LESSON THREE: TEACHING STRATEGIES AND THEORIES - HEURISTICAND

EXPOSITORY STRATEGIES IN TEACHER EDUCATION

3.1 Introduction
Most learning and teaching strategies can be broadly classified under two categories. Theseare: Heuristic Strategy and
Expository Strategy. Many teaching methods fall under the two strategies. Some of the teaching methods are a blend
of the two strategies.
Definition Strategy in teaching

A strategy in teaching can be defined as the general idea, or the overall way in which the process of teaching and
learning is organized. In teaching, one finds some common aspects of practices across a variety of methods.
One can therefore say that a strategy encompasses a number of methods which share common features, even
though the features may apply differently, in each method.

Definition of Method in teaching

A method can be described as a way, which, practical in many instances, a teacher follows in the delivery process
of content in a given strand or lesson. It is seen as a means to achieving the learning outcome, in specific steps,
deliberately arranged to lead to a desired aim, goal or end.

Heuristic Strategy
;The heuristic strategy, commonly called “Discovery Strategy” refers to teaching approaches or methods which
encourage the teacher to allow learners to discover facts and information, in the process of instruction. In this
strategy, the learner and not the teacher, is the center of instruction .The term “heuristic” has been coined from the
Greek word
<eureka> meaning to find out or to discover. The teacher then becomes a facilitator, who through the skills
acquired in his/her training, guides the learners to find out for themselves the answers to issues, rather than telling
them directly.

3.2.1 : E-tivity: Heuristic Strategy

Title Identifying heuristic methods.

Purpose To enable the learner to apply heuristic
methods
Brief Summary of Overall Task To establish the overall nature of heuristic
methods
Spark Know when to be silent
Individual Task Read the following reference and answer the
questions.

[Link] and study any 4 of the methods. List 3

characteristics of each , which show they areHeuristic
in nature.

[Link]
numeracy/28-instruction-methods-infographic
Interaction Begins Discuss the question with your peers. Post your
answers on the masomo forum before the endof the
week of this lecture.(kindly avoid any unrelated chat
here)
E-Moderator Interventions Your opinions will be summarized here after
you’ve posted them
Schedule and Time This should take 2 hours
Next Read also Instructional Methods in Education.
Chapter 4 for further information(this text is available
in the library, consult your lecturer)

Title Advantages/disadvantages of Heuristic methods

Purpose To enable learner to determine when to use and when not to use
heuristic
Brief Summary of overall Study the conveniences/inconveniences
Task
Spark Make value judgements
Individual Task Read the article and answer the following questions:-
[Link]
disadvantages-of-heuristic-method-of-teaching-science/5381

How do these advantages apply in your own subject area? How

would the disadvantages affect teaching of your subject?

Interaction begins Discuss the questions with peers and share your opinions on the
forum
E-Moderator Interventions To view and summarise answers on forum.
Schedule This task should take 3 hours.
Next Ask your lecturer to guide you on access to the text Instructional
methods in Education. Read chapter 4 for further information
3.2.2 Expository Strategy
The Expository Strategy involves direct teaching. The teacher does most of the talking. In the meantime, learners
remain largely inactive. In this Strategy learners have to memorize information with the aim of reproducing the
same, when called upon to provide explanations. As expected, learning with this strategy will most likely produce a
student who has weaknesses in making value judgments on what they have learnt, among others. This strategy
leads to shallow learning since it does not lead learners to express their views and opinions on what they are told.
The Expository Strategy can be said to be teacher
–centered in nature.

E-tivity - 3.2.2 Expository Strategy

Title Identifying Expository methods.

Purpose You will be able to apply expository methods
Brief Summary of overall Task To establish the overall nature of expository
methods
Spark Who wants to be a passive listener?
Individual Task Read the and answer the questions.

[Link]

off-0fnl2%2E2--00-0----0-10-0---0---0direct-
10---4-------0-1l--11-en-50

1. From the descriptions which are

Expository methods?
2. Give reasons for your choice
Interaction Begins After exchanging your views on the questionswith
peers post your answers, in short
sentences on the forum.
E-Moderator Interventions Your answers will be summarized in the forum
by your e-moderator.
Schedule The activity should last 2 hours
Next Read Chapter 4 of Instructional Methods in
Education for further information.
Title Advantages/Disadvantages of Expository
Purpose To allow learner to determine when to and not
use Expository methods
Brief Summary of Overall Task To be able to determine when to use or not use
Expository methods
Spark Consider what is relevant to the situation
Individual Task [Link]
off-0fnl2%2E2--00-0----0-10-0---0---0direct-
10---4-------0-1l--11-en-50

