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Review of pipeline integrity management practices

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 International Journal of Pressure Vessels and Piping 87 (2010) 373e380

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International Journal of Pressure Vessels and Piping

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Review

Review of pipeline integrity management practices

Hossam A. Kishawy a, Hossam A. Gabbar b, *
a
Faculty of Engineering and Applied Science, University of Ontario Institute of Technology (UOIT), 2000 Simcoe St. N., Oshawa ON L1H 7K4 ON, Canada
b
Faculty of Energy Systems and Nuclear Science, University of Ontario Institute of Technology (UOIT), 2000 Simcoe St. N., Oshawa ON L1H 7K4 ON, Canada

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Pipeline integrity is the cornerstone of many industrial and engineering systems. This paper provides
Received 13 July 2009 a review and analysis of all aspects related to pipeline integrity. Pipeline threats are explained and
Received in revised form failures are classified. Design practices are discussed using pressure criteria. Inspection techniques are
13 April 2010
studied and used as a basis for describing the corresponding integrity assessment techniques, which are
Accepted 30 April 2010
linked with integrity monitoring and maintenance criteria. Finally, pipeline integrity management
system design is presented using activity models, process models, and knowledge structures. The paper
Keywords:
will be useful for further development of automated tools to support pipeline integrity management.
Pipeline integrity
Pipeline failure analysis
Ó 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Integrity management

1. Introduction of such plants. They must be designed and operated with extreme
care. Leaks or ruptures of such pipes must be prevented at all costs.
Pipelines function as blood vessels serving to bring life-neces- “Pipeline integrity” connotes the concepts of failure prevention,
sities such as water or natural gas and to take away life waste like inspection and repair, and it also includes products, practices and
sewage. And they are considered to be the most favored mode of services that help operators maximize their assets. With entire
transportation of gas/liquid in large quantities. Many of the pipe- economies built on reliable pipeline, its integrity is receiving more
lines were built by specific companies to transport commodities to attention than ever from the very composition of its tubular
their customers in their respective territories. Furthermore, pipe- structure to the high-tech ways of building, modeling, managing,
line companies must continue to operate profitably, and thus monitoring and repairing. It begins at the project conception stage
pipelines are interconnected at national and global level. The and allows for risk mitigation and long-term optimized perfor-
network of pipelines indisputably out-rates other transportation mance to be built into the final design.
modes such as truck/train due to its cost effectiveness, convenience, This article will brief on typical threats faced by pipeline integrity
high land use efficiency, higher reliability, higher degree of safety and techniques widely used in management and monitoring.
and security and environmental friendliness over great distances.
However, as pipeline infrastructures represent a high capital 1.1. Pipeline integrity threats
investment and pipelines must be free from the risk of degradation
which could cause environmental hazards and potential threats to With many kilometers of the pipeline buried in dirt or
life, pipeline integrity design, monitoring and management become submerged in water and with coatings that can range in thickness
very crucial. For example, improper design of storm sewers can from a few microns to several metres, there are many categories of
threaten lives, such as drowning children or even adults swept into threats to pipeline integrity:
or fallen into a storm sewer without a grate. Improper maintenance
of natural gas pipelines threatens property and life from explosion  Material and construction defects, e.g. defective longitudinal
and fire resulting from pipeline leaks or rupture. Furthermore, pipe seam, pipe body or joint welds;
highly dangerous gases or liquids, such as cyanide, and highly  Mechanical damage from construction, maintenance or third-
radioactive wastes, such as those existing in nuclear weapons plants party excavation;
pose a high risk to the workers of those plants, and to the neighbors  Incorrect operation;
 Corrosion,creep and cracking mechanisms;
 Device failures and malfunctions;
 Earth forces such as earthquakes, land slips or telluric currents
* Corresponding author. and weather related threats such as high winds, rough seas or
E-mail address: [Link]@[Link] (H.A. Gabbar). cold/hot temperatures.

