8.
1 Changes in population size
a. Growth
Exponential growth: when the growth rate of a population increases
rapidly over time
Population: all the organisms of one species living in a defined area
In the ideal curve for the population growth of any organism, the lag
phase happens as the organism becomes used to a new environment.
The log or exponential phase occurs while all requirements are in
superabundance. The stationary phase is when the population is in
equilibrium and has reached the carrying capacity of the environment.
Lag phase: the period of time in population growth when an organism is
adapting to its new environment and growth is slow
Log growth: when the growth rate of a population increases rapidly
over time Stationary phase: when the growth of a population has
slowed to zero
b. Carrying capacity
Carrying capacity: the maximum size of a population that an
environment can support in terms of food, water and other resources
c. History of human populations
The only difference between this graph for humans and that for other
animals is that there is no sign of levelling off. The similarities in growth
curves suggest that future trends in human populations will be like those
found in other animals. Human population growth is therefore expected
to slow down and settle into an equilibrium, that is level off.
d. Birth rate and death rate
Birth rate: the total number of live births over time
Death rate: the total number of deaths over time
Rate of natural increase: the birth rate minus the death rate
Factors affecting birth rate and death rate
A wide range of factors affect birth rate: in countries with a high death
rate for the very young (the infant mortality rate), birth rates are also
high in agrarian (farming) economies of many less economically
developed countries (LEDCs), more people are needed for manual
labour, and so families tend to be larger in more economically developed
countries (MEDCs) it is expensive to have children and pensions are
provided by the state many social and political factors result in low use
of birth control in LEDCs, whereas in MEDCs birth control is widely used,
so both birth and death rates are lower.
e. Migration
Population growth (or decline) is the result of the balance between birth
and death rates. summarises the three possibilities.
When ... The population ...
birth rate = death rate stays the same
birth rate > death rate grows
birth rate < death rate declines
In real populations, however, the situation is more complicated because
of the movement of people move into and out of an area. This is called
migration. Taking this into consideration, the population growth
equation changes from:
population growth = birth rate - death rate to:
population growth = (birth rate + immigration) - (death rate +
emigration)
where:
immigration means people entering an area from outside
emigration means people leaving an area from inside.
f. Push and pull factors
Migration: the movement of people into (immigration) or out of
(emigration) a region, country or other area
Push factors: factors that encourage people to move away from an
area
Pull factors: factors that encourage people to move into an area
Density: the number of people living in a population in a defined area
Distribution: where populations of people either do or do not live
8.2 Human population distribution and density
a) Density
The density of a population is worked out by dividing the number of
people living in a place by the area of that place, but it is important
to remember that these figures just provide an average value.
b) Distribution
Worldwide, there are vast areas, such as deserts and mountains,
where very few or no people live. On the other hand on coasts,
especially where there is a port or near sources of fresh water,
populations are very high
8.3 Population structure
The structure describes how the population is made up in terms of age
and sex, and can be displayed in a diagram called a population or
age pyramid.
In practical terms the young and old are dependent, whereas the
middle aged are independent and working. The young use money, in
the form of taxes paid by
the middle aged, for education. These taxes support the old as well.
The differences in age structure present different challenges for
governments of LEDCs with young populations and MEDCs with older
populations. In LEDCs with a young population, provision of school
places for the many children who will be reaching school age is likely
to be a priority. In MEDCs, the ageing population will put a strain on
hospital and care-home places, making those a priority. Money from
taxes paid by the middle aged may need to be used to address these
priorities.
8.4 Managing human populations
Human population growth can be seen as a problem. Usually, the
concerns are about the impact of the increasing numbers of humans
on global resources and the environment. However, there are cases
where population growth is thought to be too slow. There have been
many attempts at various levels of society, for example in cities or
countries, to manage population size.
a) Family planning
Family planning is the strategy a couple uses to plan how many and
when to have children. Although family planning is sometimes taken
to just mean contraception, other methods are involved. In its widest
sense family planning also includes sterilisation and abortion. The
application of assisted reproductive techniques (in vitro fertilisation or
IVF) can also be thought of as a form of family planning. Although
family planning is usually associated with the choices couples make,
governments can intervene in many ways. Some governments provide
free contraception to all couples, while in other nations contraception
may be generally unavailable.
b) Improved health and education
An obvious effect of improved health care and education would seem
to be a rise in the population, because it is likely to lower the death
rate. However, this is often not the case. Education makes people
more aware of methods that can be used to limit family size. In
addition, educated women may plan a career as well as having
children, the former frequently limiting how many children are born.
Education can also lead to a tendency for later marriage and thus later
child bearing. Health care, especially of young under the age of 5,
tends to reduce growth as well. When infant mortality is high, the
response is for couples to have many children. When it is reduced by
better health care and sanitation, the trend goes the other way.
c) National population policies
In countries where the population is declining, the government may
try to remedy the situation with a pronatalist policy. Where the
population is becoming too large, antinatalist policies may be used.
d) Pronatalist policies
In France, the government had concerns that the country's population
was declining and would be unable to sustain itself. It decided to try
and raise the birth rate by encouraging couples to have more than two
children, and so increase the population. Parents are paid the
equivalent of the minimum wage for a year after they have a third
child. In addition, they enjoy subsidised train fares, pay less tax the
more children they have, and subsidised day-care. The birth rate has
now
increased to be one of the highest in Europe.
e) Antinatalist policies
A more widespread problem outside the MEDCs is a population that is
increasing too fast. In such countries, antinatalist policies are often
used. These policies take many forms, from quite weak measures such
as the provision of family planning, contraceptives and education, to
laws encouraging couples to only have one child. Some countries have
no population policies at all and their birth rates are usually very high.
Population pyramid:
a diagram that shows the proportionof the population that is male and
female in different age groups (usually 5 year intervals)
Age pyramid: a diagram that shows the proportion of the population
that is male and/or female in different age groups (usually 5 year
intervals)
Dependent:
those people in the population who are not economically active
(working) and so rely on the those who are working for their needs
Independent:
those people in the population who are economically active (working)
Family planning:
methods used by a couple to decide when and how many children to
have, may be practised by couples and encouraged by governments
Contraception:
a range of methods used to prevent pregnancy Pronatalist policy: a
national or regional policy that aims to encourage couples to have
children
Antinatalist policy:
a national or regional policy that aims to discourage couples from
having children