Afforestation with subabul, simaruba, casuarina, eucalyptus and bio diesel plantations like
Jatropha and pongamia.
● Development of insurance products for different agro-climatic zones providing coverage against
drought. Crop insurance to be extended to post-harvest losses. Promotion of price linked
insurance products to avoid distress sales of farm produce. Use of satellite derived crop condition
images as surrogates to crop yield estimates for settling insurance claims.
● Framing a realistic national training and capacity building programme for drought management.
Officers at PRIs and ULBs to be provided with required training.
● Encouraging NGOs, PRIs and ULBs for generating awareness among farmers.
● Updating the syllabi of graduate and under-graduate courses in agriculture to include drought
management.
● Fodder, Cattle feed and mineral mixture to be supplied to all productive animals to prevent
distress sales of cattle.
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● Wherever necessary and feasible, the corporate sector should also be involved in supporting
drought risk management efforts as part of CSR

Government Initiatives
● The primary responsibility of managing drought (or any other natural disaster) is that of the State
Governments.
● The role of the Central Government is to supplement the efforts of the State Government in
effective management of disasters and provide additional resources (food grains / financial
assistance etc.) to combat the situation.

Drought Management Manual 2016

● It is a guide for governments and agencies in India engaged in the prevention, mitigation and
management of drought. This guide, updated from the 2009 version.
● This manual describes vulnerable areas and drought hotspots in India and emphasises the
regions' need for better planning and implementation of drought risk reduction interventions.
● It offers suggestions for the creation of institutional structures in the Central and State
Governments for better drought management.
● It introduces new scientific indices and parameters, such as hydrological indicators, for more
accurate assessment of drought.
● Contextual asymmetries among states that might have a bearing on drought (e.g. extent of
irrigation coverage) have also been factored in while suggesting a methodology for the
determination of drought severity.
● It also offers a quick and time-bound sample field survey for the confirmation of the technical
indicators of drought, in order to secure a holistic understanding of the ground realities.
● The revised guide prescribes timelines for the declaration of drought and follow-up actions, and
discusses response mechanisms and mitigation strategies in the context of existent government
programmes and schemes for drought management.
● Drought Monitoring Checklist as given in Drought Management Manual 2016:

Meteorological Data:
● Agencies: India Meteorological Department, National Centre for Medium Range Weather
Forecasting, State Governments
● Indices to be Monitored: Daily, weekly, and monthly rainfall, snow fall / fog

Hydrological Data:
● Agencies: Central Water Commission, Central Ground Water Board, State Governments
(irrigation departments, groundwater agencies, water resources departments/ projects)
● Indices to be Monitored: Water storage in reservoirs / ponds / lakes, river flow, groundwater level,
yield and draft from aquifers, water loss through evaporation, leakage, seepage.

Agricultural Data:
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● Agencies: National Crop Forecast Centre, Directorate of Economics & Statistics, Indian Council of
Agricultural Research, Agricultural Census Data, State Government agriculture departments,
agricultural universities
● Indices to be Monitored: Soil moisture, area under sowing and type of crop, crop water
requirement, status of growth, crop yield, alternative cropping possibilities, land holdings.

Data from Space:

● Agencies: National Remote Sensing Centre, Indian Space Research Organisation.
● Indices to be Monitored: Vegetation monitoring, rainfall, surface wetness and temperature.

Socio-economic Data:
● Agencies: NITI Aayog, Department of Food & Public Distribution, Department of Consumer
Affairs, Department of Rural Development. Ministry of Women and Child Development
,Department of Animal Husbandry, Dairying & Fisheries, Revenue Department of State etc.
● Indices to be Monitored: Availability and prices of foodgrains, availability of fodder, migration of
population.
● Analysis of Data from Ground and Remote Sensing Sources- Prediction/ Forecasting /
Declaration of Drought.

As per Drought Management Manual 2016 the State Governments may further monitor socio-economic
indicators such as the following factors in making a holistic evaluation of drought:-
● Extent of fodder availability and its prevailing prices compared to normal prices and information on
cattle camps.
● Scarcity of drinking water supply (human and livestock).
● Demand for employment on public works, and unusual outmigration of labour in search of
employment.
● Current agricultural and non-agricultural wages compared with normal times.
● Supply of food grains, and the price situation of essential commodities.
These socio-economic indicators may aid State Governments in fine tuning the assessment of drought.
However, State Governments will need to set up credible databases and monitoring systems for objective
evaluation of distress migration, price trends of fodder and food commodities, availability of drinking water
etc.

The Drought Management Manual 2016 contains following indexes for drought assessment and
monitoring:
Standardized Precipitation Index
● The SPI assigns a single numeric value to precipitation, which can be compared across regions
and time scales with markedly different climates.
Surface Water Supply Index
● The Surface Water Supply Index (SWSI) integrates reservoir storage, stream-flow, and two
precipitation types (snow and rain) at high elevations into a single index number.
● SWSI is relatively easy to calculate and it gives a representative measure of water availability
across a river basin or selected region/province.
Normalized Difference Vegetation Index
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● Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) is based on the concept that vegetation vigour is
an indicator of water availability or lack thereof.
● It demonstrates the effects of climate on vegetation in terms of its absorptive capacity in visible
light but little in the near-infrared spectrum.
● The difference of visible and near-infrared reflectance represents photosynthetically active
vegetation; this information is used to construct a vegetation index.
● The lowering of the vegetation index indicates moisture stress in vegetation, resulting from
prolonged rainfall deficiency.
● High NDVI values might reflect ideal growing conditions if vegetation greenness is higher than
that encountered in other years.
Normalized Difference Wetness Index
● Normalized Difference Wetness Index (NDWI) is expected to give the vegetation or crop turgidity
and health.
● It is based on the use of Shortwave Infrared (SWIR) band, which is sensitive to moisture available
in soil as well as in crop canopy.
● In the beginning of the cropping season, soil background is dominant which makes SWIR
sensitive to soil moisture in the top 1-2 cm. As the crop progresses, SWIR becomes sensitive to
leaf moisture content.
● NDWI using SWIR can complement NDVI for drought assessment particularly in the beginning of
the cropping season. Higher values of NDWI signify more surface wetness.
Moisture Adequacy Index
● The Moisture Adequacy Index (MAI) is obtained from weekly water balance. Drought impact is
related to moisture availability at certain crop growth stages.
● Hence, categories of MAI (severity) at different growth stages are integrated into a single index
value to identify drought impact on a particular crop.
● The Central Arid Zone Research Institute (CAZRI), Jodhpur monitors agricultural drought in the
Indian arid regions by using MAI.
Stream-Flow Drought Index (SFDI)
● The amount of water flows in streams and rivers can provide valuable insights on hydrological
drought.
● The flows in streams display high seasonal variability necessitating estimation of variable
truncation levels for all twelve months in a year.
● The truncation level is an analytical interpretation of expected availability of water flow in a river.
● The truncation level is defined as 75% dependable flow (discharge) at a given time and for a
given site over a month-long time period.
● Therefore, average monthly flow records are required to be used to derive flow duration curves for
determination of monthly truncation level. Water flow in a river or stream below the truncation level
is indicative of a drought like scenario.
● The severity of drought event would be classified using a streamflow drought index (SFDI) defined
as a function of :
○ i. the ratio of deficit flow volume to corresponding volume at the truncation levels;
○ ii. the ratio of duration of deficit flow to the maximum expected duration of the independent
streamflow drought event.
Groundwater Drought Index (GWDI)
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● The rate of depletion of groundwater tables is useful for making an assessment of groundwater
availability for agriculture and drinking water supply purposes.
● The monthly groundwater (GW) table records are required for a minimum period of 10 years for
computation of mean value of monthly groundwater depletion rate.
● When the rate of depletion of groundwater table in a given month/period is more than the
corresponding mean value then it is an indication of water deficit.
Reservoir Storage Index (RSI)
● The availability of water in reservoirs can act as an effective foil against drought.
● The reservoir storage status derived from percentage of storage deficit vis-à-vis long term
averages can provide an indication of drought.

National Rainfed Area Authority

● The Union Government constituted a National Rainfed Area Authority on 3 November, 2006 to
give focused attention to the problems of rainfed areas of the country.
● The National Rainfed Area Authority (NRAA) is working on developing a comprehensive
drought-proofing action plan for 24 districts in Rajasthan, Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka this
year.
● The NRAA will develop similar action plans for other districts in a list of 151, including in
Maharashtra, identified as drought-prone according to a study by Indian Council of Agricultural
Research (ICAR), based on parameters set by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change.

As per the Drought Management Manual 2016, drought response and relief-
Crisis Management Plan
● The Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare prepares a Crisis Management Plan for drought
(CMP) before the commencement of each Kharif season.
● The CMP provides a crisis management framework to identify phases of the crisis and the
strategic response corresponding to each such phase.
● The plan also provides for a Strategic Activity Planner to act as a ready reckoner for critical steps
that need to be taken in different times of the year with respect to drought preparedness, drought
reporting and drought response, and the agencies responsible for the identified activities.
● Central Ministries and State Governments may seek guidance from the CMP to devise their own
management plans for drought.
Drought Contingency Planning
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● District Agriculture Contingency Plans (DACPs) have been formulated for more than 600
agriculturally important districts in the country so far by the Central Research Institute for Dryland
Agriculture (CRIDA) under the aegis of the Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare to suggest
contingency strategies to farmers to cope with major weather related aberrations, including delay
in onset of south-west monsoon, dry spells etc.
● CRIDA has extensive district plans covering crops, horticulture, livestock, poultry and fisheries
sectors in consultation with State Agricultural Universities and State Government departments.
● The State Governments are expected to have contingency plans prepared for drought
management at sub-district levels (tehsil/block/mandal/taluka).
● The DACP recommends contingency measures to cope with drought for rainfed and irrigated
(groundwater irrigated, tankfed and canal command areas) farming situations on account of
delayed onset of monsoon (2/4/6/8 weeks delay) and (early/midseason/terminal drought) for field
and horticulture crops.
● The contingency measures include alternate crops /crop varieties/ agronomic practices/other
management options appropriate for drought scenarios.
● The implementation of DACPs would require the following support systems.
Seed Banks
● During drought, the availability of seeds of appropriate varieties in sufficient quantities is a
major challenge.
● To ensure availability of the desired seed at the time of drought, a plan for production or
sourcing of desirable seed varieties needs to be implemented well in advance.
● Seed Banks can be set up at the most strategically advantageous locations for which
adequate financial provisions will be called for.
Fodder Banks
● Livestock component is critical for ensuring livelihoods particularly in arid regions during
drought years.
● Fodder Banks need to be established at strategic locations using improved fodder/ feed
storage methods for supply of fodder to deficit areas.
● Community lands may be identified for fodder production.
Nutrient Banks
● The concept of Nutrient Bank is being evolved wherein stocks of essential manures and
fertilizers, soil amendments, foliar spray chemicals; bio-fertilizers etc. are maintained
locally and made available to the local community to help timely sowing even when the
sowing window is limited.
● These nutrient banks can be managed by SHGs in conjunction with Gram Panchayats.
Farmers can approach nutrient bank to avail foliar sprays like KNO3 spray, which
enhances drought tolerance.
Custom Hiring Centre (CHC)
● Custom hiring centres for farm machinery at village level are likely to enhance availability
of implements at low cost, to help in zero tillage, improved seed and fertilizer application,
in situ moisture conservation practices, water lifting with energy efficient pumps and
efficient application (through micro irrigation systems), foliar sprays, harvesting of crops,
residue incorporation, relay cropping etc. even to small farmers on a real time contingency
basis.
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Contingency plan as per Drought Management Manual 2016

● The objective of a contingency plan is to provide cropping and other options to the farmers to help
them withstand drought conditions.
● The recommended measures include alternate crop varieties / alternate crops suitable in the
event of a delay in onset of monsoon rains or dry spell; management options tailored for initial /
mid-season / end of season drought scenarios in rainfed / groundwater irrigated / tankfed areas/
canal command areas, both for field and horticultural crops.
● Lead Agencies: State relief and disaster management department, State departments of
● Agriculture, Horticulture, Irrigation, Watershed management, State Seed Corporations, State
electricity boards, commercial and cooperative banks.
● Support Agencies: Ministry of Agriculture & Farmers Welfare, (Government of India), Indian
Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR), IMD, MNCFC, Department of Land Resources, Ministry
of Water Resources, River Development & Ganga Rejuvenation, State Agricultural Universities,
State Remote Sensing Centres etc.
● The contingency plans are to be operationalized based on assessment of type of drought.
● Choice of short duration and less water-intensive crops, unlike paddy and sugarcane, which
consume a lot of water. Alternate crops such as maize, pulses, groundnut, sunflower, soybean,
fodder and millets can be considered.
● Advocacy for crop diversification, mixed / intercropping of main crop with drought tolerant
companion crops, thinning of plant population, weed management, mulching for soil moisture
conservation, supplementary / protective irrigation particularly with drip / sprinkler systems.
● Contingency plans during the kharif season are usually constrained by uncertainty of weather
behaviour; and lack of lead-time causing logistical problems in organizing delivery of agricultural
inputs.

Drought Preparedness as per Drought Management Manual 2016

● Careful advance preparation is critical to an effective response and containment of drought. The
ambit of preparedness should extend to the following:
● Establishment of a functional DMC at the State Headquarters.
● Preparation of Agriculture Contingency Plans for districts and sub-district levels, especially in
vulnerable districts.
● Identification of drought prone areas, preferably at the sub district level.
● Monitoring of seasonal forecasts of IMD and other national / international agencies.
● Prepositioning of inputs like drought resilient variety seeds at strategic locations.
● Activate agricultural extension to encourage shift to crops and varieties that are not water guzzlers
and recommend agronomic practices that promote conservation of water and soil moisture.
● Repair and maintenance of water bodies / tanks / wells etc. to help critical irrigation during dry
spells.
● Creation of drought contingency cells at districts to monitor dry spells.
● Develop protocols for various departments to initiate contingency measures with clear allocation
of responsibilities.
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Extreme Weather
● Climate Extreme (extreme weather or climate event): The occurrence of a value of a weather or
climate variable above (or below) a threshold value near the upper (or lower) ends of the range of
observed values of the variable.
● For simplicity, both extreme weather events and extreme climate events are referred to
collectively as ‘climate extremes.’
● Extreme and non-extreme weather or climate events affect vulnerability to future extreme events
by modifying resilience, coping capacity, and adaptive capacity.