0308-0161/$ e see front matter Ó 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/[Link].2010.04.003
374 H.A. Kishawy, H.A. Gabbar / International Journal of Pressure Vessels and Piping 87 (2010) 373e380

Due to the varied forms of threats, there appears to be a trend in Program (EB-IMP) which based in part on the principles embodied
not only thinking defensively but also in taking an aggressive in the API 579 Fitness for Service document. At its core, API 579
position toward safety and asset optimization. In order to keep up makes use of a three-level assessment process to evaluate the
with the demands of regulations, economics and applications, the fitness for service of a particular component or system. There are
reliability of the pipeline begins with the quality of the line pipe other models like 5-M approach and Model developed by Canadian
used. Companies constructing new pipelines have an array of association of petroleum producers (CAPP).Generally each pipeline
materials and coatings at their disposal that were not available just integrity management program shall contain the following
a few years ago. Advances in metallurgy give pipe manufacturers components [3]: (1) a process for identifying the pipeline segments
the ability to fine-tune alloys to meet the most demanding condi- and failure mode that could affect a high consequence area; (2)
tions, including high-temperature/high-pressure, arctic and sour a baseline assessment plan; (3) an analysis that integrates all
applications. available information about the integrity of the entire pipeline and
However, even with these technology advances, it is still the consequences of a failure; (4) criteria for repair actions to
important to have a robust pipeline integrity management system. address integrity issues raised by the assessment plan and infor-
It is a process for assessing and mitigating pipeline risks in order to mation analysis; (5) a continual process of assessment and evalu-
reduce both the likelihood and consequences of incidents. ation to maintain pipeline integrity; (6) identification of preventive
and mitigation measures for protecting the high consequence area;
(7) methods to measure the program’s effectiveness; and (8)
1.2. Pipeline integrity management
a process for the review of integrity assessment results and for
information analysis.
Recent pipeline failures, as shown in Fig. 1, have resulted in the
Experience shows that properly designed, inspected and
U.S. Department of Transportation issuing regulations that aim at
maintained pipelines can continue safely serving the needs for
enhancing pipeline integrity management through inspection,
decades. That’s why pipeline operators use a combination of direct
testing and analysis of pipelines that run through or near high
assessments, hydrostatic testing and internal inspection tools for
consequence areas [1]. Pipeline integrity management consists of
ensuring the safe and reliable delivery of world’s most vital natural
pipeline assessment, inspection, defect and repair, and mainte-
resource.
nance. However, based on different types of pipes, the integrity
management focuses on different aspects of the system. High-
pressure pipes, for example, are those where the internal pressure 2. Pipeline integrity design
of the pipe is so high that the prime attention of the management is
to ensure the safety of the pipelines from bursting or leaking. Most Based on different type of pipes, there are special design
long-distance petroleum and natural gas pipelines belong to this considerations involved:
category. Low-pressure pipes where the internal pressure is so low,
focus should be posed on governing the external loads. Most sewer 2.1. High-pressure pipes
pipes and culverts belong to this category. For intermediate-pres-
sure pipes especially those with large diameters and relatively thin For higher-pressure pipes effect of temperature change has to be
walls are subjected to large external loads and earthquakes or other considered. For pipelines with rigid supports, the pipe is restrained
natural disasters. by the supports to expand lengthwise. If significant temperature
Alexander [2] developed to present ideas associated with the changes occur, due to either weather change or cooling following
development of an Engineering-Based Integrity Management hot welding of a restrained pipe during repair, high stresses can be

Fig. 1. Recent failure of pipelines in the USA [1].

 H.A. Kishawy, H.A. Gabbar / International Journal of Pressure Vessels and Piping 87 (2010) 373e380 375

