1

CHAPTER 8
Visitor Management
INTRODUCTION
Much of the impacts of tourism on destinations are caused by people through their presence,
activities, and behavior. Being able to control the volume, timing, and seasonality of tourists can affect
the nature of tourism outcomes. In this chapter, we are going to examine the possible interventions to
direct tourist actions so that they result in maximizing the positive impacts of tourism in places and
communities and minimizing tourism's adverse effects.

LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of this chapter, you should be able to:
1. explain why visitors have to be managed;
2. explain the concept of carrying capacity and why it is needed in managing visitors;
3. enumerate and explain the various instruments for managing visitor impacts:
4. explain various frameworks for analyzing tourism impacts; and
5. identify ways by which visitor impacts on destinations may be minimized.

THE IMPORTANCE OF MANAGING VISITORS

There are a number of reasons why it is important to manage visitors' actions and activities at
parks, hotels, restaurants, resorts, and many other tourism-related establishments. These are to
protect the tourists and others around them, enable them to derive the utmost satisfaction from the
tourism experience, discover facts that make them better appreciate the attractions, protect the
property or area they are in, maintain the quality of cleanliness at hotels, be able to save energy,
prevent animals from losing their wild traits, among others.

CARRYING CAPACITY
A starting point for managing impacts is to establish carrying capacity of a given place. There
are many definitions of carrying capacity. For the purpose of this discussion, we will adopt the UN
World Tourism Organization's definition:
carrying capacity is "the maximum number of people that may visit a tourist destination at the same
time, without causing destruction of the physical, economic, and socio-cultural environment and an
unacceptable decrease in the quality of visitors' satisfaction," (European Commission 2002).

There are three types of carrying capacity-environmental, physical, and perceptual or

psychological (Pearce 1989 in EC 2002). These three types should be considered with different
weights (or importance) assigned in different destinations. The differences are determined by the type
(characteristics/particularities) of the place, the type(s) of tourism present, and the
tourism/environment interface.

The characteristics of the place provide the foundation for the development of tourism. These
refer to local resources, the vulnerability of local natural ecosystems, population size, economic
structure, culture and local heritage. These characteristics determine the place's resilience to
pressures from tourism.
The type of tourism determines tourist behavior to some extent; it also affects the relationship
between the tourist and the local community, tourisms and local economy, and tourism development
and environmental quality relationship.
2

Tourism capacity definition, assessment, and implementation should complement overall

tourism development planning process; these two provide guidelines to tourism stakeholders, such as
the community, planners, and decision-makers. The framework consists of principles, goals,
objectives, and policy measures for local tourist development based on the area's features respecting
local capacities to sustain tourism.

Setting capacity limits involves a vision about local development and what tourism ought to be.
It should be carried out with community participation of all major actors at all stages of planning.

Tourism Carrying Capacity (TCC) may not be a single value, like the number of visitors. It is
advisable to set an upper and lower limit of TCC at maximum and minimum levels of development.
TCC may be assigned to each of the three components (physical-ecological, social-demographic, and
political-economic). The final limits should only serve as guidance and must be complemented by
other standards. Carrying capacity should continually be adjusted with time and growth of tourism
because they can be affected by management techniques and controls" (Saveriades 2000 in EC
2009).

The definition of TCC consists of (a) the description of how the destination under study works
in terms of the macro-environmental forces and (b) the evaluation of how an area should be managed
and the level of acceptable impacts.

The first part involves the identification of constraints, bottlenecks, and impacts. Constraints
are limiting factors that cannot be easily changed even with management approaches or
infrastructure, development. Bottlenecks are limiting factors that managers have more control of.
Impacts are elements of the destination that are affected by the intensity and type of use. The type of
desired impact determines the type of capacity. The second part involves the identification of goals or
outcomes that the destination should provide, and the specification of acceptable levels of change
(impacts) (Shelby and Heberlein 1986 in EC 2009).

Defining the TCC could start with an initial set of indicators, which could change with time.
TCC is a tool for guiding policy formulation and implementation.
Alternative concepts to TCC, such as Management-By-Objectives (MBO) approaches, such as Visitor
Impact Management, Limits of Acceptable Change, and Visitor Experience Resource Protection
frameworks, have been suggested.