Steps are important in the management of disasters risks during extreme meteorological events
● Monitoring and predicting the weather/climate situation and its evolution
● Predicting impacts or disaster situations and making projections of loss estimates
● Issuing warnings
● Establishing a strategic prevention plan
● Implementing the plan and real-time regulations (updated by real-time monitoring of weather and
disaster situations)
● Verifying and assessing actual losses (based on data and experiences)
● Storing the data and documents in related (or special) databanks and libraries
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Wildfires
● Wildfires also called as Forest fire is the uncontrolled fire that destroys large parts of the forest.
● They are a threat to the fauna and flora and destroy the biodiversity and the ecology of a region
by destroying habitats and precious life.
● Incidents of forest fires have increased in recent years due to global warming.
● Wildfire plays a mixed role for ecology and economy since some ecosystems depend on natural
fires to maintain their dynamics, biodiversity and productivity.
● However, every year, wildfires burn millions of hectares of forest woodlands and other vegetation,
causing the loss of many human and animal lives and an immense economic damage, both in
terms of resources destroyed and the costs of suppression.
● About 21.40% of forest cover in India is prone to fires according to a 2019 report by the Forest
Survey of India that demands urgent action.
● Around 95 percent of the forest fires in India are on account of human activity.
● With wildfires in Australia and California gaining global attention in the past few years, forest fire
management is in focus.
● Experts recommend that fire management should focus on prevention not suppression and tribal
communities with traditional knowledge should be roped in for effective management.

Causes of wildfires
Natural Causes Anthropogenic Causes

Lightning Deliberate Causes Accidental Causes

Friction of rolling stones Shifting Cultivation/ Slash and Collection of timber

Burn Cultivation
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Rubbing of dry bamboo cumpls To clear path and land by locals Burning farm residues

Volcanic Explosions To encroach upon forest land Driving away wild animals

Tribal traditions and Customs Throwing burning bidi/cigarettes

Forest Tourism and campfire

activities

Sparks from vehicle exhaust

Making charcoal in forest

Impact of forest fires on ecosystems:

● Loss of Ecosystems and Biodiversity:
○ Forest fires destroy the habitats and the intricate relationships of diverse flora and fauna
leading to loss of ecosystems and biodiversity. Wildfires can even lead to extinction for
certain animals.
● Forest Degradation:
○ Persistently reduce the quality of certain forest features like soil fertility, biodiversity, and
ecosystems.
● Soil Degradation:
○ Wildfires kill beneficial soil microorganisms that are responsible for breaking down the soil
and promoting soil microbial activities. The burning of trees and vegetation cover also
leaves the soil bare making it readily vulnerable to soil erosion.
● Destruction of Watersheds:
○ Trees and vegetation cover acts as watershed protectors since approximately all the water
comes from forest-derived water tables. Whenever they burn, the natural protection
systems for water tables, streams, and rivers may be affected.

Positive effects of forest fire

On Surface:
● Heats the soil, cracking seed coats and triggering germination
On Vegetation & Biodiversity:
● Triggers woody seed pods held in the canopy to open, releasing seed onto a fresh and
fertile ash bed
● Clears thick understorey reducing competition for seedlings
● Encourages new growth that provides food for many animals
● Creates hollows in logs and trees that can be used by animals for nesting and shelter.

Negative effects of forest fire

On Surface:
● Cause erosion and subsequent sedimentation of creeks and wetlands
● Open up areas to the impacts of weed and feral animal invasion as well as human access
and vandalism.
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On Vegetation & Biodiversity:

● Burn and damage vegetation communities, such as rainforest that take hundreds of years
to recover
● Kill or injure individual plants or animals

Types of wildland fires

● Crown fires
○ Crown fire advances from top to top of trees or shrubs without any close link with
○ surface fire.
○ It is the fastest way of spreading fire and most destructive for trees as well as wildlife.
○ Crown fires burn trees up their entire length to the top.
○ These are the most intense and dangerous wildland fires.
○ It is rarely observed in India.
● Surface fires
○ Surface fire is a very fast moving fire, which consumes small vegetation and surface litter
along with loose debris.
○ This type of forest fires are mostly common in India.
○ These are the easiest fires to put out and cause the least damage to the forest.
● Ground fires
○ Ground fires (sometimes called underground or subsurface fires) occur in deep
accumulations of humus, peat and similar dead vegetation that become dry enough to
burn.
○ These fires move very slowly, but can become difficult to fully put out, or suppress.
○ Occasionally, especially during prolonged drought, such fires can smoulder all winter
underground and then emerge at the surface again in spring.
○ A true ground fire is not easily predictable as it spreads within, rather than top of organic
matter.
○ It consumes organic matter like duff, musk or peat present beneath the surface litter of the
forest floor.
○ It has the unique characteristic of having a smouldering edge with no flame and little
smoke.
○ Ground fires are most hard to tackle.

Forest fire distribution in india

● In India wildfire mainly occurs in the summer season i.e. between April to June due to dryness in
forest.
● More than 36 percent of Indian forest cover (657,000 sq km area) is prone to frequent forest fires
and of this, 10 percent are highly prone, according to a Forest Survey of India (FSI) report on fire
prone forest areas.
● Around 21 percent of the total forest cover is highly to extremely fire prone, adds the latest forest
survey.
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● The dry deciduous forests, which receive low rainfall, face 5-6 dry months and have nutrient poor
soil, such as those in tropical and subtropical latitude, are more vulnerable to fire compared to
others.
● These areas are in Odisha, Chhattisgarh,
Madhya Pradesh and in the southern
states. Chir pine forests in hilly states are
equally prone.
● Over 40 percent of Uttar Pradesh forests
are susceptible to fire. Among the major
forests’ zones of Vindhya region,
Bundelkhand and Terai, the subtropical
forests of Terai region (which lies
alongside the Nepal border) is the most
fire prone one.

Wildfires Hazard Mitigation

● Forest Survey of India monitors forest fire
events through satellites on two
platforms- MODIS and SNPP-VIIRS, both
in collaboration with the U.S. National
Aeronautics and Space Administration
(NASA) and Indian Space Research
Organisation (ISRO).
● While the SNPP-VIIRS identifies, alerts
and tracks fire incidents on real time data
at 375X375 sq meter pixel, the older
version MODIS detects it in the range of
1kmX1km.
● Forest fire suppression relies very heavily on “dry” firefighting techniques because of poor water
availability.

Controlling forest fires

● To contain the fire, fire lines (a passage or road, cleared of all vegetation) are created to save
neighbouring compartments.
● Sometimes a counter fire is used to extinguish the uncontrollable fire. In this, a linear patch is
cleared of combustibles and manned. When wildfire come closer, then all the people manning the
line set fire to the line simultaneously.
● The counter fire rushes towards the wildfire. As soon as the two fires meet, the blaze is
extinguished.” In some areas, beating bushes and leafy green boughs are also used for
extinguishing fire.

Effective Forest Management

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The international consultant committee and FAO (Food & Agriculture Organization) in their Technical
Report made many recommendations for effective forest fire management. The main among them are-
● As prevention is better than cure, a preventive program of zoning, danger rating, early warning
and real time monitoring has to be designed and installed.
● At the strategy level, coordination with Government agencies like the National Remote Sensing
Agency, Forest Survey of India, the Meteorological Department, the All India Radio and the
State-owned television should be promoted by the forest departments of the States to plan their
actions in the fire season.
● A national awareness campaign on fire damage, prevention, detection and communication and
suppression should be launched involving schools, Joint Forest Management (JFM) committees,
non-Government and other voluntary organizations during the onset of fire season every year.
● A central fire management research and training institute for foresters and public agencies should
be set up for providing knowledge and skills for fire managers, including trainers at JFM unit
levels.
● Fire experiment stations should be set up in representative regions to study various effects of fires
in different ecosystems and provide extension services to the concerned States.
● Prevention and Management programmes should be integrated in the Joint Forest Management
framework by State Governments.
● Fire management should be named specifically as an element of “Protection” in the list of priority
strategies of the National Forestry Action Plan.

The committee in its report suggested following measures for prevention and control of forest fires:
Prevention:
● Increased vigilance by appointment of adequate number of firewatchers during the month
of April, May and June, which used to be the practice earlier.
● Clearing and maintenance practice of fire lines, which have been virtually abandoned due
to shortage of funds, must be carried out regularly.
● The practice of controlled burning to deal with accumulation of combustible pine needles
on the forest floor, which has been abandoned as a result of shortage of funds, has to be
reintroduced.
● Proper forest management and silvicultural practices, particularly in pine forests, which
have been abandoned as a result of imposition of the ban on green felling, must be
reintroduced to ensure proper health and protection of the forest.
● For this purpose, ban on felling of pine should immediately be revoked and the forestry
activities must be carried out as per working plans.
● Efforts for finding alternative uses for pine needles should be supported by the
Government so as to demonstrate their economic viability. This will help to reduce the
accumulation of combustible material on the forest floor.

Preparedness
● The forest department staff should be provided with a complete communication network
through wireless to enable quick response in dealing with forest fires and also with the
problems of illicit felling.
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● The communication network has to be supported with improved mobility to enable quick
transport of human and materials from one area to another.
● For this at least one additional jeep may be provided at divisional level, especially in the
hill areas.
● Where villagers do not come to assist the forest department in extinguishing forest fires,
their timber rights should be curtailed if not forfeited.

Mitigation
● Thinning of trees, vegetation, and brush, and removal of highly flammable vegetation
● Disposal of debris, such as pine needles, leaves, and dead limbs
● Maintenance of firewood and compost piles at least 30 feet from structures
● Elimination of "fuel ladders," including shrubs near tree branches
● Design of defensible spaces with fire breaks, such as driveways, walkways, patios, and
fences
● Integration of natural barriers such as rock outcroppings, wetlands, streams, ponds, and
deciduous trees
● Landscape plans that prioritize plants with high-moisture content
● Avoidance of barks and wood mulches

Recovery
● Landscape stabilization for erosion control, soil stabilization, and flood control
● Techniques to address soil moisture and break up charred (compacted) surface soil
● Control of invasive pioneer plant and insect species
● Planting of perennials suited for recovery
● Large-scale seeding

MoEFCC guidelines: MoEFCC issued a set of national guidelines for forest fire prevention and control in
2000. These guidelines call for:
● Identification and mapping of all fire prone areas,
● Compilation and analysis of database on forest fire damages,
● Development and installation of Fire Damage Rating System and Fire Forecasting system,
● All preventive measures to be taken before the beginning of the fire season

NDMA Guidelines:
● Incorporate Forest Fire Prevention and Management (FFPM) in existing policy and planning
documents
● Establish National Forest fire Knowledge Network
● Capacity building of forest officials for better use of early warning systems
● Assess risk and prepare vulnerability and risk maps
● Document national and international good practices and utilise them for making forest fire
management more effective and practical.
● Local/ indigenous communities may be trained as first responders to forest fires. The proximity to
the forest fire may help the community reach the site fast and control the fire. In case of a large
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fire, there may be a provision to remunerate the volunteer firefighters from the local community.
They may be provided with communication and firefighting gear.
● Firefighting action plans must be prepared for each forest range considering the climate, terrain,
type of vegetation, availability of water, etc. Drought remediation measures should also be taken
into consideration while making these action plans.
● Creating a bioeconomy through community-engaged creation of functional value chains based on
wood, non-wood products, agroforestry, and ecosystem services can help ensure livelihood
security as well as to control forest fires.

Heat Waves
● A heat wave occurs when the temperature of an area becomes excessively hot and exceeds normal
seasonal limits.
● The heat wave is considered when the maximum temperature of a station reaches at least 40°C for
Plains and at least 30°C for Hilly regions.
● Hot weather during a heat wave might also be accompanied by high levels of humidity.
● Severe heat waves can result in massive crop failure, power outages across large areas, and even
deaths.
● One of the worst heat waves in recent history was the European Heat Wave of 2003.
● Criteria for Heat Waves given by IMD (Indian Meteorological Department)
○ Heat waves can be declared if maximum temperature reaches at least greater than or equal to
■ 40°C for Plains
■ 37°C in coastal regions
■ 30°C for Hilly regions.

○ Heat wave conditions based on Maximum temperature

■ Heat wave: Max. Temperature is ≥ 45°C
■ Severe Heat wave: Max. Temperature is ≥ 47°C
○ Severity of Heat wave
■ Heat wave
● If the normal maximum temperature is less than or equal to 40°C,
then an increase of 4.5°C to 6.4°C from the normal temperature is
considered to be heat wave condition.
■ Severe heat wave: departures greater than 6.4°C from 40°C.
● If the actual maximum temperature remains 45°C or more irrespective of normal maximum
temperature, a heat wave is declared.

● Heat Index- It is the combination of air temperature and relative humidity and is a
measure of how hot it really feels when relative humidity is factored in with the actual
temperature.
● IMD has three tier heat wave forecasting i.e. at National level, Regional level and
Local/District level.
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Causes of Heat Wave

○ A heat wave is formed due to static high pressure in the upper atmosphere.
○ This generates hot mass of air and traps more heat due to reduction in convection currents.
This air mass accumulated heat and humidity causing abnormally high temperatures.
○ Other factors for heat waves are:
■ Transportation/Prevalence of hot dry air over a region.
■ Absence of moisture in the upper atmosphere.
■ The sky should be practically cloudless.
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■ Large amplitude anticyclonic flow over the area.