generated in the pipe to cause the pipe to break, buckle, or bend a safe pipeline are state-of-the-art. An assessment process usually
excessively, or destroy the supports. includes developing a pipeline integrity assessment management
For pipelines not supported uniformly and when a lateral load plan, gathering information, conducting risk assessment and
exists, pipe bending is another factor that needs to be considered prioritizing utilizing risk-ranking software.
when designing for a high-pressure pipeline. Any lateral load Proper inspection is the key to safe and reliable pipeline oper-
applied to the pipe, including its own weight, causes the pipe to sag ations. Some inspecting methods include: pigging, hydro-testing,
or bend between adjacent supports. Such bending causes and external corrosion direct assessment (ECDA) and internal
a moment at any cross section of the pipe, which in turn generates corrosion direct assessment (ICDA), and some of which are briefly
a bending tensile stress. The maximum bending stress happens at introduced as follows [3e6]:
the location of maximum bending moment, which most often
happens at the mid-span, and at the outer face or edge of the bend.
The stress is a tension on the outer part of the bend, and 3.1. Smart pigs
compression on the inner side of the bend. Such bending stresses
can also happen to buried pipelines when the bedding or ground “Smart Pigs” are cylinder-shaped electronic devices used by the
support for a portion of the buried pipe is lost due to scouring, oil pipeline industry to detect loss of metal and in some cases
earthquake, or ground settlement. Pipe bending affects pipeline deformations in the pipeline. Inserted into the pipeline and
design in another important way. The flow in a pipe can produce propelled by the flowing liquid, smart pigs record certain physical
very large forces on pipe bends and responsible for corrosion and data about the pipeline’s integrity (e.g. location of reduced pipe
erosion, especially when the fluid pressure is high. This requires wall thickness, dents, etc.) as it moves through the pipeline. Eval-
careful design of thrust blocks, which are usually heavy reinforced uation of smart pig data allows the pipeline operator to make
concrete structures, to resist such thrusts. integrity decisions about the pipeline and to find and mitigate
potential problem areas before they become a problem.
2.2. Low-pressure pipes Since their development in the 1960s, smart pigs have under-
gone several generations of technological advancements. As smart
For low-pressure pipes, analysis and design are focused on soil pig technology has evolved, pipeline operators have required the
properties, soilepipe interaction, installation (bedding) method, use of specialized “smart pigs.” Specialized smart pigs have evolved
and the rigidity of the pipes. into three types: metal loss tools, crack detection tools and geom-
The design of low-pressure or non-pressure pipes is focused on etry tools.
external instead of internal loads. Especially important to the
design of these pipes is the earth load, which depends on the 3.1.1. Metal loss tools (corrosion tools)
properties and conditions of the soil. Meanwhile, the soil-pipe
interaction is highly complicated by the fact that the system is A. Magnetic flux leakage (MFL): This tool induces a magnetic field
structurally indeterminate. This means that the forces and stresses to the pipe. As it travels, it locates and records magnetic flux
between the soil and the pipe cannot be determined from using anomalies in the pipe. The recorded magnetic flux data is
only statics and dynamics (Newton’s laws). The stiffness properties converted information that provides an indication of metal loss
of the pipe and of the soil must also be included in the analysis. in the pipe. There are two types of these tools, high resolution
Further complicating the matter is the fact that the soil properties MFL and standard resolution MFL. The main difference
vary both with space and time; they are three-dimensional and between the two is in the number of sensors and the amount of
unsteady. Due to such complexity, most analyses of soilepipe resolution. Most MFL tools can determine the location and
interaction are semi-empirical relying on many simplifying o’clock position of the metal loss anomaly and detect if
assumptions and experimental data. a corrosion anomaly is internal or external to the pipe wall. It
Based on the stiffness properties of the pipes, the design should also provides data of each corrosion anomaly including its
distinguish between rigid and flexible pipes. For the rigid pipe length and maximum pit depth, which allows for calculation to
systems, integrity design includes the following steps [3]: (1) determine the pipe’s remaining strength. MFL pigs are gener-
determine the earth load; (2) determine the live load by using ally capable of detecting corrosion greater than 20% of the pipe
empirical data; (3) combine the earth load with the live load, by wall thickness in depth, although actual indication reporting
adding them together; (4) select the type of construction, and varies by smart pig vendor and corrosion anomaly configura-
determine the corresponding bedding factor; (5) determine the tion. However, axially-oriented flaws such as stress corrosion
safety factor from standards or codes (if no standards exist on safety cracking, selective seam corrosion and axial gouges are difficult
factor, use a minimum of 1.5); and (6) select the pipe strength. to detect with MFL pigs.
As for flexible pipes, when a pipe of circular cross section is B. Ultrasonic: Also called a “UT tool,” this tool provides similar
under earth load from above. This force deforms the pipe into an physical pipe data as the MFL tool, but it uses ultrasonic tech-
elliptical shape. Such deformation and deflections are to be referred nology. The UT tool transmits an ultrasonic pulse into the pipe
to as ring deformation and ring deflections, respectively. Such large wall and directly measures its thickness. Since this technology
deflections reduce the cross-sectional area of the flow, and create requires a clean pipe wall, it is generally not used for certain
potential risks in the transportation of fluids and obstacles in pipelines such as crude lines with a paraffin build-up. There are
testing. Other factors accompanying with rigid pipes and high- also wall-thickness limitations with the UT tool. It works well
pressure pipes include buckling, earthquake loads, and stress with heavy-wall pipe, but not as well with thin-wall pipe, and it
caused by thermal expansion, which should also be considered in is not as widely used as the MFL tool.
the design of flexible pipes.