INSTITUTIONAL TOOLS TO IMPLEMENT TOURISM CARRYING CAPACITY (TCC

For Nature Protection

1. Natura 2000 covers 18% of the European Union's land area. Natura 2000 is a network of nature
preserves. The network encompasses lands that have threatened landscapes and endangered
species. Natura 2000 protects mixed forests in Romania, heathlands in Germany, bogs in Sweden,
and desert-like vegetation in Spain, among other landscapes and marine areas. Fifteen percent of
Germany is included in the Natura 2000 network. According to the EU commission, the network has
grown from 47.5 million acres in the mid-1990s to seven times that size in 2015 equivalent to the
combined size of France, Germany, and Italy. Within this network, any actions that endanger
protected species or negatively affect vegetation types are prohibited. Prior to approval of any
3

building or infrastructure project, or extension of farming operations, the authorities require proof that
protected species and habitats will be preserved, and any damage be reversed through restoration.
As an example, in Germany, an extra tunnel, costing USD 48 million, protects newts, a species of
salamander which is a semi-aquatic amphibian. Natura 2000 has been credited for securing or
recovering most of the 450 wild bird species, as well as 300 protected plant species endemics to the
EU (Schwagerl 2015).

2. Habitat Directive is a European Union directive adopted in 1992 in response to the 1982 Berne
Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats, or Berne Convention.
Habitat Directive protects over 1,000 animals and plant species and over 200 habitat types (e.g.,
special types of forests, meadows, wetlands, etc.). The Habitat Directive is complemented by the
Birds Directive, which bans deliberate killing or capture of birds, destroying their nests, taking of their
eggs, and trading in live or dead birds, with a few exceptions. The Directive, however, recognizes
hunting as a legitimate activity and provides a comprehensive system for the management of hunting
limited to certain species, including a requirement that birds are not hunted during the periods of their
greatest vulnerability, such as the return migration to the nesting areas, reproduction and the raising
of chicks (European Commission n.d.).

3. The International Council of Museum (ICOM) Red List classifies endangered categories of
archaeological objects and works of art in the most vulnerable countries to prevent the sale or illegal
export of such objects. The ICOM database covers African Archaeological Objects (2000); Latin
American Cultural Objects at Risk (2003): Emergency Red List of Iraqi Antiquities at Risk (2003);
Afghanistan Antiquities at Risk (2006); Peruvian Antiquities at Risk (2007); Cambodian Antiquities at
Risk (2009); Endangered Cultural Objects of Central America and Mexico (2009); Haitian Cultural
Objects at Risk (2010); Chinese Cultural Objects at Risk (2010); Colombian Cultural Objects at Risk
(2010); Emergency Red List of Egyptian Cultural Objects at Risk (2011); Dominican Cultural Objects
at Risk (2013); Emergency Red List of Syrian Cultural Objects at Risk (2013); and Emergency Red
List of Iraqi Cultural Objects at Risk (2015). Examples of archaeological items are terracotta, stone
statues, and potteries.

4. The International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List of Threatened Species,
established in 1964, is an inventory of thousands of threatened and endangered species and
subspecies. The IUCN classifies species into nine groups, based on the rate of decline, population
size, area of geographic distribution, and degree of population and distribution fragmentation. These
classes are (1) extinct (no known individuals remaining), (2) extinct in the wild (known only
to survive in captivity, or as a naturalized population outside its historic range), (3) critically
endangered (extremely high risk of extinction in the wild), (4) endangered (high risk of extinction in
the wild), (5) vulnerable (high risk of endangerment in the wild), (6) near threatened (likely to become
endangered in the near future), (7) least concem (lowest risk), (8) data deficient (not enough data to
make an assessment of its risk of extinction), and (9) not evaluated (has not yet been evaluated
against the criteria).
According to the DENR (n.d.), the Philippines in 2011 has the following critically endangered
species of animals, based on the IUCN criteria of (a) population reduction of at least 50% over the
last ten years or three generations; (b) extent of occurrence less than 5,000 square kilometers, or
occupancy estimated to be less than 500 square kilometers; and (c) population of less than 2,500
4

mature individuals. These were the Philippine cockatoo; Visayan wrinkled hombill; tamaraw;
Philippine crocodile, and Dinagat cloud rat.
Environmental Impact Assessment is a tool for evaluating the potential impacts of tourism in a
given area. According to the Environmental Management Bureau of DENR, EIA is a "process that
involves predicting and evaluating the likely impacts of a project (including cumulative impacts) on the
environment during construction, commissioning, operation, and abandonment. It also includes
designing appropriate preventive, mitigating, and enhancement measures addressing these
consequences to protect the environment and the community's welfare." All proposed ecotourism
projects in protected areas in the Philippines are required to go through initial and detailed
environmental impact studies prior to the issuance of an environmental compliance certificate.

MANAGEMENT TOOLS FOR IMPLEMENTING TCCG

Zoning is applied mainly in protected areas. There could be four zone categories. Zone A
refers to the most valuable and vulnerable zone; entry is limited to authorized scientific teams. Zone B
is for highly sensitive zone; escorted visits in small groups are permitted. Zone C is zones of
considerable natural interest; some traditional tourism activities could be permitted, but car access is
limited. Zone D is for areas with mild development and buffer, they are compatible with tourism and
visitor facilities, car access, parking, and compatible activities are allowed (EC 2009).