Impact of Heat Waves

1. On Human Health
● Dehydration, heat cramps, heat exhaustion and/or heat stroke.
● Heat cramps, fatigue, weakness, dizziness, headache, nausea, vomiting, muscle cramps
and sweating.
● Causes physiological stress, sometimes resulting in death.
2. Impacts on Agriculture
● High temperatures at night can be particularly damaging to agriculture.
● Some crops require cool night temperatures, and heat stress for livestock rises when
animals are unable to cool off at night.
● Heat-stressed cattle can experience declines in milk production, slower growth, and
reduced conception rates.
3. Impacts on Energy
● While higher summer temperatures increase electricity demand for cooling, at the same
time, it also can lower the ability of transmission lines to carry power, possibly leading to
electricity reliability issues during heat waves.
● Although warmer winters will reduce the need for heating, modelling suggests that total
energy use will increase in a warmer future.
● In addition, as rivers and lakes warm, their capacity for absorbing waste heat from power
plants declines.
● This can reduce the thermal efficiency of power production, which makes it difficult for
power plants to comply with environmental regulations regarding their cooling water.

Heatwave mitigation and control

● Creating heat preparedness plans, identifying vulnerable populations, and opening cooling
centres during extreme heat.
● Installing cool and green roofs and cool pavement to reduce the urban heat island effect.
● Planting trees to provide shade and evapotranspiration cools the air around trees.
● Pursuing energy efficiency to reduce demand on the electricity grid, especially during heatwaves.
● Temperature forecasts and heat alerts.

NDMA guidelines
● Recurring /regular activities
○ Putting up display boards for colour coded heatwave alerts and Do's and Don'ts in public
places such as parks, hospitals, etc.
○ Multiple mediums of communication (preferably in local languages) like TV, Radio and
newspaper for awareness.
○ Identify and reduce awareness gap through disseminating information using pamphlets,
hoardings, LED display on advertisement boards.
○ Change in timings of schools, colleges, offices, markets, etc.

● Short-Term:
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○ Installing temporary kiosks for shelter, and distribution of water, medicines, etc.
○ Developing mobile applications for spreading awareness on heat-related issues and
locating shelters, drinking water kiosks, etc.
○ Issuing advisories for tourists.
○ Setting up special cool shelters for "Wage Employment programmes" such as Mahatma
Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme (MNREGA).
○ Providing shade and drinking water for on-duty traffic personnel.

● Medium Term:
○ LED Display boards installed at District Headquarters displaying the real-time weather
data pertaining to Rainfall, Temperature, Humidity and Wind Speed should be incorporated
into precautionary measures for Disaster Management.
○ Involving Forest department for collating local coping and adaptation strategies,
indigenous technologies such as vernacular building materials, construction of green
building, Energy Conservation Building Code (ECBC) etc. related to heat wave risk
mitigation.
○ New heat wave criteria must be evolved based on gridded data with maximum and
minimum temperature, to develop a scientific model to determine all cause mortality.
○ Zonal/regional HAP (Heatwave Action Plan) for megacities like Delhi, Mumbai etc should
be developed for its effective implementation.
○ Identify "heat hot-spots" in India through appropriate tracking and modelling of
meteorological data, and promote the timely development and implementation of local
Heat Action Plans with strategic inter-agency coordination, and a response which targets
the most vulnerable groups.

● Long Term:
○ Focused capacity building- Heat wave mitigation management should be added in school
curriculum to sensitize school children and local people. Training programmes in local
level/community level for awareness among people.
○ Integrate climate variability mitigation and adaptation efforts in HAP.
Yearly improvisation of heat wave plan through response and feedback data collection.
○ Operational forecast of maximum temperature over India in short, medium and extended
range timescale is very useful in giving HeatWave outlook.
○ Up gradation of forecast system & associated equipments to provide heat wave alerts

Heat-wave Action Plan

● The Heat-Wave Action plan aims to provide a framework for implementation, coordination and
evaluation of extreme heat response activities in cities/town in India that reduces the negative
impact of extreme heat.
● The Plan's primary objective is to alert those populations at risk of heat-related illness in places
where extreme heat conditions either exist or are imminent, and to take appropriate precautions,
which are at high risk.
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● All cities can learn from their experience and develop a plan to deal with Heat wave in their
specific cities/towns and thus reduce the negative health impacts of extreme Heat.
● In addition the State Governments should also prepare a comprehensive plan to combat Heat
waves.
● The heat-wave action plan is intended to mobilize individuals and communities to help protect
their neighbours, friends, relatives, and themselves against avoidable health problems during
spells of very hot weather.
● Broadcast media and alerting agencies may also find this plan useful.
● Severe and extended heat-waves can also cause disruption to general, social and economic
services.
● For this reason, Government agencies will have a critical role to play in preparing and responding
to heat- waves at a local level, working closely with health and other related departments on a
long term strategic plan.
○ Establish Early Warning System and Inter-Agency Coordination to alert residents on
predicted high and extreme temperatures. Who will do what, when, and how is made clear
to individuals and units of key departments, especially for health.
○ Capacity building / training programme for health care professionals at local level to
recognize and respond to heat-related illnesses, particularly during extreme heat events.
These training programmes should focus on medical officers, paramedical staff and
community health staff so that they can effectively prevent and manage heat - related
medical issues to reduce mortality and morbidity.
○ Public Awareness and community outreach - Disseminating public awareness
messages on how to protect against the extreme heat - wave through print, electronic and
social media and Information, Education and Communication (IEC) materials such as
pamphlets, posters and advertisements and Television Commercials (TVCs) on Do‟s and
Don‟ts and treatment measures for heat related illnesses.
○ Collaboration with non government and civil society - Collaboration with
non-governmental organizations and civil society organizations to improve bus stands,
building temporary shelters, wherever necessary, improved water delivery systems in
public areas and other innovative measures to tackle Heat wave conditions.
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Man-Made Disasters

Chemical Disaster
● Industrial accidents are a big problem for industrial facilities in India and around the world.
● NDMA reported over 130 severe chemical accidents recently
● Chemicals - major source of worry for disaster management in the government, business sector,
and general public.
● may be traumatic for people and have resulted in deaths as well as harm to the environment and
property.
● Industrial plants, its employees and workers, hazardous chemicals vehicles, people of nearby
towns, adjacent buildings, occupants, and the surrounding community are the factors most at risk
from a chemical disaster.

State of Chemical Disaster Risk in India

● The Bhopal Gas Tragedy (1984) - world's deadliest chemical (industrial) disaster in which over
2500 people died as a result of the unintentional release of the poisonous gas Methyl
IsoCyanate (MIC).
● Most recent - Neyveli and Visakhapatnam.
● Hundreds of hazardous factory registrations and unorganised sectors dealing with a wide
spectrum of hazardous materials, posing substantial and complicated catastrophic risks.
● In all zones of the country, there are over 1861 Major Accident Hazard (MAH) units scattered
among 301 districts, 25 states, and three Union Territories.
○ Major accident - incident that results in the death of ten or more people inside or outside
the site.
○ also includes the release of poisonous chemicals, as well as the explosion or fire of
hazardous chemical spillage, resulting in ‘on-site' or ‘off-site' situations with negative
environmental consequences.

Factors causing Chemical Disasters

● Vulnerability
The Indian chemical industry's vulnerability increased due to
○ ageing of process plants
○ design flaws
○ lack of actions to keep up with contemporary technologies.
○ organic solvents - most common cause for explosions.
● Human error
○ causes the bulk of industrial accidents, which are caused by non-compliance with
Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs).
○ Ex - Piper Alpha tragedy
● Natural calamities - floods and earthquakes
● Lack of Maintenance -
○ It is critical to perform scheduled maintenance at regular intervals in accordance with the
manufacturer's instructions to ensure that the equipment functions smoothly and safely.
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○ Ex - The Flixborough disaster killed 28 people and injured many more

● Lack of emergency response
● Terrorist actions and sabotage
● Improper Disposal - Hazardous waste processing and disposal require extra caution because
they can result in fires, explosions, and harmful releases into the environment.

Chemical Terrorism
● During World War I there was widespread use of chemical weapons that often affected the civilian
population resulting in many deaths. Since this war, most countries have agreed not to use
chemical and biological weapons. Unfortunately, with our present age of terrorism from
individuals, splinter groups, and dictators, there is an ever-present risk that these agents will be
used.
● A chemical weapon is a specialized munition that uses chemicals formulated to inflict harm or
death. Chemical weapons are classified as weapons of mass destruction, and they are distinct
from nuclear weapons, biological weapons, and radiological weapons. Chemical weapons can be
dispersed in a gas, liquid, and solid forms.
● Lethal chemical agents and munitions are volatile, and they constitute a class of hazardous
chemical weapons that have been stockpiled by many nations.
● Unitary agents are effective on their own and do not require mixing with other agents. The most
dangerous of these are nerve agents (GA, GB, GD, and VX) and vesicant (blister) agents, which
include sulfur mustard such as H, HT, and HD. They all are liquids at normal room temperature
but become gaseous when released.
● Chemical Weapons Convention Act, 2000 - worldwide ban on production, stockpiling, and use
of chemical weapons.

Types of Chemical Agents

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BLISTER
● Distilled mustard, mustard gas, lewisite, mustard/lewisite, mustard/T, nitrogen mustard, phosgene
oxide, and sulfur mustard
● A blister agent or vesicant is named for its ability to cause severe chemical painful water blisters
on the bodies of those affected. Vesicants have potential medical uses including wart removal, but
they are fatal if small amounts are ingested.
● Signs/Symptoms: Burning, itching, nausea, vomiting, shortness of breath, pulmonary edema,
tearing, and upper airway sloughing.
● Treatment: Mustard no antidote, lewisite – British Anti-Lewisite and supportive care.
● Other: Vesicants are oily reactive chemicals that combine with DNA and proteins to cause cellular
changes within minutes to hours after exposure. Garlic, onion, or mustard smell.
BLOOD AGENTS
● Cyanogen chloride, hydrogen cyanide
● A blood chemical agent is a toxic compound that affects the body by being absorbed into the
blood. They are fast-acting, highly lethal toxins that are typically volatile colorless gases with a
faint odor. They are usually either arsenic or cyanide-based.
● Signs/Symptoms: Convulsions, cyanosis, fatigue, headache, hyperventilation, hypotension,
lightheadedness, loss of consciousness, metabolic acidosis, palpitations, nausea, vomiting, and
death in 1 to 20 minutes.
● Treatment: 100% O2, sodium thiosulfate injection – 12.5 g/50 mL (2 vials), sodium nitrate – 300
mg/10 mL (2 ampules), amyl nitrite inhalant 0.3 mL (12 ampules), and hydroxocobalamin 5 g
CHOKING AGENTS
● Chlorine, chloropicrin, nitrogen oxides, phosgene, and sulfur dioxide
● Chemical agents which attack lung tissue, primarily causing pulmonary edema, are classed as
lung-damaging or choking agents.
● Signs/Symptoms: Chest tightness, dermal irritation, laryngospasm, mucosal irritation, pulmonary
edema, shortness of breath, and wheezing
● Treatment: Manage secretions, oxygen, intubate and treat pulmonary edema with PEEP to
maintain pO2 greater than 60 mm Hg. High-dose steroids to treat pulmonary edema for nitrogen
oxide.
INCAPACITATION: BZ, CS, CN, and LSD
● An incapacitating agent that produces temporary physiological or mental effects which will render
individuals incapable of the performance of their duties.
● Signs/Symptoms: Confusion, dizzy, dry mouth, hypertension, runny nose, shortness of breath,
skin burns, sweating, tachycardia, and tremors
● Treatment: Flush eyes and skin, treat symptomatically
NERVE:
● Organic pesticides, sarin, soman, and tabun.
● Nerve agents are organic chemicals (organophosphates) that disrupt nerve transfer messages to
organs by blocking acetylcholinesterase, an enzyme that catalyzes the breakdown of
acetylcholine. Nerve agents are easily vaporized, and may enter through the respiratory system.
The skin can also absorb them. A full body suit is required for exposure protection.
● Signs/Symptoms: Bronchial constriction, cramps, diarrhea, dyspnea, increased secretions, miosis,
respiratory arrest, sweating, tremors, convulsions, paralysis, and loss of consciousness.
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● Treatment: Atropine every 5 to 10 minutes until secretions stop; 2-PAM CL up to 3 injections

within minutes if possible.
● Other: The Military Mark I kit is often available and is preloaded with 2 mg of atropine and 600 mg
of 2-PAM CL

Laws to Protect Against Chemical Disasters in India

Laws Before and During Bhopal Gas Tragedy (1984):
● The Indian Penal Code (IPC) was the sole relevant law stating criminal liability for such situations
at the time of the Bhopal gas tragedy.

Laws enacted in the aftermath of the Bhopal gas tragedy (1984):

● The Explosives Act, 1884- An Act to regulate the manufacture, possession, use, sale, [transport,
import and export] of explosives.
● Factories Act, 1948- The main objectives of this act is to ensure safety measures on factory
premises, and promote the health and welfare of workers. The Act applies to establishments with
10 or more workers, if the premise is using power and to establishments with 20 or more workers,
without electricity connection.
● The Petroleum Act 1934- An Act to consolidate and amend the law) relating to the import,
transport, storage, production, refining and blending of petroleum.
● The Insecticides Act 1968- An Act to regulate the import, manufacture, sale, transport,
distribution and use of insecticides with a view to prevent risk to human beings or animals, and for
matters connected therewith.
● Motor Vehicles Act, 1988 - The Act provides in detail the legislative provisions regarding
licensing of drivers/conductors, registration of motor vehicles, control of motor vehicles through
permits, special provisions relating to state transport undertakings, traffic regulation, insurance,
liability, offences and penalties, etc.
● The Bhopal Gas Leak (Processing of Claims) Act of 1985 grants the central government the
authority to secure claims resulting from or related to the Bhopal gas tragedy. Such claims are
handled quickly and fairly under the provisions of this Act.
● The Environment Protection Act of 1986 empowers the central government to adopt
environmental measures, establish standards, and inspect industrial units.
● The Public Liability Insurance Act of 1991 is a type of insurance designed to help those who
have been injured in accidents involving dangerous substances.
● The National Environment Appellate Authority Act, 1997: This Act allows the National
Environment Appellate Authority to hear appeals concerning the restriction of areas in which
certain industries, operations, processes, or classes of industries may not be carried out or may
be carried out with certain safeguards under the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986.
● National Green Tribunal Act, 2010: It established the National Green Tribunal to handle matters
relating to environmental preservation and forest conservation in an effective and timely manner.
○ As per the PRS legislation, any incident similar to the Bhopal gas tragedy, will be tried in
the National Green Tribunal, most likely under the provisions of the Environment
(Protection) Act, 1986.
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○ If a firm commits a crime, every person directly in charge and responsible will be found
guilty unless he can show that the crime was committed without his knowledge or that he
used all reasonable efforts to prevent the crime from being committed.
● Rules
○ Hazardous Waste (Management and Handling) Rules, 1989.
○ The Manufacture, Storage and Import of Hazardous Substances Rules, 1989/2000
(MSIHS).
○ The Chemical Accidents (Emergency Planning, Preparedness, and Response)
○ Rules, 1996.
○ The Environment (Siting for Industrial Projects) Rules, 1999.
○ The Municipal Solid Wastes (Management and Handling) Rules, 2000.
○ The Ozone Depleting Substances (Regulation and Control) Rules, 2000.