3. Pipeline inspection management 3.1.2. Crack detection tools

These are the more recent addition to the pipeline operator’s
The purpose of integrity assessment management is to ensure suite of integrity assessment tools. Some of these technologies are
that the material, practices, and inspection tools used to maintain fairly new and still developing:
376 H.A. Kishawy, H.A. Gabbar / International Journal of Pressure Vessels and Piping 87 (2010) 373e380

A. Ultrasonic crack detection: This tool generates an ultrasonic

signal into the pipe wall that is reflected off the internal and
outer surfaces of the pipe. If a crack is detected, the signal
reflects back along the same path of the tool. Since a “liquid
coupling” is required between the sensors and the pipe wall,
this tool works only with liquid pipelines.
B. Transverse magnetic flux leakage: This evolving technology
magnetizes the pipe wall around its circumference to detect
cracks, such as longitudinal seams cracks and longitudinal
seam corrosion. This tool is similar to the standard MFL tool
mentioned above; however, the induced magnetic field is in
a transverse or perpendicular direction. This tool also has
limitations e cracks must have sufficient width, or gap, to be
detected, and the severity of the crack is not determined.
C. Elastic wave tool: This evolving technology operates by sending
ultrasounds in two directions along the pipeline to locate and
size longitudinally oriented cracks and manufacturing defects.
Fig. 2. Pipeline excavation to examine the external coating and assess corrosion [6].

3.1.3. Geometry tools

The purpose of geometry tools is to gather information about the normal operating pressure of the pipeline. This provides
the physical shape, or geometry, of a pipeline. Geometry tools are a margin of safety. The test stresses the pipeline to a predetermined
primarily used to find “outside force damage,” or dents, in the percentage of its specified minimum yield strength, and the test is
pipeline. However, they can also generally detect and locate generally held for eight hours. If stress corrosion cracking is sus-
mainline valves, fittings, and other appurtenances. As with all inline pected, the test pressure may be increased to 100% to 105% of
inspection tools, these tools have limits on their use and in the specified minimum yield strength or higher for 30 min to an hour
extent of results obtained. The two main types of geometry tools [3]. Axial flaws such as stress corrosion cracking, longitudinal seam
utilize the same principle: cracking, selective seam corrosion, long narrow axial (channel)
corrosion and axial gouges are difficult to detect with Magnetic Flux
A. Caliper tools: This tool utilizes a set of mechanical fingers or Leakage (MFL) pigs and are better detected with a hydrostatic test.
arms that ride against the internal surface of the pipe or use Hydrostatic testing requires the ability to acquire large quantities of
electromagnetic methods to detect dents or deformations test water, which in some areas may be difficult. Once used, the test
B. Pipe deformation tools: This tool operates the same as a caliper water may contain trace quantities of petroleum products, which
tool, but it also utilizes gyroscopes to provide the o’clock may require treatment of the water prior to discharging or disposal.
position of the dent or deformation in the pipe. This tool can Finally, hydrostatic testing requires the pipeline to be out of service
generally provide pipe bend information as well. for a period of time thus potentially curtailing the availability of
gasoline, jet fuel, diesel fuel, crude oil, and/or home heating oil at
3.2. Mapping tools the delivery point.

This tool can be utilized in conjunction with other tools

described above to provide global positioning system (GPS) corre- 4. Pipeline assessment methods
lated mapping of the pipeline and other physical location data, such
as for valves and other appurtenances. 4.1. External corrosion direct assessment

3.3. Long range guided wave inspection Since only about 50% of pipelines are conventionally piggable,
direct assessment was developed as an alternative to internal
The Guided Wave technology screens the piping which is in
operation, insulated and even be buried to inspect metal loss
features such as corrosion and erosion. Long range guided waves
with frequency less than 100 kHz are used to map the corrosion and
erosion in the pipes.