RECREATION OPPORTUNITY SPECTRUM

For zoning, Recreation Opportunity Spectrum (ROS) (Clark and Stankey 1979) can be used as
a framework for analysis. ROS is simply the range of recreational activities that can be done in a
recreation setting. Recreation opportunity setting is defined as "the combination of physical,
biological, social, and managerial conditions that give value to a place."

An opportunity includes qualities provided by nature, qualities associated with recreational use,
and conditions provided by management. Qualities of nature include vegetation, landscape,
topography, and scenery. Qualities associated with recreational use refer to levels and types of use.
Conditions provided by management refer to developments, roads, and regulations. Combining
variations of these qualities and conditions results in the provision of various recreational
opportunities (Clark and Stankey 1979). ROS, as a framework can be used to address these four
major concerns: (1) allocating and planning recreational resources (2) inventorying recreational
resources (3) estimating the consequences of management decisions on recreational opportunities
and (4) matching experiences recreationists' desire with available opportunities.

ROS can help determine the types of recreational opportunities that should be provided. Three
related concepts are useful in making such decision: (1) the relative availability of different
opportunities (2) their reproducibility and reversibility and (3) their spatial distribution. The relative
availability of supply is determined by the spatial distribution of opportunities. It is important that
diverse recreational opportunities are made available as much as possible. Reproducibility and
reversibility are important considerations. The modern end of the spectrum is easier to reproduce
through technology and infusion of capital than the primitive end. It is easier to reverse changes from
modern to primitive than the other way around. The implication is that transforming a primitive area
into a more developed one has to be carefully assessed because it is virtually impossible to reverse
that change. Sharply dissimilar opportunities should be segregated to minimize conflicts (Hart 1966,
Gould 1961, Stankey 1974, Clawson 1975 in Clark and Stankey 1979). For example, recreations that
5

use highly developed campgrounds should not be constructed adjacent to primitive opportunities.
Keeping them apart also prevents spillover of their impacts onto an adjacent opportunity (Clark and
Stankey 1979).

ROS provides a useful framework carrying out an inventory of recreational resources because
it focuses on specific situational attributes (access, facilities, etc.) which enables managers to relate
inventory data to the spectrum. From this, the range of opportunities can be determined and
managers will be able to decide how different recreational opportunities could be best provided,
taking note of the potential for conflicts or complementary relationships.
ROS also facilitates an analysis of how proposed management actions can impact on a
recreational opportunity. For instance, it could be anticipated that roads will be built as a
consequence of a decision to allow logging in a forested area. This in turn will result in making the
forest more accessible which can lead to greater demand. By enabling managers to predict what
could happen, they could also decide whether a certain action should be supported or junked in
relation to potential impact on tourism or recreation.

Finally, ROS helps managers to gather and disseminate information about the various
recreational opportunities in an area by season, enabling potential visitors to choose the best
locations for their preferred activities. For example, flat terrain with short grass may be ideal for
camping, while sheer cliffs will be good for rock wall climbing.

Limiting access can contribute to environmental protection but is allowed only in case a
country enforces international conventions.

Prohibiting some activities may be a good option when they are in conflict with environmental
values. For example, paragliding is banned in some French National Parks because it disturbs the
birds.

Dispersal of tourism development offers the advantage of spreading the impacts of tourism,
and as such, the negative consequences of tourism tend to become apparent much later. Dispersal
can be implemented by spreading visitors geographically and by attracting visitors during the off-peak
periods. Dispersal can be implemented through product development or introducing new attractions
around the city. In Puerto Princesa, new tourism circuits have been promoted to ease the pressure on
the very popular Underground River

On the other hand, concentrating tourism development in certain areas has the advantage of
confining the negative impacts only to what Hall and Lew (2010) called as the "sacrificial places”.

Other strategies that can be used to control tourism impacts in city centers are:
1. traffic control through pedestriahization;
2. parking pricing strategy that discourages parking in the city center,
3. collecting entrance fees at attractions;
4. conserving old buildings by imposing strict design control on commercial development;
5. charging environmental fees, such as the practice in Boracay;
6. reservation and booking systems to control the volume of visitors to an attraction; this is practiced
in Puerto Princesa to avoid overcrowding of the underground river;
6

7. information dissemination on websites regarding congestion, peaks,

and traffic, etc. will help tourists avoid visiting overcrowded places; 8. training local planners and
managers in the use of various techniques;
and
9. marketing and communication strategy to pursue certain market segments during periods when
there is available carrying capacity.