Shortcomings of safety regulations

● Implementation inefficiency: Although the Indian government has adopted many Acts to
alleviate the suffering of those who are victims of such catastrophes, such as the Indian Fatal
Accidents Act, the Worker's Compensation Act, and the Indian Boilers Act, inefficiency in their
execution remains an issue.
● Incompetent personnel: Occupational safety regulations require that boilers be operated by
trained persons, however the workers on the ground are frequently untrained and are hired on a
contract basis.
● Maintenance deficiency: The gas leak in Visakhapatnam, which appears to have involved
benzimidazole, a pharmaceutical ingredient, raises concerns about maintenance and operational
protocols.

ILO Recommendations
The ILO's recommendations were implemented by the Ministry of Labour to improve the national
framework for preventing work-related injuries in particular industries:
● Listing - A list of hazardous chemicals and combustible gases should be prepared, each with a
particular quantity, so that any factory handling any substance in excess of the stated number
should be considered a major hazard work zone.
● Key Hazard Works - For each state, a list of key hazard works should be compiled.
● Computerised data bank - A computerised data bank should be used to keep track of hazardous
compounds and the inventory of major hazard works.

Steps to avoid such disasters

● Safety Measures: The first step in preventing industrial accidents is to implement
government-mandated safety measures.
● Disciplinary action: People involved in an accident must face severe disciplinary punishment.
● Employee training: Employees must be adequately instructed on safety procedures. They must
be informed of the procedures to follow in the event of an emergency. They must also be
rewarded for adhering to the safety procedures.
● Machinery Maintenance: In order to avoid mishaps, the machinery utilised in the industries must
be examined for flaws on a regular basis.
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● Disaster planning: Because disaster is the result of an accident, thorough training is required to
cope with any accidents or emergency circumstances.

NDMA Guidelines for Chemical Disasters

● Strengthening of the present regulatory framework to meet the defined national policies and
aspirations; augmentation of technical support functions.
● A supportive and technology neutral regulation framework.
● Legislation on land-use policy (buffer zone around chemical industry).
● Standardisation of national codes and practises.
● Emphasis on regular safety audit, identification and selection of professional organisations and
their accreditation.
● Commissioning and decommissioning of chemical industries.
● Preparation of On-Site and Off-Site Plans.
● Regular testing of emergency plans.
● Need of medical first responders and medical inventory to deal with specialised chemical
accidents at the installation site.
● Crisis management plans of hospitals to manage the victims of chemical emergencies.
● Concept of mobile hospital and mobile teams.
● Issues related to public health response, medical rehabilitation and harmful effects on the
environment.
● Post-disaster documentation and analysis.

Precautions to be taken during and after the Chemical (Industrial) Accidents

● Do not panic, evacuate calmly and quickly perpendicular to wind direction through the designated
escape route
● Keep a wet handkerchief or piece of cloth/ sari on face during evacuation
● Keep the sick, elderly, weak, handicapped and other people who are unable to evacuate inside
the house and close all the doors and windows tightly.
● Do not consume the uncovered food/ water etc open to the air, drink only from bottle
● Change into fresh clothing after reaching safe place/ shelter, and wish hands properly
● Inform Fire & Emergency Services, Police and medical services from a safe location by calling
101, 100 and 108 respectively.
● Listen to PA (Public Addressal) System of the plant/ factory, local radio/ TV channels for advice
from district administration/fire/health/police and other concerned authorities
● Provide correct and accurate information to government officials.
● Inform others on occurrences of events at public gathering places (like school, shopping centre,
theatre etc.).
● Don’t pay attention to the rumours and don’t spread rumours.

General Precautions During Normal Time

● Do not smoke, lit fire or spark in the identified hazardous area
● Sensitize the community living near the industrial units and they should be more vigilant about the
nature of industrial units and associated risks.
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● Keep the contact numbers of the nearest hazardous industry, fire station, police station, control
room, health services and district control room, for emergency use.
● Avoid housing near the industries producing or processing the hazardous chemicals, if possible.
● Participate in all the capacity building programmes organized by the government/ voluntary
organizations / industrial units.
● Take part in preparing disaster management plans for the community and identify safe shelter
along with safe and easy access routes.
● Prepare a family disaster management plan and explain it to all the family members.
● Make the family/ neighbours aware of the basic characteristics of various poisonous/ hazardous
chemicals and the first aid required to treat them.
● Adequate number of personal protective equipment needs to be made available, to deal with
emergency situations.
● Prepare an emergency kit of items and essentials in the house, including medicines, documents
and valuables.

Personal Protective Equipment:

● First responders with the potential of direct exposure require an OSHA Level A PPE.
● The minimum PPE for a chemical agent in the hospital is also extensive.
● Respiratory protection must include a NIOSH-approved PAPR or a combination of 99.97%
high-efficiency particulate air/organic vapor/acid gas respirator cartridges.
● A chemical and resistant suit with double-layer protective gloves and boots should be worn that
includes covering the head and face.
● For those working post-decontamination, work clothes and PPE, if necessary, to prevent infection.

Nuclear Disaster
● Risk increased due to the increased use of nuclear science and technology in industries
● Nuclear/radiological emergencies can arise from any radiation occurrence that results in or has
the potential to result in worker or public exposure and/or pollution in excess of the respective
allowed limits.
● To ensure that radiation is controlled at all times, nuclear plants use a defense-in-depth strategy
and various physical barriers.
● However, it is predicted that a limited number of extremely low-probability events would occur,
releasing radioactivity into the environment.
● As a result, emergency preparedness and response plans have been put in place to deal with
nuclear or radiological emergency scenarios ranging from minor incidents such as a small spillage
of radioactive material to major nuclear accidents releasing large amounts of radioactivity into the
public domain (such as Chernobyl).

India’s situation
● Due to its unique geo-climatic characteristics, India has historically been prone to natural
disasters, and it has recently, like all other countries throughout the world, become equally
vulnerable to numerous man-made disasters.
● India- one of the seven nuclear-weapons-wielding countries that employs nuclear technology for
strategic objectives.
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● For improving the quality of life in society, India has embarked upon a large programme of using
nuclear energy for generation of electricity.
● As on date, India has 20 power reactors and three research reactors in operation along with five
power reactors under construction.
● It is also planned to explore setting up Thorium based reactors to meet its ever increasing energy
needs.
● The country is also at the verge of making operational the first 500MW prototype Fast Breeder
Reactor (PFBR) after a prolonged experience of operation of FBTR (Fast Breeder Test Reactor).
● Further, the country utilises radioisotopes in a variety of applications in the non-power sector, viz.,
in the field of industry, agriculture, medicine, research, etc.
● Due to the inherent safety culture, the best safety practices and standards followed in these
applications and effective regulation by the Atomic Energy Regulatory Board, the radiation dose to
which the persons working in nuclear/radiation facilities are exposed to, is well within the
permissible limits and the risk of its impact on the public domain is very low.
● It is also intended to investigate the possibility of constructing Thorium-based reactors to address
the country's ever-increasing energy demands.
● Furthermore, the country uses radioisotopes in a number of non-power applications, such as
industry, agriculture, medicine, research, and so on.
● The radiation dose to which persons working in nuclear/radiation facilities are exposed is well
within permissible limits, and the risk of its impact on the public domain is very low, thanks to the
inherent safety culture, best safety practises and standards followed in these applications, and
effective regulation by the Atomic Energy Regulatory Board.

Nuclear or radiological emergency disaster scenario

A nuclear/radiological emergency is defined as any radiation occurrence that results in, or has the
potential to result in, exposure to and/or contamination of personnel or the general public that exceeds
the respective allowed limits.
These emergencies, which are normally fully within the plant/facility authority's (together with adjacent
administrative authorities, if necessary) coping capability, can be roughly categorised as follows:
● An accident that occurs in any nuclear power plant during the nuclear fuel cycle.
● A ‘criticality' accident occurs when an uncontrolled nuclear chain reaction occurs in a nuclear fuel
cycle facility.
● An accident occurred while transporting radioactive material.
● Terrorists' malicious use of radioactive material as a Radiological Dispersal Device (RDD).
● An attack on nuclear weapons that results in a large-scale nuclear calamity (as had happened at
Hiroshima and Nagasaki in Japan)

The above emergency scenarios are divided into two categories by the International Atomic Energy
Agency (IAEA):
1. Nuclear - A nuclear emergency is a scenario in which a hazard exists, or is suspected to exist, as
a result of the release of energy and radiation from a nuclear chain reaction.
2. Radiological - All other types of emergencies that provide a risk of radiation exposure owing to
radioisotope decay are classified as radiological emergencies.
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Institutional Mechanism
● The Department of Atomic Energy (DAE) has been designated by the Indian government as the
lead body for providing technical inputs to national and local authorities in the event of a nuclear
or radiological emergency in the public domain.
● In such situations, the Ministry of Home Affairs (MHA) is the nodal ministry. DAE has had a Crisis
Management Group (CMG) in place for this purpose since 1987.
● CMG is activated immediately in the event of a nuclear/radiological emergency in the public
domain, and it coordinates with the local authority in the affected area as well as all relevant
authorities at the centre (NCMC/ NEC/NDMA) to ensure that the necessary technical inputs are
available to respond to the nuclear/radiological emergency.

Emergency Preparedness
1. Preparedness at Nuclear Facilities
● The probability of a major accident at nuclear facilities leading to the release of large
quantities of radioactivity into the environment is always ensured to be negligibly small.
● However, even in the event of a major release into the environment, the prompt and
effective implementation of countermeasures can reduce the radiological consequences
for the public and the environment.
2. Preparedness for Nuclear/Radiological Emergencies
● The handling of nuclear emergencies requires coordination among different service groups
of the nuclear facility.
● In the event of potential radiological consequences in the public domain, all the authorities
at the three levels, i.e., district, state and central, will play a vital role and assist the offsite
officials in effectively responding to and keeping the public informed on the precautions to
be taken.
3. Major Responsibilities of Nuclear Power Plant Operators
● This includes the arrangements required to promptly classify an emergency, mitigate the
emergency, notify and recommend protective actions off the site consistent with
international guidelines, protect those on site, obtain off-site assistance, conduct
environmental monitoring of the affected area and assist off-site officials in keeping the
public informed.
4. Major Responsibilities of Off-Site Officials
● This includes the arrangements required to promptly implement protective actions and
countermeasures in the affected area.
5. Emergency Preparedness for Nuclear Power Plants
● Since the proper implementation of countermeasures can significantly reduce the
consequences of an emergency situation, it is mandatory for all nuclear facilities that there
must be a comprehensive emergency preparedness plan.
● Prior to the issuance of a license for the operation of a nuclear facility, the AERB ensures
that the facility has the Emergency Response Manuals for the three main types of
emergencies, viz., plant, on-site and off-site, and that the plans are in place to handle
these types of emergencies.
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● The operators of nuclear facilities must make an assessment of the type and quantum of
release of radioactivity under various accident conditions and the extent to which it can
spread into the environment.

Plant Emergency
● Radiological consequences when expected to remain confined to the plant boundary or a
section of the plant is described as a plant emergency.
● Nuclear facilities in the country already have the following provisions for the detection,
classification, notification and mitigation of any emergency situation:
○ Emergency operating procedures for assessment of an emergency condition and
its mitigation.
○ Pre-identification of any facility-specific, abnormal situation for classification of a
plant and site emergency.
○ Facility-specific, approved nuclear emergency response plans specifying the jobs
of all the functionaries who have been assigned roles during the emergency.
○ Alerting the plant personnel by sounding the emergency siren and making an
emergency announcement.
○ Adequate means for communicating a notification to the emergency response
organisations at the facility, the district and state authorities, CMG of DAE and the
central government authorities.
○ Identified assembly locations for plant personnel and casual visitors for their
accounting, and assessment of persons trapped in the radiological areas.
○ Formation of rescue teams and activation of a treatment area and decontamination
centre.
○ Radiation survey around the plant and outside the plant and site boundaries.
○ Assessment of wind speed, wind direction and the affected sector around the
nuclear facility.
○ Whenever required, the nuclear facility is able to mobilise the services of the
ambulance and paramedical staff at its site.
○ Equipment and materials for handling a nuclear emergency are kept at a
designated place of the nuclear facility and ERC (Emergency Response Centre).

On-Site Emergencies
● An accidental release of radioactivity or the potential of release of activity extending
beyond the plant, but confined to the site boundary, constitutes a site emergency
condition. In addition to all the provisions applicable in a plant emergency, the following
additional provisions are ensured:
○ Extensive radiological survey for an assessment of the radiological conditions
within the site boundary of the nuclear facility.
○ Suitable prophylaxis to be made available at all assembly areas for administration
to plant personnel, in case the situation demands.
○ Identification of temporary shelters within the facility/site for shifting plant
personnel, in case required.
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○ Provision of a fleet of vehicles for evacuation of plant personnel from the site to a
safer place.
○ Provision of fixed and portable contamination monitors to check contaminated
personnel/vehicles leaving the site.
○ On sensing the potential of release of radioactivity which can transgress into the
public domain, the concerned district authorities are alerted to be on standby for
emergency operations in the public domain.
○ Radiological monitoring of the environment in the EPZ (16 km radius around the
plant).