3.4. Hydrostatic testing

Hydrostatic testing is used to conduct strength tests on new

pipes while in the manufacturing process, as well as at the
completion of pipeline installation in the field prior to being placed
in service. Hydrostatic testing is also used, at times, for integrity
assurance after a pipeline is in operation. Hydrostatic tests are
generally the preferred integrity assessment method when the
pipeline is not capable of being internally inspected or if defects are
suspected that may not be detectable by internal inspection smart
pigs. The hydrostatic test establishes the pressure carrying capacity
of a pipeline and may identify defects that could affect integrity
during operation. Testing is done to a pressure that is greater than Fig. 3. Sample pipeline elevation profile [12].
 H.A. Kishawy, H.A. Gabbar / International Journal of Pressure Vessels and Piping 87 (2010) 373e380 377

inspection tools and pressure testing [6e8]. It is a proactive Monitoring, Maintenance and Managements) has not been applied
procedure that prevents and detects external corrosion defects in practically. ICDA methods have been ratified for dry gas pipelines
before they grow to a size that damages the pipe’s structural and some are currently being developed for liquid petroleum and
integrity. ECDA is usually a four-step process for assessing the wet gas to meet the need for the assessment of pipeline integrity
integrity of a section of pipeline: with respect to likelihood of internal corrosion [10e13]. As a direct
assessment, the process of ICDA is similar to that of ECDA. The
 Pre-assessment purpose of ICDA is to determine areas of high potential for water
 Indirect inspections hold-up in a pipeline system. The basis of the analysis is on loca-
 Direct examination tions where the inclination angle of the pipeline exceeds the critical
 Post-assessment angle. Inclination angle is simply the changing elevation as a func-
tion of the linear distance along the line. To determine the incli-
The pre-assessment involves data collection and visualization, nation angle of the pipeline, the pipeline’s elevation profile must be
determination of the feasibility of direct assessment, identification of understood. The pipeline elevation profile can be obtained using
ECDA regions and calculation of the probability of failure of the several means: visually interpreted directly from alignment sheets,
pipeline. The indirect inspection is to perform over-the-ground using GPS survey information, or automatically generated using
surveys for the severity of coating faults, other anomalies and areas a GIS tool, as shown in Fig. 3 [14]. Once the inclination angle is
where potential corrosion exists. The direct examination includes determined, the basic procedure of ICDA is as follows [14]:
analyzing the indirect inspection data and determining which indi-
cations are most severe. Fig. 2 [6] shows an excavation to examine  Determine the first location along the pipeline with an incli-
a pipe for external corrosion. Finally, during the post-assessment, the nation angle that exceeds the critical angle.
data collected from the direct examination and indirect inspection  If all inclination angles exceed the critical angle, then choose
are analyzed, and the overall effectiveness of the ECDA process is the angle of highest inclination.
evaluated and the interval reassessment is established.  Examine the target location(s). If no corrosion is found, then
downstream corrosion is unlikely.
4.2. Internal corrosion direct assessment  Examine locations that have the highest inclination angles to
provide integrity information.
Internal corrosion attack is one of the more serious aging
mechanisms in pipeline systems that transport gaseous material. 5. Pipeline integrity monitoring and maintenance
Internal corrosion can cause either a penetration of the gas
containment boundary that results in a leak or a decrease in Pipeline integrity monitoring includes a variety of measures to
structural strength that results in a catastrophic failure. For the safe monitor the condition of the pipeline including its immediate
and reliable operation of these pipeline systems, it is important to environment, in order to determine or prevent damage to the pipe
detect the location and quantify the amount of internal corrosion and its associated equipments, maximize the efficiency and safety
that occurs before they reach critical conditions. There are three of the pipeline, minimize potential accidents and service inter-
approaches to control internal corrosion: CAPP Recommended ruptions due to pipeline neglect, and safeguard company and public
Practices, ICDA approach, and 5-M approach.[9] CAPP recom- interests.
mended approach is most complete in nature but it is quantitative The following is a partial list of conventional measures that
in nature on other hand 5-M approach (Modeling, Mitigation, should be included in pipeline integrity monitoring [3].

Fig. 4. IDEF0 based activity model for pipeline integrity management.