SITE MANAGEMENT TECHNIQUES

Specific management tactics can be used to control tourists' impacts on sites. They are as follows
(NOAA n.d.):
1. facility design;
2. use of vegetation barriers;
3. site hardening:
4. closure of facilities:
5. rationing and allocation, such as through reservations, queuing, lotteries, eligibility requirements,
and pricing,
6. regulating the number of people, locations for visits, time of visits, activity, visitor behavior, or
equipment;
7. deterrence and enforcement through signs, sanctions, and personnel; and
8. visitor education to promote appropriate behavior, encourage or discourage certain types of use, or
provide information regarding use conditions.

MANAGEMENT OPTIONS TO MINIMIZING VISITOR IMPACTS

There are several measures that can be used to reduce visitor impacts, such as:
1. seasonal or temporal limits on use: limiting visiting times and restricting car parking,
accommodation facilities, or public transport;
2. regulating group size and providing guided tours that allow for more control;
3. restricting visitor behavior: specifying routes to prevent visitors from trampling vegetation or
disturbing animals and minimizing noise and use of light at night when visiting turtle nesting beaches;
4. zoning: closing certain areas to visitors or reducing visits to ecologically important areas;
5. increasing entrance fees at peak periods or to popular areas;
6. constructing facilities (boardwalks, overlooks, hides, pontoons), and trails that allow visitors to
enjoy without disturbing wildlife,
7. providing garbage bins to discourage littering
8. educating visitors through visitor guidelines, codes of conduct, information boards, etc.: and
9. increased guide training to increase visitor education and monitor visitor behavior.

MONITORING IMPACTS
Managing an attraction requires monitoring of visitor numbers, set indicators, visitor behavior,
etc. The purpose of monitoring is to determine whether a problem is developing or whether desired
standards are being complied with. Monitoring provides the basis for management intervention(s)
Situations that demand corrective measures are deterioration and when development is below
standard. During deterioration, conditions are getting worse but still within the minimura acceptable
7

standard. At this level, measures could be taken, but such should not substantially restrict access to
the attraction. When development is out of the minimum standard, the appropriate action would be to
restrict or modify recreational use to restore and maintain acceptable standards.
CRITERIA FOR DECISION-MAKING
Tourism planners and managers should evaluate which tactic to use by asking the following (NOAA
n.d.).
1. Does the strategy adequately address the root cause of the impact?
2. How effective is it in resolving the impact?
3. Will it not create new problems?
4. Is it subtle or obtrusive in terms of visitors being aware that they are being managed?
5. Is it direct or indirect in how it impacts or influences visitor behavior?
6. Does it preserve the visitors' freedom of choice?
7. How many visitors will be affected by it?
8. Does it affect an activity that is very important to some visitors?
9. Are visitors likely to resist it?
10. How much will it cost?

LIMITS OF ACCEPTABLE CHANGE

The limits of acceptable change is an alternative to tourism carrying capacity. LAC is basically
stakeholder-defined. The LAC process involves the following steps (NOAA n.d.):

1. Identify the concerns and issues for the area by discussing the site's unique values, attractions,
opportunities, threats and problems with the stakeholders. This process helps in creating ownership
and commitment
by the stakeholders.
2. Define and describe tourism opportunities by taking note of compatible or conflicting activities with
residential use and locating those activities to specific sites or zones. For example, jet skiing should
be situated away from the fishing areas of local residents.
3. Select indicators that reflect the parameters that are of greatest relevance at a given site in a given
zone.
4. Establish baseline data by assessing current conditions of the site for each indicator. This is to be
able to determine whether current standards are acceptable or below sustainable levels and to know
in the future destine hour channad ine the hotter or worse
5. Establish standards for each indicator which should set some limit of acceptable change. If some
impacts are inevitable, planners and managers should be able to state how much impact they can
tolerate before changing the way they are managing Changes that are happening too fast must be
dealt with decisive interventions such as by reducing group sizes, hardening sites, fencing up certain
areas, increasing patrols. For indicators to be useful, they must have quantitative value and time-
specific. For example, in 2014, two landslides occurred at Camp B; or 90% of visitors said they were
satisfied.
6. Determine appropriate actions when a standard has been breached. Different levels of change
require different actions. For instance, when water pollution passes one threshold, the action might be
to limit the number of visitors to an area; when pollution passes a second, the action might be for the
area to be closed entirely.
7. Monitor conditions and implement actions based on prior agreement with the stakeholders.
8

In selecting the indicators noted in item number 3, the following concerns must be addressed
adequately.
a. Does the indicator tell us what we want to know?
b. Does it relate directly to an important resource, social, or economic condition?
c. Can it be measured easily and inexpensively?
d. Can it alert managers to a deteriorating condition before it reaches an unacceptable level?
e. Can it be measured without affecting the quality of the visitors experience?
f. Will it provide information in a time- and cost-effective manner?
g. Who is going to carry out the monitoring?