1. Study the methods and find out which expository

methods would be advantageous to use in teaching
one of your subjects. (Note thatnot all the methods
here are expository)

[Link] reasons why you chose this/these

methods

Interaction Discuss the questions with your peers

E-Moderator Intervention To summarise student findings and post them
on forum by end of lesson week.
Schedule Post your group answers in the forum. This
task should last 3 hours
Next Read also Instructional Methods in EducationChapter 4
for additional information.(find out
from your lecturer how to access this text
3.2.3 Experiential Learning
Definition of Experiential Learning.

Experiential Learning can be defined simply as <Learning through experience> or

<learning through reflection on doing>. Key words here are reflection and doing. The learner then is not just
simply doing something but up and above that he/she is reflecting or thinking, evaluating, judging, at every step of
the way in the learning process.
 Kolb’s Theory of Experiential Learning

A number of theories have been developed over the last few decades to support this Learning method. One of the
most applied theories applied with this method is David Kolb’s Theory of Experiential Learning. It is one of
the best known educational theories in education. The theory presents a way of structuring a session or a whole
course using a learning cycle. The different stages of the cycle are associated with distinct learning styles.
Individuals differ in their preferred learning styles, and recognizing this is the first stage to developing a strand that
will cater for the different learning styles represented among yourlearners. . In this Lesson we will attempt to see
how this theory can be applied to teaching and learning to improve learning .

The Experiential Learning Cycle

Kolb's experiential learning style theory is typically represented by a four-stage learning cycle in which the
learner comes into contact with all the contents of the programme.
These stages are as outlined below.

1. Concrete Experience - a new experience or situation is encountered, or a

reinterpretation of existing experience.

2. Reflective Observation of the New Experience - of particular importance are any

inconsistencies between experience and understanding.

3. Abstract Conceptualization reflection gives rise to a new idea, or a modification of an

existing abstract concept (the person has learned from their experience).

4. Active Experimentation - the learner applies their idea(s) to the world around them to

see what happens

Kolb’s Experiential Learning Cycle:

Community service aligns with Kolb’s model, moving students through stages of concrete experience, reflective observation,

abstract conceptualization, and active experimentation.

Example: A student working in environmental conservation might analyze the impact of deforestation, develop theories on

mitigation, and test solutions through reforestation projects.

Kolb’s Learning Styles and Experiential Learning Cycle

David Kolb published his learning styles model in 1984, from which he developed his learning style inventory.

Kolb’s experiential learning theory works on two levels: a four-stage learning cycle and four separate learning styles. Much of
Kolb’s theory concerns the learner’s internal cognitive processes.
 Kolb states that learning involves the acquisition of abstract concepts that can be applied flexibly in a range of situations. In
Kolb’s theory, the impetus for the development of new concepts is provided by new experiences.

“Learning is the process whereby knowledge is created through the transformation of experience” (Kolb, 1984, p. 38).

The Experiential Learning Cycle

Kolb’s experiential learning style theory is typically represented by a four-stage learning cycle in which the learner “touches all
the bases”: The terms “Reflective Cycle” and “Experiential Learning Cycle” are often

used interchangeably when referring to this four-stage learning process. The main idea behind both terms is that effective
learning occurs through a continuous cycle of experience, reflection, conceptualization, and experimentation.

1. Concrete Experience – the learner encounters a concrete experience. This might be a new experience or situation, or a
reinterpretation of existing experience in the light of new concepts.

2. Reflective Observation of the New Experience – the learner reflects on the new experience in the light of their existing
knowledge. Of particular importance are any inconsistencies between experience and understanding.
3. Abstract Conceptualization – reflection gives rise to a new idea, or a modification of an existing abstract concept (the
person has learned from their experience).

4. Active Experimentation – the newly created or modified concepts give rise to experimentation. The learner applies their
idea(s) to the world around them to see what happens.

Effective learning is seen when a person progresses through a cycle of four stages: of (1) having a concrete experience followed
by (2) observation of and reflection on that experience which leads to (3) the formation of abstract concepts (analysis) and
generalizations (conclusions) which are then (4) used to test a hypothesis in future situations, resulting in new experiences.

Kolb (1984) views learning as an integrated process, with each stage mutually supporting and feeding into the next. It is possible
to enter the cycle at any stage and follow it through its logical sequence.
However, effective learning only occurs when a learner can execute all four stages of the model. Therefore, no one stage of the
cycle is effective as a learning procedure on its own.