378 H.A. Kishawy, H.A. Gabbar / International Journal of Pressure Vessels and Piping 87 (2010) 373e380

Construct Pipeline Define Required

Process Models Measurements

Conduct Reliability
Analysis & Risk
Construct Pipeline Construct Pipeline Assessment
Control Models Failure Models

Define Operating Develop

Define Maintenance
Procedures of Measurement
Tasks
Pipelines Devices (e.g. pig)

Analyze
Measurements

Fig. 5. Proposed process model for pipeline integrity management.

 Leak detection by using a variety of measures including: 1)  Remote sensing by satellites for early detection of encroach-
mass-balance method, also referred to as the materials balance ment by heavy vehicles traveling on or across a pipeline right-
method, uses the continuity equation of one-dimensional flow of-way, or detection of other conditions that may threaten the
between an upstream point and a downstream point to pipeline’s integrity, such as a flood, a landslide, or ground
calculate the amount of flow due to leakage or rupture, 2) subsidence.
pressure-drop method, measured by pressure transducers, is  Line patrols flying over pipeline right-of-way to detect prob-
useful especially when the spacing between transducers is lems or potential problems.
small, 3) computational modeling of pipeline systems, which  Daily checking of pumps and other rotating machines used in
sets up a system of equations on the computer based on fluid running the pipeline.
mechanics and input data pertaining to the pipeline system, to  Checking of pressure regulators and pressure-relief valves.
predict the velocity, discharge, pressure, and temperature, 4)  Checking of control valves.
visual and photographic observations, 5) round-penetrating  Checking the calibration of flow meters, pressure transducers,
radar, 6) pigs used to examine pipes for dents, corrosion (loss of and other sensors.
metals), and possible cracks and 7) dogs that can detect the
scent at concentrations as low as 10e18 molar. Considering the laboriousness and inefficiency of the most
 Visual inspection of pipe exterior for any exposed pipe or conventional methods listed above, more and more attentions have
exposed portion of a pipeline. been paid to the development of intelligent integrity monitoring
 Underwater inspection of pipe exterior for submarine pipes by systems. For instance, some industries [15] developed and applied
using divers or special submarines carrying photographic fiber optic sensing technologies in pipeline integrity monitoring. In
equipment. this monitoring system, the light is launched into the fiber core and

Pipeline Environment
Degradation
Structure Impacts

Maintenance
Deterioration
Strategy
Inspection
Tasks
Risk &
Reliability
Analysis Condition
Pipeline Pipeline Control
Monitoring
Operation Behavior Systems
Tasks

Repair
Tasks

Operating
Materials Procedures
(Recipe)
Scheduling

Fig. 6. Knowledge structure of pipeline integrity management.

 H.A. Kishawy, H.A. Gabbar / International Journal of Pressure Vessels and Piping 87 (2010) 373e380 379

Cross-Sectional Area of Metal

Pipe Failure Average Defect Depth
Lost in Corroded Region (in
Pressure (Q) & Longitudinal Length
Longitudinal Axis of Pipe)

Pipe Wall Thickness &

Probability of Original Cross-Sectional Area of
Defect Longitudinal
Failure Corroded Region
Length

Folias Factor for Pipe Bulging

Before Failure
Repair Pipeline Corrosion Rate for
Criteria Inspection Defect Depth & Length

Flow Stress & Yield Stress

Maximum Probability of
Allowable Detection
Pressure
Pipe Diameter & Wall Thickness
Defect Size

Measurement
Error

Overall
Condition
Defect
Assessment
Population

Detected
Defect
Population

Fig. 7. Knowledge structure of pipeline inspection, repair, and maintenance.