Some examples of indicators are breeding success of certain animal species, presence or
absence of certain key species within the area in question, beach erosion; water quality; tourism-
related traffic accidents; and satisfaction of local residents and tourists (NOAA n.d.). For a more
detailed listing of indicators, please refer to a previous chapter.

Under item no. 5, the numerical values represent limits that are acceptable; lower numbers
would require that tourism managers find out what is causing the unacceptable change and to take
corrective measures.

In determining the indicator standards, considerations must be given to stakeholder

involvement and availability of baseline data. Maximum representation by stakeholders is encouraged
to establish ownership and commitment. Indicators should be chosen according to the tourism zones
set up in the management plan, which may range from intensive use sites where big number of
visitors will be found and high-level impacts are to be expected; to wilderness zones where isolation
is desired, and very low visitor impact is to be expected.

Available baseline information enables planners and managers to set realistic standards; if
baseline information is lacking, provisional standards may be set and then later adjusted when
necessary. Alternatively, a specialist such as a biologist, who is familiar with the endemic species of
an area, may be consulted to aid in decision-making.

ALTERNATIVE APPROACHES TO MONITORING TOURISM IMPACTS

There are two other approaches to monitoring tourism impacts, the Measures of Success Method and
the Threat Reduction Assessment.

Measures of Success applies the concept of adaptive management and integrates monitoring into the
project cycle. The steps involved in this method are:

1. Determine the audiences for monitoring information.

2. Determine the information needed based on project objectives.
3. Design a monitoring strategy for each information need.
4. Develop one or more indicators for each information needed.
5. Apply and modify the indicators as needed.
6. Determine methods of measuring indicators by using four selection Criteria: accuracy/reliability,
cost-effectiveness, feasibility, and appropriateness.
9

7. Develop an operational plan for applying the methods by listing the tasks needed to be done,
identifying people who will be responsible for carrying out those tasks and monitoring the sites, and a
timeline for carrving out the plan.

Threat Reduction Assessment approach identifies and monitors threats to assess the degree to which
project activities are reducing the threats and achieving success. The process involves these steps
(NOAA n.d.):
1. Define the project area spatially and temporally.
2. Make a list of all direct threats to the biodiversity at the project site at the start date.
3. Rank each threat based on three criteria: area, intensity, and urgency.
4. Add up the score for each threat across the three criteria.
5. Determine the degree to which each threat has been reduced by management activities.
6. Calculate the raw score for each threat.
7. Calculate the threat reduction index score. It is advisable to enjoin community members in
the assessment so they actively participate in future mitigation activities.

DETERMINANTS OF TOURIST BEHAVIOR

Besides previously discussed management interventions, Roura (n.d.) notes that tourist
behavior is also influenced by whether tourism is land-based or ship-based and by site-specific
characteristics. Citing, tourism in Antarctica, Roura (n.d.) observes that land-based tourists tend to
engage in walking around, sightseeing, taking photographs, kayaking, and overnight camping. They
use their initial destinations on the cold continent as staging points to further inland locations. On the
other hand, ship bone tourism is essentially mobile and focuses on accessing a string of coastal
destinations.

New locations attract new tourist activities which produce cumulative impacts as tourism
destinations in Antarctic are established and consolidated. Cumulative impacts occur at sites where
tourism is carried out partially, such as by governmental or non-governmental organizations on the
continent, or where tourism is the only activity that takes place regularly.

Site-specific factors influence on-site tourist behavior. Sites which possess certain attractions
will encourage particular behaviors that when repeated frequently, can produce cumulative impacts.
Cool

Antarctica cites that tourists in the continent outnumber national programme personnel 46,069
to 5,000 in the peak season in 2007/2008, up by 14% on the previous year. Very large ships of 500
passengers or more, only made fleeting visits of two or three days but were a great concern for
potential oil spills. The Antarctic tourist season is in the southern hemisphere summer from November
to March. Landed tourists, or those who set foot on the continent or any of its islands, typically spend
6-30 days in Antarctica. Tourists who did not land generally cruise for just three to four days as part of
a longer cruise trip; they include people who took a few hours of sightseeing flights. Landings may be
short, but they are relatively high-impact time. Tourists tend to congregate on just a few spots, those
that are picturesque and wildlife-rich. The tourist season is very limited, determined by the weather
and sea ice movements. Unfortunately, this narrow window coincides with the breeding season for
most Antarctic wildlife, which could be disturbed by tourist presence.
10

Communication and Habitual Behaviors

Hughes, Ham, and Brown (2009) observed that highly experienced travelers who have
deyeloped certain habits are not readily influenced by persuasive communication. For this type of
travelers, a more complex approach will be needed, entailing the provision of incentives,
disincentives, rewards, punishment, or even direct interventions like patrolling and enforcing policy
violations. Community-based campaign of education could also be considered.