Off-Site Emergencies
● On recognising the potential for an uncontrolled release of radioactivity into the public
domain, the concerned district authorities are alerted to be on standby for emergency
response operations.
● In addition to all the provisions applicable in plant emergency and site emergency, the
following additional provisions are to be ensured for handling a nuclear emergency in the
public domain:
○ Pre-identification of plant conditions which can lead to an emergency in the public
domain.
○ An assessment of the radiological status at the site boundary and in the public
domain.
● For handling of an off-site emergency condition in an NPP, there is an off-site emergency
committee headed by the district magistrate of the concerned district and supported by the
district subcommittee, which include chiefs of all public service departments relevant to
emergency management in the district and also the Head of the Site Emergency
Committee of the nuclear facility for technical advice.
● This committee takes decisions pertaining to the handling of a nuclear emergency outside
the site boundary and ensures implementation of countermeasures such as sheltering,
prophylaxis and evacuation and resettlement, including maintenance of law and order and
civil amenities.
● All the activities pertaining to the handling of an off-site emergency are guided and
coordinated from a pre-designated emergency response centre located outside the
boundary of the nuclear facility.
● The information and broadcasting department of the district, in association with an
authorised information officer, ensures the smooth flow of information to the media to avoid
panic and spreading of rumours.
● Every current-generation nuclear power plant has
● An Exclusion Zone in which no habitation is allowed and which is under the
administrative supervision of the plant authorities.
● Sterilised Zone - Growth and development are prohibited in this zone.
● The EPZ (Emergency Planning Zone) is a zone that extends beyond the Sterilised Zone.

The AERB has also established standards for the safe use of sources and the safe operation of facilities,
which all facilities that employ radioisotopes/radiation sources must accept and follow. These include the
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equipment's safe design, its use within the authorised range of parameters, and the presence of an
appropriately qualified Radiological Safety Officer (RSO) who is in charge of assuring safe procedures.

Emergency Response Plans in the Event of a Transportation Accident

● The AERB has established criteria for transporting radioactive materials as well as emergency
reaction procedures in the event of an accident.
● The material's consignor is responsible for ensuring that the safety procedures are followed.
● The SOPs also specify what will be done in the event of a radiation emergency, including what
safeguards will be taken and which agencies will be alerted, among other things.

Medical Preparedness in the Event of a Nuclear Emergency

● A few doctors have been designated and given the appropriate training in the medical
management of radiation emergencies in each DAE constituent unit.
● All nuclear power plants and the Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC) have radiation
monitoring equipment, staff decontamination centres, and antidote medicines and specialised
de-corporation agents for common radioisotopes on hand.

Goals for Mitigation and Preparation

● Preventing the harmful effects of radiation on the human body.
● To reduce the occurrence of stochastic effects in the population to the greatest extent possible.

Domain of Action
● The management of the nuclear plant is responsible for response actions within the site boundary,
whilst the concerned district authority is responsible for the implementation of emergency
response plans in the public domain (outside the site boundary).
● DAE takes appropriate measures in compliance with the country's international commitments in
the case of an off-site emergency with the potential for trans-boundary repercussions.

Capacity building for nuclear and radiological emergencies

➔ Dealing with Plant Emergencies: Nuclear power plants throughout the country are prepared to
detect, classify, notify, and mitigate any emergency situation. They are capable of doing the
following tasks:
◆ Emergency operational procedures for assessing and mitigating an emergency situation.
◆ Pre-identification of any irregularity peculiar to the institution.
◆ Approved nuclear emergency response plans defining the jobs for each facility.
◆ Sounding the emergency siren and giving an emergency announcement to the plant staff.
◆ Adequate means of informing emergency response organisations of a situation.
◆ Locations for plant staff and casual visitors to congregate have been identified.
◆ Rescue teams are being formed, and a treatment area and decontamination centre are
being set up.
◆ A radiation study was conducted around the plant as well as outside the plant's and site's
boundaries.
◆ Wind speed, direction, and the impacted area around the nuclear facility are all assessed.
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◆ The nuclear facility has the ability to call on the services of an ambulance and paramedical
personnel at any time.
◆ The nuclear facility and the ERC keep equipment and materials for dealing with a nuclear
emergency at a specified location.

➔ Handling On-site Emergency: The following additional provisions are ensured in addition to all
the provisions applicable in a plant emergency:
◆ An extensive radiological survey was conducted to determine the radioactive conditions
within the site's perimeter.
◆ All assembly locations should have appropriate prophylactic available.
◆ Identification of temporary shelters for relocating plant staff within the facility/site.
◆ Provision of a fleet of trucks for plant worker evacuation.
◆ Contamination monitors, both fixed and portable, are provided to ensure that contaminated
persons and vehicles are not leaving the site.
◆ The respective district authorities have been notified that emergency actions in the public
domain are imminent.
◆ Environmental radiological monitoring at the EPZ (16 km radius around the plant).

➔ Handling Off-site Emergency: In addition to all of the regulations that apply in a plant or on-site
emergency, the following additional provisions must be followed when dealing with a nuclear
emergency in the public domain:
◆ Plant conditions are identified ahead of time.
◆ An evaluation of the radiological situation near the site's edge and in the public domain.
➔ Specialised Response Teams
◆ National Disaster Response Force (NDRF) are being specially trained by NDMA with
assistance from DAE/DRDO to provide specialised response during a nuclear/radiological
emergency/disaster (for detecting and monitoring radiation, for their own protection during
response actions, decontamination and triage operation, etc.).
➔ Civil Defense's Role
◆ Radiation, radioactivity, radiation protection, usage of monitoring devices, use of protective
gear, shielding, decontamination, waste disposal, and other topics will be covered
comprehensively by selected civil defence specialists.
➔ Armed Forces' Role
◆ The armed forces will also improve their nuclear crisis preparedness in order to be drafted
in the event of a nuclear calamity.
➔ Periodic Exercises and Mock Drills
◆ Roles and responsibilities, resource identification, equipment use, and understanding the
consequences of radiation on humans, animals, and the environment are all covered.
◆ An exercise's review will reveal areas of emergency plans and readiness that should be
improved or expanded. The nuclear facility and the district authority will be responsible for
reviewing the evaluation report and ensuring that the evaluators' proposed corrective
measures are implemented

Strengthening Infrastructure
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★ Emergency Response Centres (ERCs)

○ ERCs will be established with the required staff, instruments, and equipment at all levels
(i.e., state capitals and significant cities). These ERCs will also be kept in a readiness
state to respond rapidly to any nuclear or radiological emergency, depending on their
location and designated functions.
★ Detection of radiation, monitoring equipment, and protective clothing
○ The first requirement in the event of a nuclear or radiological emergency is the availability
of tools for detecting and monitoring radiation. In conjunction with DAE, all SDMAs and
DDMAs shall compile a list of radiation monitoring tools and protective gear.
★ Real Time Monitoring Systems
○ BARC has built the Indian Environmental Radiation Monitoring Network (IERMON), a
network of simple environmental monitors. These monitors are available 24 hours a day,
seven days a week.
○ Project on deployment of Mobile Radiation Detection Systems (MRDS) to handle
Radiological Hazards in Metros/Capital Cities/Big Cities in India to detect unclaimed
radioactive materials/substances and save the public from its hazardous effects.
★ Communication
○ The following are the specific requirements for a nuclear emergency communication
system:
■ Stay-in and evacuation warnings will be communicated via civil defence
communication (sirens/signals) in the case of an off-site emergency or a
large-scale nuclear disaster.
■ Through Emergency Operations Centres (EOCs), as envisioned in the NDMA's
NDCN, reliable and diverse communication systems will be ensured for
communication among national, state, and district offices.
■ According to the state/vulnerability district's profile, all conceivable communication
channels, including ham radio operators, will be investigated.
■ SOPs will be established to ensure effective communication in the event of a
nuclear emergency or tragedy.
■ Mock drills will be conducted on a regular basis to test the communication linkages.
■ The media will be briefed by a nodal officer (District Information Officer).

Shelters
Some buildings, such as schools, colleges, community centres, wedding halls, religious buildings, and so
on, can be quickly turned into shelters in the case of a radiological or nuclear emergency.

Transport Network
Identifying and assuring the availability of access routes and transportation vehicles for the evacuation of
the impacted people should be part of the preparedness programme in an all-hazards strategy, and
should be done in conjunction with all stakeholders, including DAE.

International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA)

● Established: 1957
● Membership: 173 states
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● The IAEA is an independent international organization that reports annually to the UN General
Assembly.
● When necessary, the IAEA will report to the UN Security Council in regards to instances of
members’ noncompliance of safeguard and security obligations.
● The IAEA Secretariat is headquartered in Vienna, Austria.
● The main functions of the IAEA are to:
○ encourage and assist research, development and practical application of atomic energy for
peaceful uses throughout the world;
○ establish and administer safeguards designed to ensure that such activity assisted by the
Agency is not used to further any military purpose;
○ apply safeguards to relevant activities at the request of Member States;
○ apply, under the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) and other international treaties,
mandatory comprehensive safeguards in non-nuclear weapon States (NNWS) Parties to
such treaties.
● In carrying out its functions, the Agency conducts its activities in accordance with the purposes
and principles of the UN Charter to promote peace and international cooperation, and in
conformity with policies of the United Nations for furthering the establishment of worldwide
disarmament through safeguards.
● India has played an active role in the IAEA since its inception. The father of the Indian nuclear
program, Dr. Homi Bhabha, was responsible for Vienna’s selection as the seat of the Agency. As
the President of the 1955 Geneva Conference on the Peaceful Uses of Atomic Energy, which led
to the creation of the IAEA.
● Being a designated Member, India has served on the Board of Governors of the IAEA since
its inception.
● India is one of the founder members of the IAEA’s International Project on Innovative
Reactors and Fuel Cycles – INPRO and contributes the US $ 50,000 annually towards the
program.
● India and the IAEA signed an Agreement for Application of Safeguards to Civilian Nuclear
facilities in India on 2 February 2009. The Agreement entered into force on 11 May 2009.

Biological disasters
● Caused by organic processes or by biological vectors, example, exposure to pathogenic
microorganisms, toxins, and bioactive substances
● Epidemic disease outbreaks, plant or animal contagion, bug or other animal plagues, and
infestation are all examples of biological disasters.

Biological catastrophes can take the following forms:

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➢ Epidemic
○ Cholera, Plague, and Japanese Encephalitis (JE)/Acute Encephalitis Syndrome are
examples of epidemics that afflict a disproportionately large number of people in a
population, community, or region at the same time (AES).
➢ Pandemic
○ A pandemic is an outbreak of existing, new, or reemerging diseases and pestilences that
spreads across a broad territory, such as a continent, or even globe, such as Influenza
H1N1 (Swine Flu).

Important Facts
➔ Nodal agency for handling epidemics – Ministry of Health and Family Welfare
◆ Decision-making
◆ Advisory body
◆ Emergency medical relief providing
➔ State governments bear the major responsibility for dealing with biological calamities. (The
reason for this is that health is a state subject.)
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➔ The National Institute of Communicable Diseases (NICD) is the focal agency for epidemic
investigations.
➔ The Ministry of Home Affairs is the nodal ministry for biological warfare (Biological warfare is the
use of biological agents as an act of war)

Classifications of Biological Disasters

The US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention divides biohazards into four levels of biosafety:
❖ BSL-1: Bacillus subtilis, various cell cultures, canine hepatitis, and non-infectious microorganisms
are all classified as BSL-1.
➢ Protection - Only facial protection and gloves
❖ BSL-2: Hepatitis A, B, C, mumps, measles, HIV, and other bacteria and viruses that cause only
minor sickness in people or are difficult to catch via aerosol in a lab setting are classified as
BSL-2.
➢ Protection: Biological safety cabinets and autoclaves are used for sterilisation.
❖ BSL-3: Bacteria and viruses that cause severe to deadly disease in humans are classified as
BSL-3. West Nile virus, anthrax, and MERS coronavirus are just a few examples.
➢ Protection - Strict safety precautions, such as the usage of respirators, are in place to
prevent the spread of infection through the air.
❖ BSL-4: Viruses that are potentially lethal to humans, such as Ebola, Marburg, and Lassa fever.
➢ Protection: Use of a positive pressure personnel suit, with a separate air supply

Biowarfare
● Agents - bacteria and viruses that infect humans, animals, and crops resulting in an incapacitating
or fatal disease or crop destruction.
● Symptoms may not appear for days to weeks. Often the bacteria or virus is weaponized, and the
changes will affect a broader segment of humans, animals, or crops than the normal pathogen.
● In a biological warfare terror event, healthcare providers must deal with uncommon pathogens
that rarely affect humans.
● Healthcare facilities will be inundated with victims. The arrival of one or more victims with an odd
presentation may be the initial indication that an act of terrorism has occurred.
● Biologic agents may be dispersed by several techniques including contaminated water and
aerosol sprays.
● They can also infect individuals and place them on airplanes, buses, or large events that will
disperse the virus quickly.

Signs and symptoms of biological warfare agents

○ Sudden increases in calls or visits
○ Sudden increases in the use of over-the-counter drug purchases
● These factors reflect changes from the status quo in the community.
● An astute clinician with a sense of the community’s general normal health can make a significant
difference in how soon a response to the threat begins.
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● If the person admits to no foreign travel in endemic areas of rare viruses, and the suspicion is
high, contacting the local health department or CDC is in order.

Classification of Bioweapon Diseases

● The Center for Disease Control has identified 30 organisms that might be weaponized and has
grouped them into three categories.
● Classification is based on ease of dissemination, morbidity and mortality, panic potential, and level
of public health requirements.
○ Category A: Highest priority diseases that pose a risk to national security, are easily
transmitted, have high morbidity and mortality, would have a major public health impact
and cause panic, and require special public health preparedness.
○ Category B: Moderate priority diseases with lower morbidity and mortality and more
difficult to disseminate.
○ Category C: High priority diseases that have the potential to cause significant morbidity
and mortality and are emerging pathogens that could be engineered for mass dispersion.