propagates along the length of the fiber attached to the pipeline. simulated failure modes. The result was found that piezoelectric
Specialized sensing instrumentation was configured such that any vibration sound emission sensor is capable of detecting changes in
external disturbance of the fiber, which alters some of the charac- the flow characteristics and has potential to form the basis of an
teristics of the guided light (i.e., amplitude, phase, wavelength, integrated wireless sensor device.
polarization, modal distribution and time-of flight), can be moni-
tored and related to the magnitude of the disturbing influence. 6. Design of pipeline integrity management system
Awawdeh et al. [16] investigated the application of an AdHoc
wireless network coupled with accelerometer sensors for non- 6.1. Activity models
invasive continuous monitoring of flow rate and other flow
patterns in large pipeline networks. The sensors rely on tracking Pipeline goes through life cycle starting from design, construc-
flow-induced vibrations to directly estimate the change in the flow tion, commissioning, operation, maintenance, and decommission-
rate, and thus provide a means for detection and early warning of ing or replacement. Pipeline integrity management should be
integrity loss in pipeline infrastructure. More recently, Bonny et al. considered throughout the life cycle. In order to understand the
[17] utilized vibration and acoustic emission sensor with short proposed pipeline integrity management process models and to
wavelengths to recognize the change in the flow characteristics of formulate best practices of pipeline integrity management, IDEF0
a liquid medium as it passed through a section of damaged pipeline [18] is used to develop activity models, as shown in Fig. 4.
and associated the change in sound emission profile with the
6.2. Pipeline design process models
Table 1
Detailed knowledge structure to support pipeline integrity management.
In the above activity models pipeline design is the cornerstone
Pipeline structure Segment id, geometry, ports stage where all operational and maintenance activities are defined
Pipeline behavior Phenomena, state equations, transitions
and validated, which is denoted as activity A1 in Fig. 4. In order to
Pipeline operation Procedure, unit procedure, operation, and phase, steps,
formula, preepost conditions understand the detailed activities involved in pipeline design,
Materials Material properties, materials involved in each detailed process models are developed as shown in Fig. 5. Pipeline
operation/behavior design includes defining process models, fluid dynamic models,
Degradation/ Failure class, symptoms, causes, consequences, operation models, control models, risk and reliability analysis,
deterioration behavioral equations of failure
failure analysis, monitoring and maintenance requirements,
Environmental Environmental index, associated risk, environmental
impacts impact construction specifications, and demolishing specifications [19].
Maintenance Selected maintenance strategy for each pipeline Standards such as API (API 1160) [20], ASME B31.8 [21], ISA, ISO, and
strategy segment IEC are employed to support the design stage, and to confirm the
Risk and reliability Risk (failure frequency, magnitude of consequence)
fitness for service and integrity measures.
analysis
Inspection tasks Inspection tasks, frequency, details
Monitoring tasks Monitoring tasks, process variable, frequency, expected 6.3. Knowledge structure
amounts, deviations
Repair tasks Repair task details, repair cost (estimated, actual) Integrity management can be viewed as risk-informed deci-
Scheduling Operation scheduling, resources required
sions to ensure fitness for service throughout the life time of
380 H.A. Kishawy, H.A. Gabbar / International Journal of Pressure Vessels and Piping 87 (2010) 373e380

pipeline. This requires constructing knowledge structure to [4] Manian Leon, Hodgdon Arthur M. Pipeline integrity assessment and
management. Materials Performance; 2005:18e22.
support pipeline life cycle. A typical knowledge structure is
[5] Rankin Larry G. Pipeline integrity information integration. Materials Perfor-
proposed as shown in Fig. 6 which is further described as in mance; 2004:43e6.
Table 1. [6] Klechka Ernest W. Pipeline integrity management and corrosion control.
Fig. 7 shows the detailed knowledge structure of pipeline Materials Performance; 2002:24e7.
[7] Menno T Van Os, van Mastrigt P, Francis A. An external corrosion direct
inspection, repair and maintenance. It includes repair criteria and assessment module for a pipeline integrity management system, 6th Inter-
maximum allowable pressure, which is linked with pipe failure national Pipeline Conference, September 25e29, 2006, Calgary, Alberta,
pressure, probability of failure, inspection, probability of detection Canada.
[8] Van Menno T, Van Mastrigt P. A direct assessment module for pipeline
(i.e. detectability), measurement error, defect size and defect pop- integrity management at Gasunie. In: 23rd World Gas Conference; 2006.
ulation. It shows the relationships between pipe failure, stress, Amsterdam.
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NACE; 2006.
7. Conclusion [10] Moghissi OC, Norris L, Dusek P, Cookingham B. Internal corrosion direct
assessment of gas transmission pipelines. Corrosion; 2002.
As a “sub-industry,” pipeline integrity appears to have [11] Schmidt Matt. Practical applications of the internal corrosion direct assess-
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a bright future. Pipeline integrity practices and technologies must [12] NACE standard practice. Internal corrosion direct assessment methodology for
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