TOURISM AND VISITOR MANAGEMENT TOOLS

The IUCN (2014; 159-190) summarized the whole gamut of visitor management tools into the
following:
1. regulatory and planning tools;
2. site design and sustainable infrastructure development:
3. sustainable transportation and travel patterns;
4. law enforcement:
5. economic and marketing tools:
6. marketing and communications:
7. use of technologies; and
8. education and interpretation.

REGULATORY AND PLANNING TOOLS

This class of direct management tools includes (a) use rationing, (b) rules and regulations, and
(c) zoning. Use rationing, as a last resort, may be needed at some locations at certain times to protect
important park resources and the quality of

The main tactics for use-rationing are (1) reservation systems, (2) lotteries, (3) first-come, first-
served or queuing, (4) pricing, and (5) merit. A pricing system may "filter out" those who are unable or
unwilling to pay. A merit system requires potential visitors to "earn" the right to a permit by
demonstrating knowledge or skill. A potential issue with use-rationing is fairness as selected socio-
economic groups may be discriminated against.

Common applications of rules and regulations in tourism and outdoor recreation include (1)
group size limits, (2) assigned campsites or travel itineraries, (3) area closures, (4) length of stay
limitations, and (5) restrictions or prohibitions on high-impact activities and behaviors.
Zoning entails assigning or restricting certain activities to specific areas for restricting activities from
areas). Zoning can be applied on a temporal or spatial basis. It can be used to create different types
of recreation opportunities. Zoning concept is at the heart of the ROS which was covered earlier in
this chapter.

SITE DESIGN AND SUSTAINABLE INFRASTRUCTURE DEVELOPMENT

Where and how facilities and infrastructure are built, affect a tourist site's appeal. Views,
natural hazards, traditional activities, transportation access for staff and tourists, climate, slope,
access to natural and cultural features, energy and utilities, proximity to relevant goods and services,
11

and staff availability and housing are some of the critical factors that need to be considered in site
planning. Paying attention to these considerations not only achieves aesthetic and quality visitor
experiences, but also cost-savings (Sweeting et al. 1999).

The IUCN Biodiversity Principles for Siting and Design of Hotels and Resorts are as follows:
1. Adopt an ecosystem-based approach in tourism development planning
2. Manage impacts on biodiversity from hotel development and attempt to achieve an overall
positive contribution.
3. Design with nature and adopt nature-based solutions
4. Respect, involve, and support local communities.
5. Build collaboration among stakeholders.

Tourism infrastructures refer to interpretation centers, washroom facilities, hotels, cabins, and
campgrounds, restaurants, parking lots, trail heads, etc. Sustainable tourism infrastructure is adapted
to local ecosystem and local cultures.

The general guidelines for sustainable tourism infrastructure include:

1. Choose materials based on sources that minimize damage and exhibit properties such as
durability, recyclability, availability, and sustainability:
2. Incorporate design that is in keeping with the local cultural landscape;
3. Take advantage of climate conditions for cooling, energy, and other needs;
4. Use native plant species for landscaping and natural insect control (Sweeting et al.1999);
and
5. To reduce or eliminate visitation to a park or a site experiencing negative impacts
moratoriums on new developments or the removal of existing infrastructure may be warranted.

Development at the Wadi Al-Hitan World Heritage Site provides examples of sustainable
design considerations.

In terms of access route to the site, five alternatives were evaluated against five criteria: length
of road and ease of construction; impacts on protected area values; operational effectiveness;
potential for economic benefits to local communities; and suitability for visitors.

To conserve fossil values, physical barriers were constructed to close the valley, signs and
targeted communications were carried out; and daily enforcement patrols were conducted.

To meet visitor needs, a visitor survey and visitor management plan were used to identify the
services that should be provided, such as shaded structures to escape the sun, an orientation area,
parking, washrooms, a cafeteria, transportation within the site, a craft shop, and camping.