Bioterrorism
● Intentional release of biological agents to cause illness or death in humans, animals, or plants.
● Agents may be bacteria, fungi, toxins, or viruses. They may be naturally occurring or
human-modified.
● The agents are typically found in nature, but they may be altered in a laboratory to increase their
resistance to antibiotics, and ability to spread in the environment.
● Biological and chemical agents may be spread through the air, food, or water. Terrorists use
biological agents because they are often difficult to detect and illness onset may be delayed for
hours to days increasing dispersal.
● Bioterrorism agents are a common choice for terrorists because they easy and inexpensive to
produce, easy to disseminate, and can cause widespread effects.
● The challenge with bioweapons is that they may affect both enemy and friendly forces. Terrorists
use biological weapons as a method of creating mass panic.

Bioweapon
● Biological weapons include any organism or toxin found in nature that can be used to
incapacitate, kill, or cause physical or economic harm.
● Biological weapons are characterised by low visibility, high potency, substantial accessibility and
relatively easy delivery methods.

Epidemics
● The outbreak of a disease affecting or tending to affect a disproportionately large number of
individuals within a population, community, or region at the same time.

Pandemics
● A pandemic is an epidemic (an outbreak of an infectious disease) that spreads across a large
region (for example, a continent), or even worldwide.
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Quarantine
● Any isolation or restriction on travel or passage imposed to keep contagious diseases, insects,
pests, etc., from spreading.

Biomonitoring
● It is the method of detection of biological agents based on properties like rapidity, reliability,
sensitivity, and specificity so as to quickly diagnose the correct etiological agent from complex
environmental samples before the spreading of illness on a large scale.

Surveillance
● All healthcare providers should have the knowledge to identify and initiate a local response to an
act of bioterrorism.
● The starting point is the status quo or their normal patient population. If there is a significant
deviation from the norm, the provider should consider the fact that they may be on the cusp of an
endemic deliberately perpetrated on society.
● Providers must be aware of clinical features including:
○ A cluster of persons with similar symptoms from a common geographical area
○ A rapid increase in patients presenting with similar signs and symptoms
○ An increase in patients who expire within 72 hours after hospitalization
○ An unusual clinical presentation
○ Increased dead animals

Laws in the Event of a Biological Disaster in India

In India, the following laws have been adopted to avoid biohazards and to implement preventive,
eradicative, and confining measures in the event of an outbreak:
● The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974
● The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981
● The Environmental (Protection) Act, 1986 and the Rules (1986)
● Disaster Management Act 2005
● Section 188 of the Indian Penal Code:
○ Whoever knowing that, by an order promulgated by a public serv­ant lawfully empowered
to promulgate such order, disobeys such direction, shall, if such disobedience causes or
tends to cause obstruction, annoyance or injury, or risk of obstruction, annoyance or injury,
to any person lawfully employed, be punished with simple impris­onment for a term which
may extend to one month or with fine which may extend to two hundred rupees, or with
both.
○ And if such disobedience causes or trends to cause danger to human life, health or safety,
or causes or tends to cause a riot or affray, shall be punished with imprisonment of either
description for a term which may extend to six months, or with fine which may extend to
one thousand rupees, or with both.
● Epidemic Diseases Act 1897:
○ Aims to provide for the better prevention of the spread of dangerous epidemic diseases.
Under the Act, temporary provisions or regulations can be made to be observed by the
public to tackle or prevent the outbreak of a disease. The Act contains four sections.
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○ Section 2: Powers to take special measures -

■ It empowers the state governments to tackle special measures and formulate
regulations to contain the outbreak.
■ the State may prescribe regulations for the inspection of persons traveling by
railway or otherwise, and the segregation, in hospital, temporary accommodation of
persons suspected by the inspecting officers to be infected.
○ Section 2A of the Act empowers the central government to take steps to prevent the
spread of an epidemic.
○ Health is a State subject, but by invoking Section 2 of the Epidemic Diseases Act,
advisories and directions of the Ministry of Health & Family Welfare will be enforceable.
○ It allows the government to inspect any ship arriving or leaving any post and the power to
detain any person intending to sail or arriving in the country.
○ Section 3: Penalty for Disobedience
■ The penalties for disobeying any regulation or order made under the Act are
according to section 188 of the Indian Penal Code (disobedience to order duly
promulgated by a public servant).
○ Section 4: Legal Protection to Implementing Officers: It gives legal protection to the
implementing officers acting under the Act.
○ Way forward:
■ It must be replaced by a law that addresses current and future public health
concerns, such as BT assaults and the use of biological weapons by an opponent,
cross-border issues, and the international spread of illnesses.
■ It should allow the central and state governments, as well as local governments,
sufficient powers to act without fear of retaliation, including the ability to warn
affected areas, limit mobility or quarantine them, and access any facilities to take
samples of suspected materials and seal them.
■ Controls over biological sample transmission, biosecurity, and biosafety of
materials/laboratories should also be established under the Act.

Prevention of Biological Hazards

The eradication of the source of contamination is the most basic approach for preventing and controlling
biohazards.
❖ Preventive measures for field workers (medical):
➢ Engineering measures – such as correct ventilation, negative pressure installation, and UV
lamp use – can assist prevent the development of such calamities.
➢ Personal hygiene
➢ Personal protection equipment
➢ Sterilization
➢ Respiratory protection

Prevention of Biological Disasters

➔ Environment management
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◆ To prevent waterborne diseases such as cholera, typhoid, hepatitis, dysentery, and others,
safe water supply and proper sewage pipeline maintenance are essential.
◆ Personal hygiene awareness and provision for washing, cleaning, bathing, preventing
overcrowding, and so on.
◆ Control of vectors:
● Work on environmental engineering and integrated vector control methods in
general.
● Water management, such as avoiding allowing water to stagnate and gather, and
other approaches are used to eliminate vector breeding sites.
● For vector control, insecticides are sprayed on a regular basis, outdoor fogging is
used, and so on.
● Controlling the rodent population.
➔ Prevention of Post-Disaster Epidemics:
◆ After any biological tragedy, the danger of epidemics increases.
◆ The Integrated Disease Surveillance Systems (IDSS) keeps track of disease sources,
modes of transmission, and outbreaks.
➔ Outbreak Detection and Containment:
◆ This is broken down into four steps, as follows:
● Recognizing and diagnosing by primary healthcare practitioners.
● Communicating Surveillance data to public health authorities.
● Surveillance data epidemiological analysis
● Measures to improve public health and the provision of appropriate medical care.

Institutional Framework
Public health should be given top priority in the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare (MoH&FW), with a
separate Additional Directorate General of Health and Sanitation (DGHS) for public health. A separate
department of public health exists in several states. States that do not currently have such agreements
will be required to take steps to create one.

Operational Framework
➢ No policy on biological disasters at the national level - The current MoH&FW contingency
plan is around ten years old and in need of change. All public health components, such as apex
institutions, field epidemiology, surveillance, teaching, training, and research, must be
strengthened.
➢ At the operational level, Command and Control (C&C) is plainly visible at the district level, where
the district collector has authority to demand resources, notify a disease, check any premises, ask
assistance from the Army, state, or centre, enforce quarantine, and so on. However, there is no
idea of an incident command system, in which the entire action is placed under the control of an
incident commander with assistance from logistics, financial, and technical teams, among other
disciplines. Every district urgently requires the implementation of an incident command system.
➢ Medical and paramedical personnel are in low supply at the district and sub-district levels.
Public health specialists, epidemiologists, clinical microbiologists, and virologists are likewise in
limited supply.
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➢ For the proper management of biological disasters, biosafety laboratories are required for the
rapid diagnosis of the agents. In the human health sector, there is no BSL-4 laboratory. The
number of BSL-3 laboratories is similarly limited. Biosecurity, the ability to prepare diagnostic
reagents in-house, and quality assurance are all major concerns.
➢ No integrated ambulance network (IAN) - There is no ambulance system capable of working in
biological disasters with modern life-support facilities.
➢ Medical supplies are scarce in state-run institutions - Even in normal circumstances, a patient
must purchase medications. There is a scarcity of medications, critical vaccines such as the
anthrax vaccine, personal protective equipment (PPE), and diagnostics for surge capacity.

NDMA Guidelines on Management of Biological Disasters:

A) Short-term Plan (0–3 Years)

i) Regulatory framework
a. Dovetail existing Acts, Rules and Regulations with the Disaster Management Act (DM
Act), 2005.
b. Enactment/amendment of any Act, Rule or Regulation, if necessary for better
implementation of health programmes across the country for effective management of
disasters.
ii) Prevention
a. Strengthening of integrated surveillance systems based on epidemiological surveys;
detection and investigation of any disease outbreak.
b. Establishment of Early Warning System (EWS).
c. Coordination between public health, medical care and intelligence agencies to prevent
bioterrorism.
d. Rapid health assessment, and provision of laboratory support.
e. Institution of public health measures to deal with secondary emergencies as an outcome
of biological disasters.
f. Immunisation of first responders and adequate stockpiling of necessary vaccines.
iii) Preparedness.
a. Identifying infrastructure needs for formulating mitigation plans.
b. Equipping Medical First Responders (MFRs)/Quick Reaction Medical Teams (QRMTs) with
all material logistics and backup support.
c. Upgradation of earmarked hospitals for Chemical, Biological, Radiological and Nuclear
(CBRN) management.
d. Communication and networking system with appropriate intra-hospital and inter-linkages
with state ambulance/transport services, state police departments and other emergency
services.
e. Mobile tele-health services.
f. Laying down minimum standards for water, food, shelter, sanitation and hygiene.
g. Capacity development.
1. Knowledge management. - Defining the role of the public, private and corporate
sector for their active participation and their sensitisation thereof.
2. Human Resource Development (HRD) -
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● Strengthening of National Disaster Response Force (NDRF), medical first

responders, medical professionals, paramedics and other emergency
responders.
● Development of human resources for monitoring and management of the
delayed effects of biological disasters in the areas of mental health and
psychosocial care.
3. Education and training-
● Imparting basic knowledge of biological disaster management through the
educational curricula at various levels.
● Knowledge management.
● Proper education and training of personnel, with the aid of information
networking systems and conducting continuing medical education
programmes and workshops at regular intervals.
h. Community preparedness
■ 1) Community awareness programme for first aid.
■ 2) Dos and Don’ts to mitigate the effects of medical emergencies caused by
biological agents.
■ 3) Defining the role of the community as a part of the community disaster
management plan.
■ 4) Organising community awareness programmes for first aid and general triage.
i. Hospital preparedness
■ 1) Preparation of hospital disaster management plans by all the hospitals including
those in the private sector.
■ 2) Developing a mechanism to augment surge capacities to respond to any mass
casualty event following a biological disaster.
■ 3) Identifying, stockpiling, supply chain and inventory management of drugs,
equipment and consumables including vaccines and other agents for protection,
detection, and medical management.
j. Specialised health care and laboratory facilities-
■ 1) Upgradation of existing biosafety laboratories and establishing new ones.
k. Scientific and technical institutions for applied research and training.
■ 1) Post-disaster phase medical documentation procedures and epidemiological
surveys.
■ 2) Regular update by adopting activities in Research and Development (R&D)
mode, initially by pilot studies.
B) Medium-term Plan (0–5 Years)
i) Prevention
a. Strengthening of Integrated Disease Surveillance Programme (IDSP) and early warning
systems at regional levels.
b. Incorporation of disaster specific risk reduction measures.
ii) Preparedness
a. Institutionalisation of advanced Emergency Medical Response (EMR) system (networking
ambulance services with hospitals).
iii) Capacity development
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a. Strengthening of scientific and technical institutions for knowledge management and

applied research and training in management of chemical, biological, radiological and
nuclear disasters.
b. Continuation and update of human resource development activities.
c. Developing community resilience.
iv) Hospital preparedness.
a. Testing of various elements of the emergency plan through table top exercises, and mock
drills.
v) Specialised health care and laboratory facilities.
vi) Implementing a financial strategy for allocation of funds for different national and
state/district-level mitigation projects.
vii) Ensuring stockpiling of essential medical supplies such as vaccines and antibiotics, etc.
C) Long-term Plan (0–8 Years)
The long term action plan will address the following important issues:
i) Knowledge of biological disaster management should be included in the present curriculum of
science and medical undergraduate and postgraduate courses.
ii) Establishment of a national stockpile of vaccines, antibiotics and other critical medical supplies.
iii) Initiation of relevant postgraduate courses in biological disaster management.
iv) Training programmes in the areas of emergency medicine and biological disaster management
shall be conducted for hospital administrators, specialists, medical officers, nurses and other
health care workers.
v) Public health emergencies with the potential of mass casualties due to covert attacks of
biological agents will be addressed in the plan through setting up of integrated surveillance
systems, rapid health assessment systems, prompt investigation of outbreaks, providing
laboratory support and instituting public health measures.
vi) Quality medical care.
vii) Strengthening of the existing institutional framework and its integration with the activities of the
National Disaster Management Authority, state government/ State Disaster Management Authority
(SDMA), district administration/District Disaster Management Authority (DDMA) and other
stakeholders for effective implementation.
viii) Establishing an information networking system with appropriate linkages with state
ambulance/transport services, state police departments and other emergency services.
ix) Strengthening of the National Disaster Response Force, medical first responders, paramedics
and other emergency responders. Identification and recognition of training institutions for training
of medical professionals, paramedics and medical first responders.
x) Development of post-disaster medical documentation procedures and epidemiological surveys.