The process of going through the cycle results in the formation of increasingly complex and abstract ‘mental models’ of
whatever the learner is learning about.

Learning Styles

Kolb’s learning theory (1984) sets out four distinct learning styles, which are based on a four-stage learning cycle (see above).
Kolb explains that different people naturally prefer a certain single different learning style.

Various factors influence a person’s preferred style. For example, social environment, educational experiences, or the basic
cognitive structure of the individual.

Whatever influences the choice of style, the learning style preference itself is actually the product of two pairs of variables, or
two separate “choices” that we make, which Kolb presented as lines of an axis, each with “conflicting” modes at either end.

A typical presentation of Kolb’s two continuums is that the east-west axis is called the Processing Continuum (how we
approach a task), and the north-south axis is called the Perception Continuum (our emotional response, or how we think or feel
about it).
Kolb believed that we cannot perform both variables on a single axis simultaneously (e.g., think and feel). Our learning style is a
product of these two choice decisions.

It’s often easier to see the construction of Kolb’s learning styles in terms of a two-by-two matrix. Each learning style represents
a combination of two preferred styles.
 Active Experimentation (Doing) Reflective Observation (Watching)

Concrete Experience (Feeling) Accommodating Diverging

Abstract Conceptualization (Thinking) Converging Assimilating

The matrix also highlights Kolb’s terminology for the four learning styles; diverging, assimilating, and converging,
accommodating:

Knowing a person’s (and your own) learning style enables learning to be orientated according to the preferred method.

That said, everyone responds to and needs the stimulus of all types of learning styles to one extent or another – it’s a matter of
using emphasis that fits best with the given situation and a person’s learning style preferences.
A brief Description of the Four Kolb Learning Styles

Diverging (feeling and watching)

These people are able to look at things from different perspectives. They are sensitive. They prefer to watch rather than do,
tending to gather information and use imagination to solve problems. They are best at viewing concrete situations from several
different viewpoints.

Kolb called this style “diverging” because these people perform better in situations that require ideas-generation, for example,
brainstorming. People with a diverging learning style have broad cultural interests and like to gather information.

They are interested in people, tend to be imaginative and emotional, and tend to be strong in the arts. People with the diverging
style prefer to work in groups, to listen with an open mind and to receive personal feedback.
Assimilating (watching and thinking)

The assimilating learning preference involves a concise, logical approach. Ideas and concepts are more important than people.

These people require good, clear explanations rather than a practical opportunity. They excel at understanding wide-ranging
information and organizing it in a clear, logical format.

People with an assimilating learning style are less focused on people and more interested in ideas and abstract concepts. People
with this style are more attracted to logically sound theories than approaches based on practical value.

This learning style is important for effectiveness in information and science careers. In formal learning situations, people with
this style prefer readings, lectures, exploring analytical models, and having time to think things through.

Converging (doing and thinking)

People with a converging learning style can solve problems and will use their learning to find solutions to practical issues. They
prefer technical tasks, and are less concerned with people and interpersonal aspects.

People with a converging learning style are best at finding practical uses for ideas and theories. They can solve problems and
make decisions by finding solutions to questions and problems.

People with a converging learning style are more attracted to technical tasks and problems than social or interpersonal issues. A
converging learning style enables specialist and technology abilities.

People with a converging style like to experiment with new ideas, to simulate, and to work with practical applications.

Accommodating (doing and feeling)

The Accommodating learning style is “hands-on,” and relies on intuition rather than logic. These people use other people’s
analysis, and prefer to take a practical, experiential approach. They are attracted to new challenges and experiences, and to
carrying out plans.

They commonly act on “gut” instinct rather than logical analysis. People with an accommodating learning style will tend to rely
on others for information than carry out their own analysis. This learning style is prevalent within the general population.

Educational Implications

Both Kolb’s (1984) learning stages and the cycle could be used by teachers to critically evaluate the learning provision typically
available to students, and to develop more appropriate learning opportunities.
Educators should ensure that activities are designed and carried out in ways that offer each learner the chance to engage in the
manner that suits them best.

Also, individuals can be helped to learn more effectively by the identification of their lesser preferred learning styles and the
strengthening of these through the application of the experiential learning cycle.

Ideally, activities and material should be developed in ways that draw on abilities from each stage of the experiential learning
cycle and take the students through the whole process in sequence.