For interpretation, the core area was turned into an Open-Air Museum, featuring local
handcrafted materials. "Seven kilometers of walking paths were defined in the desert sand. Fossil
sites were delineated with clay columns, hand-braided palm rope and baked clay signs. Interpretive
stations were constructed from mud brick and plaster and fashioned to mimic the surrounding
landforms, and house graphical display panels that tell the story of the fossils and climate change."
12

Travel mode within the core area was planned, taking into account the extreme heat in
summer, the age of visitors, and wilderness character of the site. Consequently, walking, camel, and
camel cart were selected as they are sustainable, clean, and provide additional local business
opportunities.
Architectural plans and guidelines were developed in line with the unique character of the sandstone
cliffs, the hot climate, and creative talents of local communities and artists. By mimicking earth tones,
textures and shapes, the mud brick and plaster structures created minimal visual impact on the fossils
or the landscape.

Mud mixing, which was needed in the construction, was done over removable plastic sheets;
trails were clearly marked for the movement of labor and materials. Donkeys were used to transport
materials. Local craftsmen and labor were harnessed which had the added benefit of creating a
sense of ownership and pride within the community.

For evaluation, monitoring the fossil resource and visitors and carrying out enforcement patrols
were key elements.

SUSTAINABLE TRANSPORTATION AND TRAVEL PATTERNS

Sustainable transportation solutions include improved public transit access, biking trails,
thoughtful signage, and park trolley systems.

An example of a sustainable transport system is the Park and Cycle programme in Ottawa,
Canada. The system offers 15 parking locations for commuters or travelers who may switch from car
to bicycle on their journeys along biker-friendly routes. In line with this programmed, parking lots for
cars were built on two locations. Another example is De Hoge Veluwe National Park, Netherlands,
where a bicycle-only policy is enforced. Bicycles are included in the visitor's entrance fee; visitors can
pick up and return bicycles at several spots in the park.

HANDLING CONGESTION
The U.S. National Park Service (2014) recommended the following categories of solutions to
congestion problems.
1. Additional Capacity (AC) focuses on creating more capacity in the system, such as creating more
parking spaces, adding additional travel Lanes. This approach is one of the most costly, lengthy, and
difficult solutions to implement.
2. Electronic Systems (ES) often referred to as "intelligent" system or intelligent transportation
system"; these solutions include systems that collect information (e.g., how many parking spots are
available in a parking lot) and present information to travelers, through dynamic message signs or
other visitor notification methods.
3. Public Transportation (PT) often referred to as a "shuttle" or "bus" service, they include putting
people on a van, bus, tram, or other higher-capacity vehicle to get them to a destination or
destinations. Public transportation solutions reduce the number of vehicles on a roadway or parking
area, but can be costly to operate and maintain and can have the unintended consequence of simply
moving crowding and reduced visitor experience downstream. An AAA resort in Cebu requires
visitors to leave their cars at the parking lot, they are brought into the property on golf cars to prevent
13

noise and pollution. At another resort in Quezon, visitors are toured inside the complex while riding
carabao-pulled carts.
4. Traffic Operational Improvements (TOI) may include static signage that improves "wayfinding", so
that visitors find their destinations more quickly, adding a turn lane to reduce traffic conflicts, or
reducing or increasing speed limits on roadways.
5. Visitor Demand Management (VDM) influences the choices that visitors make about how, when,
where, whether, and which way they travel to their destinations. These solutions include reservation
systems to try and influence when people may enter a park or Electronic Systems (ES) that may
provide information to travelers that a certain location/feature may be crowded.
LAW ENFORCEMENT

Law enforcement can be categorized into soft and hard. Soft enforcement includes facility
design and signage or the visibility of a security officer. Conveying rules to the public and the reason
for the existence of rules and the penalty for non-compliance are example, at a luxury hotel in
Ortigas, guests are admonished to refrain from smoking or fece being fined for 6,000. Hard
enforcement includes issuance of citations, fines, and arrests. The type of enforcement used must be
carefully chosen to achieve a balance between visitor safety, compliance to ruies, and visitor
enjoyment (Manning and Anderson 2012).

Soft enforcement is also known as indirect measures. Besides signage, interpretive messages
can be used to positively influence visitor behavior (Marion and Reid 2007). These messages may,
for example, inform visitors how to act if faced with dangerous animals about potentially dangerous
trail or weather conditions. Personal mobile devices can be used to transmit facility information,
alerts, or emergency service numbers, using location-based service such as WebPark
(Geoinformatics 2003). Another type of indirect measure is codes of practice, policies, and
collaborating with outside agencies, which can influence development and construction; visitor use
numbers and restrict certain activities to maximize safety (Eagles et al. 2002).

ECONOMIC AND MARKETING TOOLS

Differential pricing can be used to prevent negative impacts at certain locations. A campground on a
scenic river site might be more expensive than others located in sites without good views. Charging
higher prices during peak season may reduce crowding. Pricing must also consider equity issues as
disadvantaged groups or local stakeholders need to have continued access to tourist sites such as
national parks. Private reserves, on the other hand, may use higher prices to position their property
as premium tourist sites.