Desert Locusts
● Belong to the family of grasshoppers and have a lifespan of 90 days.
● Four species of locusts that are found in India- Desert locust (Schistocerca gregaria), Migratory
locust (Locusta migratoria), Bombay Locust (Nomadacris succincta) and Tree locust (Anacridium
sp.).
● Mainly concentrated in areas receiving less than 200mm of rain annually.
● Are “biphasic” animals, i.e., they can take on two entirely different forms.
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● 40 to 80 million adults in one square km form a swarm

● Fly at 16-19 km an hour depending on the wind, and can move 150 km in a day.
● Are omnivorous and one adult desert locust can roughly eat its own weight or about 2 gm of fresh
food every day.
● three breeding seasons for locusts -Winter breeding (November to December), Spring breeding
(January to June) and Summer breeding (July to October).
● In India, there is only one locust breeding season and that is in Summer (July to October).

Favourable conditions for locusts attacks

● Indian Ocean Dipole: Warming of the western Indian ocean triggers heavy rain resulting in the
growth of vegetation in arid areas where desert locusts can then grow and breed.
● Cyclones bring rain which transforms empty desert tracts into large lakes providing damp soils
where the locust swarms breed.
● Winds aid the movement of the locusts.

Control Measures
● Locust Warning Organisation (LWO)- responsible for monitoring, survey and control of Desert
Locust in Scheduled Desert Areas mainly in the States of Rajasthan and Gujarat.
● Locust Circle Offices- to conduct a survey and monitor the attack in coordination with District
Administration.
● Malathion is now the preferred insecticide by the Locust Warning Organization to control the
spread of locusts.
● Drones- to spray pesticides on tall trees and inaccessible places for effective control of locusts.
● Coordination with South-West Asian countries like Afghanistan, Iran and Pakistan where locust
attacks are common.

Oil Spills
● Any uncontrolled flow of crude oil, gasoline, fuels, or other oil by-products into the environment is
referred to as an oil spill. Oil spills can harm land, air, or water, though it is most commonly used
for oceanic oil spills.
● Cause: They've turned into a huge environmental issue, owing to increased petroleum exploration
and production on continental shelves, as well as the transportation of large volumes of oil in
ships.

Consequences:
❖ Environmental Consequences -
➢ Aquatic life is harmed because it diminishes the level of dissolved oxygen.
➢ Crude oil damages the insulating and waterproofing characteristics of birds' feathers and
fur, causing hypothermia in oil-coated birds and marine mammals (decrease in body
temperature to below-normal levels).
➢ Furthermore, ingested oil can be hazardous to animals, causing habitat and reproductive
problems.
➢ Oil spills are common in saltwater marshes and mangroves.
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➢ Experts estimate that fewer than 10% of oil spilled in instances like this is successfully
cleaned up, despite greatest efforts.
❖ Economical Consequences -
➢ Tourism and business may be severely harmed if beaches and populous shorelines are
contaminated.
➢ Oil spills have a significant impact on power plants and other utilities that rely on drawing
or releasing sea water.
➢ Commercial fishing is frequently suspended in the aftermath of major oil spills.

Cleanup of Oil Spill:

➢ Containment Booms: Booms are floating barriers that are used to contain oil and enable for its
recovery, removal, or dissemination.
➢ Skimmers: Machines that physically separate spilt oil from the surface of the water.
➢ Sorbents: Different sorbents are utilised to absorb the oil from the water (e.g., straw, volcanic
ash, and shavings of polyester-derived plastic).
➢ Dispersing agents: Chemicals that contain surfactants, or compounds that help break down
liquids like oil into minute droplets. They hasten the natural dispersal of the material into the sea.
➢ Biological agents: Nutrients, enzymes, or microorganisms, such as Alcanivorax bacteria or
Methylocella silvestris, are introduced to speed up natural oil biodegradation.

There is no law in India that addresses oil spills and the environmental damage they cause. These
instances are classified as unintentional discharges under the Environmental Protection Act (EPA) of
1986, rather than as an oil spill. FIRs are typically filed under the EPA and the IPC sections dealing to
rash navigation and endangering the lives of others. However, India has a plan in place to deal with such
circumstances called the "National Oil Spill Disaster Contingency Plan of 1996 (NOS-DCP)."

National Oil Spill Disaster Contingency Plan

Characteristics:
● It enables the Indian Coast Guard the authority to work with state departments, ministries, port
authorities, and environmental organisations to help clean up oil spills.
● It stipulates that all major Indian ports must have basic oil spill response equipment, such as
inflatable booms and oil skimmers.
● It emphasises the individual Ports' obligations.

Objectives:
● To provide a reliable system for detecting and reporting spills;
● To implement suitable safeguards for oil and chemical contamination preparedness;
● To make it easier to respond quickly and effectively to oil pollution;
● To put in place necessary safeguards for the crew, responders, and the general public's health
and safety, as well as the protection of the marine environment;
● Establish suitable response mechanisms to prevent, regulate, and combat oil and chemical
contamination, as well as environmentally sound disposal of recovered material; and
● To keep track of the evidence in order to identify the polluter and take appropriate administrative,
civil, or criminal action against him.
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In 2015, the NOS-DCP was updated to match international requirements.

● The Online Oil Spill Advisory System has been established.
● It places India in a small group of countries that:
○ A capability for predicting the course of oil spills that was created in-house.
○ Environmental sensitivities in coastal zones are being mapped.
○ Aerial dispersion spray system deployment.
○ Regional oil spill contingency preparations are being made easier.

International Convention on Civil Liability for Bunker Oil Pollution Damage, 2001 (Bunker
Convention)
The International Convention on Civil Liability for Bunker Oil Pollution Damage, 2001 was ratified by India
in 2015. (Bunker Convention). Oil spill damage is compensated in a fair, timely, and effective manner
under the convention.

Oil Spill India (OSI) is an international meeting on oil spill prevention, readiness, response, and
restoration systems, established in 2011.
● The OSI had a convention in Mumbai in September of 2016.
● “Commitment, Synergy, and Excellence (CSE)” was the topic.
● The convention highlights the finest techniques for oil spill response from around the world.

Transport Accidents
● Vital infrastructure because a failure in one of its components can have a substantial impact on a
region's economic and social well-being.
● The economic effects of disasters are determined by three factors:
1) the nature and frequency of disasters;
2) the amount of population and infrastructure exposure; and
3) the level of susceptibility of populations and infrastructures.
● Several factors influence the risks and level of risk of disasters on transportation systems:
○ Increased mobility
○ Infrastructure and economic interdependence
○ Centralization and concentration of distribution
○ Urbanization
● The transportation sector has responded to these forces by making significant expenditures in
infrastructure and facilities, increasing the capacity and efficiency of transportation systems both
domestically and internationally.
● As a result, greater flows and capabilities put more pressure on physical distribution system
management, which encompasses activities like transportation, transshipment, warehousing,
insurance, and retailing. They have a crucial role in national economies. The following
transportation networks are particularly vulnerable due to their size and connectivity:
○ Air transportation
○ Rail networks
○ Logistical networks
○ Road networks
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○ Rail networks
○ Power grids
● With the growing reliance on distribution systems, any transportation failure, whether intentional or
unintentional, can have severe effects and jeopardise national security on four fronts:
○ Transportation supply: Ensure that transportation modes, routes, terminals, and
information systems can meet national security needs such as troop deployment and
emergency response.
○ Transportation readiness: Ensuring that transportation is ready to respond to
time-sensitive national security needs.
○ Transportation vulnerability: Reducing the susceptibility of transportation modes,
terminals, and users to malicious intent, accidents, and natural disasters.
○ Illegal use of transportation: Reducing illegal immigration and the trading of restricted or
illegal products (e.g., drugs, endangered species).

Types of Disasters
1. Road Accidents Disasters:
● most common of all transportation accidents and disasters.
● often known as traffic collisions or tragedies.
● the smaller the vehicle, the higher the risk of a traffic collision. Ex - motorbike accidents in
developing nations, such as India. As a result, motorcycle accidents are the greatest in the
world resulting in hundreds of bikers dying every day in India.
Causes:
● Human factors -
○ Driver impairment e.g. age factor, whether youth or old persons i.e. If the driver is
underage/overage, visually impaired etc.
○ Intoxication consumption of alcohol i.e. drink and drive
○ Driver behaviour
○ Visual and auditory acuity
○ Psychological status
○ Decision making ability
○ Reaction speed
○ Fatigue and drowsiness
● Mechanical and technical factors -
○ Design of the vehicle
○ Failure of the brakes
○ Failure of the engine
○ Automobile upkeep
○ Fuel situation
● Road design
○ Roads that are perfectly straight
○ More curved roads, such as abrupt curves and short-distance blind corners
○ Nature of road construction materials, such as road dressings
○ Type of the road surface, such as smooth or potholed
● Speeding of vehicles
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○ The most common cause of road accidents is exceeding the speed limit, especially
while navigating blind corners and abrupt curves.
○ No speed alert device in vehicles
● Natural factors
○ Climate and weather
■ Hurricanes, cyclones, tornadoes, and typhoons
■ Humidity and precipitation
■ Snowfall etc.

The 2021 report titled, “Traffic Crash Injuries And Disabilities: The Burden on India Society”
prepared by the World Bank prepared in collaboration with the NGO-Save Life Foundation, highlighted
the fact that India has just 1% of the world’s vehicles but accounts for 11% of all road crash deaths, the
highest in the world. As per the report, India is also witnessing 53 road crashes every hour, killing 1
person every 4 minutes.
As per the Ministry of Road Transport and Highways (MoRTH) Estimates, 76.2% of people who are
killed in road crashes are in their prime working-age, 18-45 years.

Steps that are taken by Indian Government to reduce the road accident fatalities:
1. India signed the Brasilia Declaration and committed to reducing deaths due to road accidents.
Brasilia Declaration on Road Safety (2015)- The Declaration aims to achieve SDG 3.6 [Link]
half the number of global deaths and injuries from road traffic accidents by 2030.
2. Vehicular engineering measures-
● Front and side crash tests for new car models (since 2017).
● Pedestrian protection regulation for new car models (since 2018).
● New cars are required to have airbags fitted as standard and to have a speed warning
device above 80 km/h.
3. Motor Vehicles (Amendment) Act, 2019-
● Hike in penalties for traffic violations, defective vehicles, juvenile driving, etc.
● Motor Vehicle Accident Fund, to be set up which would provide compulsory insurance
cover to all road users in India for certain types of accidents.
● National Road Safety Board, to be created by the Central Government through a
notification.
● Protection of good samaritans.
● Recalling defective vehicles, dangerous for the environment and people,
● Punishment to the owner for violations committed by Juvenile.
4. Road engineering measures-
● Road safety audits on National Highways
● Roadside Safety Crash barriers
● Installing speed warning boards and other signboards
● Reducing the Black spots in the Roads
5. 3 Year Action Agenda NITI Aayog -
● Standardizing the reporting of accidents
● Necessary provisions must be undertaken to ensure that the accident victim reaches the
hospital within 10 minutes of the accident.
● Building emergency health services, providing enough ambulances, etc,
● Creating Road Safety Boards to reduce accidents.
● Using data to monitor accidents
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6. KS Radhakrishnan panel on road safety (2014)- A three-member committee was constituted by

Supreme court (The SC had termed the roads in India as “giant killers”) which gave the following
recommendations-
● State governments to perform a compulsory Audit on road safety to ensure adequate
safety standards in the design, construction, and maintenance of roads
● Creating awareness among people on road safety rules, insurance policies, etc
● Enough compensation to victims on time.
● Ban on the sale of alcohol on highways (both state and national) to curb drunk driving.
● Laws to be implemented for wearing helmets.
7. Sundar Committee on Road safety and Traffic Management-
● To recommend a structure for the Directorate of Road Safety and Traffic Management and
advise on its role and functions.
● The Committee addressed road safety covering all types of roads including rural roads,
district roads, state highways and national highways as about 60 to 65% of the fatalities
occurred on roads other than the national highways.
8. Central Road and Infrastructure Fund- Established in 2000 under Central Road Fund Act, 2000
for development and maintenance of national highways and improvement of safety at railway
crossings.
9. India’s first ever Highway Capacity Manual to guide road engineers and policymakers about
road expansion. The manual is known as Indo-HCM. The manual will help in the scientific
planning and expansion of road infrastructure in the country.
10. National Road Safety Council- An advisory body which was established under section 215 of
the Motor Vehicles Act, 1988 with the objective of improving road safety aspects in the road
transport sector.
11. National Road Safety Policy- looks at overall road safety, and outlines initiatives to be taken by
the Government at all levels-
● Raise awareness about road safety issues
● Establish a Road Safety Information Database
● Ensure Safer Road Infrastructure
● Safer vehicles with built-in features at the design stage
● Road Traffic Safety Education and Training
● Enforcement of Safety Laws
● Emergency Medical Services for Road Accidents
12. National Road Safety and Traffic Management Board to oversee the issues related to road
safety and evolve effective strategies for implementation of the Road Safety Policy.
13. Intelligent Transportation System (ITS)-
● Traffic Management
● Parking Management
● Electronic enforcement of traffic rules and regulations
● Fleet management and monitoring
● Innovation in the field of ITS
● Education in the field of ITS
14. Vehicle Scrapping Policy- First announced in the Union Budget 2021-22 to reduce the
population of old and defective vehicles, bringing down vehicular air pollutants, improving road
and vehicular safety. Few provisions of the policy-
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● Old vehicles will have to pass a fitness test before re-registration and government
commercial vehicles more than 15 years old and private vehicles that are over 20 years
old will be scrapped.
● Old vehicles will be tested at the Automated Fitness Center and the fitness test of the
vehicles will be conducted according to international standards.
● Emission test, braking system, safety components will be tested and the vehicles which
fail in the fitness test will be scrapped
● road-tax rebate of up to 25% for personal vehicles and up to 15% for commercial vehicles
to provide an incentive to owners of old vehicles to scrap old and unfit vehicles
● discount of 5% to people who will produce the 'Scrapping Certificate' and registration fees
will be waived off on the purchase of a new vehicle
● increased re-registration fees would be applicable for vehicles 15 years or older from the
initial date registration.