References

Kolb, D. A. (1976). The Learning Style Inventory: Technical Manual. Boston, MA: McBer.

Kolb, D.A. (1981). Learning styles and disciplinary differences, in: A.W. Chickering (Ed.) The Modern American College (pp. 232–
255). San Francisco, LA: Jossey-Bass.

Kolb, D. A. (1984). Experiential learning: Experience as the source of learning and development (Vol. 1). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-
Hall.
Kolb, D. A., & Fry, R. (1975). Toward an applied theory of experiential learning. In C. Cooper (Ed.), Studies of group process (pp.
33–57). New York: Wiley.

Kolb, D. A., Rubin, I. M., & McIntyre, J. M. (1984). Organizational psychology: readings on human behavior in organizations. Englewood
Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

E-tivity - 3.2.3 Kolb’s Experiential Learning Theory

Title Kolb’s Theory

Purpose You will be able to apply this theory to
teaching and learning
Brief Summary of overall Task This task allows you to understand the
components of experiential learning and its
application to teaching
Spark Every great success begins with a mental
image picture of that success.
Individual Task Read the article. Answer the questions below

1. Choose an area from one of your

subjects.
2. How can you apply the four stages
mentioned to improve learning in that
particular area?

Interaction Begins Discuss the questions with members of your

peer group and post your answers in the forum.
E-Moderator Interventions Your opinions will be summarized and posted
on the link you’ll have been given
Schedule This task will last 3 hours.
Next This link is also crucial to understanding the
nature of Experiential learning.
LESSON FOUR: INSTRUCTIONAL METHODS: COMPETENCY BASED
TEACHING METHODS

4.1 Introduction
In chapter four of this module, we learnt about teaching strategies and teaching methods. We defined heuristic and
the expository strategies of teaching and explained that heuristic strategy is a learner centred approach to teaching
whereas the expository strategy is a teacher centred approach to teaching. Under each strategy, we discussed several
teaching- learning methods which you can use to present information to the students. We concluded that no one
teaching-learning methods is suitable for every teaching situation.

In this topic, we shall explore more instructional methods that lean towards competence - based teaching-learning
methods. In particular, we shall learn about enhanced teachingmethods such as problem solving, innovative,
collaborative and cooperative learning methods, project-based learning and service learning. However, before we
delve much in the methods, lets first explore the concept of competence-based teaching methods.

4.2.1 Competence Based Teaching Methods

In our earlier topics, we learnt that a teaching method comprises of the principles and methods used by a
teacher to enable the students acquire knowledge and skills. A teaching-learning method is determined by
the complexity of the subject matter, the instructional media available as well as the learning needs of the
learners and the objectives to be achieved.

Competency based educational (CBE) approach allows learners to advance at their own pace regardless of the
learning environment, based on their ability to master the skills. Thisapproach is tailored to meet learning abilities
and can lead to more efficient student outcomes. CBE recognizes that learning can happen in many different ways
and rewards demonstration of competency rather than the time spend learning.

What Is Competence Based Education?

Competence based approach in education refers to teaching and learning of measurable skills rather than abstract
learning. The task to be completed must create the outcome thatcan be identified and measured. The learning task
needs to be meaningful and engaging and to be completed in an effective and efficient manner.

Competency based learning has been described as very flexible since it depends on the individual learner. It is skill
based and the focus is not the final outcome but the journey. Inaddition, the student is more engaged in the
learning process besides

E-tivity - 4.2.1 Competency based teaching and learning

Numbe 4.4.2 Competency based teaching and learning

ring,
pacing
&
sequen
cing
Title Instructional Methods.
Purpos The purpose of this e-tivity is to understand the importance of competency-based learning
e and be able to choose appropriate teaching competency based method for
effective learning by the student based on the learners learning needs, content
complexity and instructional media available.
Brief Read the provided links [Link]
summa , [Link],[Link] [Link]
ry of [Link],[Link] [Link] and
the
overall 1. Compare the learners’ roles between competency based
task
learning methods and traditional learning approach.

2. For each of the six learning methods discussed in this

Lesson and

1. For each identify the benefits and challenges of the learning method.
2. Explain the steps involved in using each learning method.

Spark

Individ
• Using the content in one of your teaching subjects, identify two topics, where one can be
ual task
learned through the collaborative and the other cooperative learningmethods. In the two
learning situations, identify the key differences that wouldbe observed between the two
learning methods.