MARKETING AND COMMUNICATIONS

Marketing and communications can also be employed to promote the benefits of going to a
tourist site. For example, Parks Victoria collaborated with healthcare professions to promote their
Healthy Parks, Healthy People campaign. where doctors prescribed a visit to a park to patients to
improve their health.
Facility signage, websites, newsletters, and brochures are some of the most common
communication tools directed to visitors or tourists. Most hotels, nowadays, put up signs in the
bathroom enjoining guests to reuse their towels and bed linen. This practice results in savings in
water and electricity bills for the hotel but also give the guests the satisfaction of being able to
contribute to nature conservation. However, it is important that special attention is also paid to indirect
14

channels, such as employee demeanors and uniforms, website visuals, and the state of repair of
tourism infrastructure.

USE OF TECHNOLOGIES

A major area of technology application is facility design which increasingly incorporates eco-
friendly and sustainability concepts. Green building design concepts include the use of natural
ventilation system (sea and land breezesi, windows that allow additional circulation, and natural
lighting; use of solar panels, energy-efficient light bulbs, heat pump that extracts heat from the ocean
to heat the center and hot water tank; and collecting rainwater and storing it underground. Satellite
navigation and communication technology, including a GIS (Geographic Information System), RS
(Remote Sensing), a GPS/CNSS (Global Positioning System/Compass Navigation Satellite System),
RFID (Radio Frequency Identification), EB (Electronic Business/Commerce), and VR (Virtual Reality)
are also used in parks and other tourism business operations. Satellite phones, GPS-enabled
smartphones, and Wi-Fi in park campgrounds facilitate travel but also potentially degradi: the
"restorative properties of nature, disrupt social bonding opportunities, and restrict physical activity
benefits which are associated with visits to parks.

Technology is also used in managing visitor flow. This could be observed in the way authorities
manage the visitors to the underground tomb of President Kim Il-sung of North Korea. Foreign and
domestic tourists who come to view the well-preserved corpse of the leader get on a very long
walkalator which rolls at a constant speed. That way, the number of tourists who are gathered around
the mausoleum at any given time is maintained, preventing build-up, which would reduce the
"solemnity of the occasion.

EDUCATION AND INTERPRETATION

Education and interpretation programmers facilitate the appreciation of nature and unique
cultures and help develop positive attitudes towards conservation. They are also valuable tools for
addressing visitor impacts. This aspect will be discussed in much greater detail in the next chapter.

Interpretation has been explained by Tilden (1957) as an educational activity that aims to
reveal meaning and relationships through the use of firsthand experience and illustrative media,
rather than the communication of factual information. The US National Association for Interpretation
(2013) described it as a communication process that forges emotional and intellectual connections
between the interests of the audience and the inherent meanings in the resource (ΝΑΙ 2013).

At Paracas National Reserve in Peru, interpretation resources include video room, life-size
reproduction of animal species, posters and photographs.

"Wind tunnel" that recreates the high winds that regularly hit Paracas, and video and sound
systems about existing natural diversity and its relation with local populations.

The broader process of education is concerned with the development of the learners' personal
knowledge and understandings that involve their growth of character, moral, and social qualities.
Studies have shown that information/education is effective in influencing recreation use patterns,
enhancing visitor knowledge about minimizing the ecological and social impacts of recreation and
15

tourism, influencing visitor attitudes toward management policies and addressing undesirable
behaviors such as littering and vandalism.

In choosing visitor management tools, tourism planners and developers should follow these
guidelines:
1. Understand what values you are planning to protect prior to selecting a visitor management tool.
2. Understand the operational context in which the visitor management tool would be applied to
determine if that tool would be appropriate
3. Establish a consistent planning framework for selecting visitor management tools.
4. Develop and consistently use a mechanism for evaluating and justifying the use of particular visitor
management tools
5. Continually search for new approaches to visitor management.
6. Consider how the approach will impact equity, effectiveness, and efficiency.
7. Infrastructure development and site design must be guided by the physical and cultural aspects of
the local environment and traditions
8. Infrastructure development must incorporate sustainable building approaches.
9. Sustainable transportation should be encouraged through policies.
10. Enforcement of regulations and laws should be commensurate with the level of infraction
committed by visitors and tourism operators and must balance safety and rule compliance rules with
visitor enjoyment.
11. Use fee pricing and related economic tools to manage the type and timing of visitation.
12. Engage in differential entry fee pricing to ensure access to disadvantaged groups and maximize
revenues from visitors who can afford to pay higher fees.
13. Achieve a strong understanding of your different constituents prior to engaging in marketing
strategies.
14. Develop consistent, unique messages for different constituent groups.