Supreme Court directions to ensure Road Safety

● States and UT’s should frame a Road Safety Policy
● State Road Safety Councils
● States and UT Road Safety Fund
● Road Safety Action Plans
● Chapter on road safety in school curriculum
● Strengthen norms for crash testing of light vehicles
● Lead agencies and district road safety committees

Government has set a target of reducing road accident deaths by 50% by the year 2024. This will be
done by strengthening the four ‘E’ of road safety, Engineering (including road and automobile
engineering), Economy, Enforcement, and Education.
● Automated camera-based driving test system
● Safety for women in public transport
● Cashless treatment for road accident victims- Toll free number 1033
● Integrated vehicle registration and driving license system

2. Aviation accidents:
● They have the lowest probability of all sorts of transportation accidents and disasters, but
there is the lowest chance of surviving in the event of an aviation accident. The
Convention on International Civil Aviation has defined the aviation accident as follows:
"Aviation accident is defined as an occurrence associated with the operation of an aircraft,
which takes place between the time any person boards the aircraft with the intention of
flight until such time as all such persons have disembarked. where a person is fatally or
seriously injured, the aircraft sustains damage or structural failure or the aircraft is missing
or is completely inaccessible".

Causes:
● Error of the pilot
● Explosion in the fuel tank
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● Mid-air collision
● Uncontrolled decompression
● Structural breakdown of an aircraft
● Accident on the runway

3. Rail Accidents: Rail accidents are caused by a various circumstances, including

● length and density of railway networks, life of rail coaches and rails, maintenance of
railway tracks, locomotives, rail coaches, wagons of freight trains (goods trains);
● signaling systems, visibility factors (mainly during fogs), technologies, driver’s skill and
training, drivers' errors (unintentional and intentional, e.g. over-shooting of signals);
● reaction speed and reflex actions of rail operators;
● intoxication, fatigue, and health status of drivers;
● functioning, skills and judgement capabilities of personnel involved in the operation of rail
movement in different segments;
● fencing of railway tracks;
● trespassing of rail tracks by animals;
● manning of level crossings;
● sabotage by extremists and terrorists;
● terrorists attacks through explosives;
● proper handling of points for changes of rail tracks safety measures, and many more.

4. Maritime Disaster: Maritime accidents involving ferry ships, cargo ships, oil tankers, fishing
trawlers, and other vessels result in (1) human deaths, (2) economic and financial losses, and (3)
environmental pollution and damage to marine life resulting from oil slick pollution and the deaths
of many marine organisms, primarily fish.
Causes:
● Two ships collide
● Either two passenger ships or two cargo ships, or two oil tankers, or two passenger ships
and cargo ships
● A passenger ferry collided with an oil tanker
● Explosives are blown up
● Failures of technological and structural nature
● Colliding with the reefs
● Large icebergs collide with the ship
● Storms in the atmosphere
● Fire
● Mariner’s errors
● Attacks by terrorists
● Pirates deeds etc.

Transportation Disaster Planning

Although a prospective disaster can never be completely planned for, or even predicted in some cases,
there are a number of procedures that may be taken to minimise interruptions, known as Disaster Risk
Management:
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➔ Risk Assessment - Chance of an event and its potential consequences should be thoroughly
evaluated
➔ Preparedness - In view of the potential hazards, a level of preparedness in terms of potential
responses should be assessed. This can include storing and distributing relief supplies such as
gasoline, parts, and equipment, as well as labour force training in disaster situations.
➔ Mitigation - Concerns the immediate response to a disaster, which may include the shutdown of
transportation systems (especially public transit), the evacuation of populations, and the
mobilisation of first-responder resources, such as emergency assistance distribution (food,
medical supplies).
➔ Response - Measures taken to restore capacity using existing infrastructure. If a mode is no
longer functional, alternate modes and infrastructure must be examined.
➔ Recovery - Concerns all efforts necessary to reclaim the lost transportation capacity as a result of
the disaster.

War & Armed Conflict induced disasters

● Environmental degradation is exacerbated by war because environmental damage is employed
as a weapon of war, and the majority of conflicts stem from competing claims to natural resources
and land.
● 1945 - US launched two atomic bombs over the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki
during World War II. Many people were murdered, thousands more injured, and miles of land
were damaged by these two atomic bombs. Cancer and genetic changes in the affected children
and survivors of the catastrophe are still visible today as a result of these nuclear weapons.
● Other examples
○ Vietnam War, in which the United States used purposeful military methods to devastate
the environment.
○ Gaza and Israel - According to the World Bank, Israel uses 90% of the water in the region
for its own benefit, while Palestinians consume only 10%.
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Major Disasters

1. Bhopal disaster, 1984

● On December 3, 1984, Methyl Isocyanate (extremely toxic gas that can cause death
within minutes of inhaling the gas) leaked from the pesticide plant of Union Carbide (now
Dow Chemicals), an MNC, in Madhya Pradesh capital Bhopal.
● Estimated 40 tonnes of gas and other chemicals leaked due to substandard operating and
safety procedures at the understaffed plant from the Union Carbide factory, killing
approximately 3,800 people instantly and a total of 15,000 and 20,000 people died.
● Survivors suffered respiratory problems, eye irritation or blindness, and other maladies
resulting from exposure to the toxic gas. Children exposed to the leak suffered from
stunted growth and intellectual impairments.
● A 2014 report said that survivors still suffer from serious medical conditions including birth
defects for subsequent generations and heightened rates of cancer and tuberculosis.
● After the tragedy, the government of India enacted a Public Liability Insurance Act (1991),
making it mandatory for industries to get insurance.

2. Super Cyclone, Odisha, 1999

● Most intense recorded tropical cyclone in the North Indian Ocean and among the most
destructive in the region that made its landfall on Odisha on 29 October.
● Winds blew at the speed of 260 km/hr (160 mph), attaining super cyclonic storm intensity.
● Caused six-month-long total loss of normal livelihood and damage sustained to various
sanitation infrastructure led to a heightened risk of communicable disease outbreaks;
indeed, diarrhea and cholera saw increased incidences following the storm's impact

3. Gujarat Earthquake,2001
● The 2001 Gujarat earthquake, also known as the Bhuj earthquake, occurred on 26
January, India’s 51st Republic Day, at 08:46 AM IST and lasted for over 2 minutes.
● The intraplate earthquake reached 7.7 on the moment magnitude scale and had a
maximum felt intensity of X (Extreme) on the Mercalli intensity scale.
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● The earthquake killed between 13,805 and 20,023 people (including 18 in southeastern
Pakistan), injured another 167,000 and destroyed nearly 340,000 buildings.
● The death toll in the Kutch region was 12,300. Bhuj, which was situated only 20 km away
from the epicentre, was devastated.

4. The Indian Ocean Tsunami, 2004

● Occurred on 26th December with the epicentre off the west coast of Sumatra, Indonesia.
● The shock had a moment magnitude of 9.1–9.3 and a maximum Mercalli intensity of IX
(Violent).
● The undersea megathrust earthquake was caused when the Indian Plate was subducted
by the Burma Plate and triggered a series of devastating tsunamis along the coasts of
most landmasses bordering the Indian Ocean, killing 230,000–280,000 people in 14
countries.
● Tsunami travelled at a speed of about 800 km. per hour, comparable to the speed of
commercial aircraft and completely washed away some of the islands in the Indian ocean.
The Indira point in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands that marked the southernmost point
of India got completely submerged.
● In India, the worst affected were the coastal areas of Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Kerala,
Pondicherry and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
● The World Food Programme provided food aid to more than 1.3 million people affected by
the tsunami.
● The Deep Ocean Assessment and Reporting System (DOARS) was set up in the Indian
Ocean post-2004.
● A National Tsunami Early Warning Centre, which can detect earthquakes of more than 6
magnitude in the Indian Ocean, was inaugurated in 2007 in India. Set up by the Ministry of
Earth Sciences in the Indian National Centre for Ocean Information Services (INCOIS),
Hyderabad, the tsunami warning system would take 10-30 minutes to analyse the seismic
data following an earthquake.

5. Uttarakhand Flash Floods, 2013

● In June 2013, a multi-day cloudburst centered on the North Indian state Uttarakhand
caused devastating floods and landslides becoming the country’s worst natural disaster
since the 2004 tsunami. The reason the floods occurred was that the rainfall received was
on a larger scale than the regular rainfall the state usually received.
● The Army, Air Force, Navy, Indo-Tibetan Border Police (ITBP), Border Security Force,
National Disaster Response Force (NDRF), Public Works Department and local
administrations worked together for quick rescue operations.

6. Fukushima Nuclear Disaster 2011

● On 11 March 2011, a magnitude 9.0 offshore earthquake hit Japan. This was followed by a
14-metre tsunami which swept into the coastal towns, destroying multitudes of
infrastructure in its path. Unfortunately, the waves also struck the Fukushima Daiichi
nuclear plant.
● Although no fatalities due to short-term radiation exposure were reported, some 300,000
people evacuated the area.
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Case Studies- Disaster Management - Success Stories

Traditional knowledge for disaster management, Andaman and Nicobar Tsunami 2004-
● On 26 December 2004, a megathrust earthquake with its epicentre off the west coast of Sumatra,
Indonesia struck the Indian Ocean and triggered a series of devastating tsunamis that affected 14
countries including India, killing a total of about 2,80,000 people.
● It was caused by a massive earthquake that was the third-largest earthquake ever recorded on a
seismograph. It measured between 9.1 and 9.3-moment magnitude.
● The duration of faulting was between 8.3 and 10 minutes and this was the longest ever. It
triggered several aftershocks for up to 3 to 4 months after the event.
● No official tsunami warning system was in place to prepare countries for the disaster. However,
several indigenous communities in Indonesia and Thailand, as well as India's Andaman and
Nicobar Islands, survived because folk tales they had listened to all their lives alerted them to the
dangers of shaking ground and the eerily retreating sea.
● When the tsunami struck the coast of Thailand on 26 December 2004, they drew on this
knowledge to warn tourists and others of the oncoming wave.
● Similarly, the local knowledge of the indigenous tribes of Andaman Islands taught them that if the
sea starts to recede, then they should also recede. This knowledge was instrumental in saving
their lives, while many tourists drowned as they moved towards the receding sea.
● When the earthquakes struck, the Onges moved to higher ground deep inside their forest and
escaped the fury of the waves that entered the settlements.
● Though none in the community had undergone a tsunami even to the smallest amplitude ever in
their living memory, at the same time the community was well aware about the protection that
mangroves offer from tidal waves.
● The community relied on the foresight that strong indigenous trees such as Casuarinas, cashew
nut, mangrove plant, neem, mango, jackfruit, and coconut trees, etc. provide sufficient protection
from strong winds.
● Thus, the traditional knowledge handed down from generation to generation helped to save
ancient tribes on India's Andaman and Nicobar Islands from the worst of the tsunami.
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Public Address System saves life in Puducherry

Green corridor helps transport of liver from JIPMER in Puducherry to Apollo Hospitals in Madurai
● Recently, a "Green Corridor" was established, allowing Puducherry to reach Madurai in three
hours by vehicle. The Apollo Hospitals here successfully transplanted a liver from an 8-year-old
brain dead youngster onto a 59-year-old man in yet another attempt to save a patient's life.
● A green corridor is a smooth, obstruction-free path established by authorised traffic management
authority for the ambulance to transport organs.
● The liver transplant was conducted on the brain dead boy in JIPMER by a team of doctors.
Vehicular flow was managed from Villupuram to Madurai thanks to a well-coordinated effort
between the Puducherry administration and Tamil Nadu traffic police officers.
● The ambulance left at 10.40 a.m. and arrived at Apollo Hospitals at 1.40 p.m., completing a
distance of just over 300 kilometres. When the team of doctors arrived, they aided the
paramedical team in performing the transplant on the patient, ensuring that no time was wasted.

Cyclone Fani & Cyclone Phailin

● The "zero casualty" policy of the Indian government for cyclones, as well as the pinpoint accuracy
of the India Meteorological Department's (IMD) early warning system, have helped to decrease
the probability of deaths from cyclone Fani in Odisha.
● Past performances, like cyclone Phailin in 2013, where the death rate was famously maintained to
as low as 45 despite the storm's ferocity, have demonstrated India's policy of minimising cyclone
fatalities.
● The Indian Army was deployed in August 2010 at Leh, Ladakh, after flash floods caused by
cloudburst. Flash floods were promptly and efficiently reduced by the Army's early search, rescue,
and relief operations, as well as mass casualty management.

Evacuation of people
● There has been a great success story in India in the past. When warnings were issued from May
4, 1990 onwards for Cyclone BoB01 (landfall on May 9) for Andhra Pradesh, the state
government evacuated more than 650,000 people to shelters and camps in safer places. It was
perhaps the largest human evacuation ever recorded in history.
● As Phailin moved in, the general perception, both nationally and internationally, was that the
casualties would be very high—running into thousands. But, with massive evacuation operations
carried out by both Odisha and Andhra Pradesh state governments, the death toll could be limited
to 22, mostly from indirect causes.

Mitigation
● The World Bank assisted Cyclone Emergency Reconstruction Project (CERP) implemented by the
Government of Andhra Pradesh, with some long term mitigation measures, in the aftermath of the
major Cyclone BoB01 in 1990 is often cited as the first instance of this shift.
● Odisha has been learning its lessons after the 1999 Super Cyclone and has put in place
mitigation measures since then. For the first time the Government of India had formulated a
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national project—the National Cyclone Risk Mitigation Project (NCRMP), with World Bank
assistance to be implemented in all the nine coastal states and four union territories by NDMA.
● The Phase I of this project was launched, coincidentally, in both Andhra Pradesh and Odisha,
which were affected by Phailin in 2013. Component B of this project, cyclone risk mitigation
infrastructure, is a major component to improve the access to emergency shelters, evacuation
and protection against cyclones in high risk areas of Andhra Pradesh and Odisha.

Preparedness helped
● With a view to review the disaster plan of the State, the NDMA conducted a cyclone mock drill in
Kendrapara and Jagatsinghpur districts of Odisha on June 19, 2007. The State extended this to
all its cyclone shelters. From 2008 onwards the Odisha government made this an annual affair
involving all stakeholders as a preparedness activity.