Interact Provide your assessment on the suitability of the topic given by the team learners in
ion which experimentation would be done through remote lab method. Do this on the
begins discussion forum 1.3 on the Kusoma platform
E- 1. Ensure that learners are focused on the contents and
modera
tor context of discussion.
interve
ntions 2. Stimulate further learning and generation of new ideas.

3. Provide feedback on the learning progress.

4. Close the e-tivity.

Schedu This task should take two hours.
le and
time
4.2.2 Enhanced Teaching Methods
The following six learning methods are given as good examples of competency-basedlearning methods.

i Problem solving learning.

ii Innovative learning

iii Collaborative learning

iv Cooperative learning (case studies)

v Project based learning method

vi Service based learning method

Let us now look at each of these learning methods as we explore more on the competence-based learning.

Problem Solving Learning.

Problem solving learning is defined as the act of defining a problem, determining the causeof the problem,
identifying, prioritizing and selecting alternatives for the solution and implementing the solution. The student is
engaged in the entire journey from defining the problem up to the implementing the solution. A four-step problem
solving process and methodology is often cited as very effective in this learning method

Problem Solving Learning Method

Problem solving approach is a student centred learning strategy which requires the student to become an active
participant in the learning process. The student is presented with a problem which requires him/her to find the
solutions (searching for information).

The student observes, understands, analyzes, interprets and finds solutions and performs applications that lead to
holistic understanding of the concept and in the process, new knowledge is learnt. Through the method, scientific
process skills are developed.

Steps Involved In The Problem-Solving Learning Method.

The process of problem solving involves five basic steps

.i Assessment
ii Problem identification,
iii Planning
iv Implementation and
v Evaluation.

Benefits Of The Problem-Solving Learning Method.

Problem solving skills are among the most valued skills because they can be applied in various real life situations.
Life is about solving problems. Learning about problem solving approaches therefore would equip you with tools
to help you strategize solutions when in difficult problem circumstances.

Project Based Learning Method

The project method of learning is one which enables students to acquire and apply knowledge and skills to
define and solve realistic problem using a process of extended inquiry. In the method the teacher encourages the
student to apply their growing skills in purposeful ways. It plays an important role at the initiation,
implementation and culmination parts of the project.

Benefits Of The Project Method

The primary aim of the project learning method is to make students think independently asthey use acquired
knowledge and skills to solve problems. As a learning method, the project method has several benefits.

4.2.3 Innovative Learning Methods

An innovative learning method is about solving given problems in a different way. This callsfor creativity in the
problem-solving skills. Innovation therefore involves a different way of looking at a problem and solving it.

Collaborative Learning Method

This is a learning method that groups students to work together towards a common goal. The learning method is
based on the collaborative learning theory which emphasizes that:

a. knowledge is a social construct.

b. Educational experiences involve interaction and social exchange.

c. Contextually relevant and engaging learning activities are student centred and lead to deeper learning.

In addition, experts claim that:

i the active exchange of ideas within groups of students promotes critical [Link] Teams that
engage in cooperative learning achieve;

• Higher levels of thought and

• Retain information longer than students who work solely as individuals.

Strategies For Effective Collaborative Learning

Collaborative learning is hard work which does not just happen. It has to be intentionally designed so as to be
effective. There are strategies to promote effective collaborative learning.

Advantages Of Collaborative Learning.

This method helps students learn how to work effectively as a team. Cooperative learning is a specific kind of
collaborative learning where students work together in small groups ona structured activity.

The students are individually accountable for their work and the work of the group as a whole is also assessed.
Cooperative groups work face to face and learn to work as a team.

Service Learning.

Service learning actively involves students in a wide range of experiences, which benefitsothers and the community
while advancing the goals of a given curriculum.

It offers direct application of theoretical models.

Community based service activity are paired with structured preparation and studentsreflection.

Proponents of academic service learning feel that:

i Real world application of classroom knowledge in a community setting allows

students to synthesize course materials in more meaningful ways.

ii Common goals achieved by service learning are;

- Gaining deeper understanding of the course/curricular content.

- A broader appreciation of the discipline.

- An enhanced sense of civic responsibility.

Qualities of Service Learning

Several qualities of service learning have been given as follows:

i Reflective

ii Integrative.

iii Contextualized

vi Strength based

v Reciprocal

vi Life long

Some examples of service learning are as follows:

i Field trip
ii Research project

iii Events

iv Crafts

v Fundraisers

vi Awareness campaigns

vii Various service projects such as cleaning, building and gardening

Benefits Of Service Learning

The following are some of the benefits of service learning.

i Enables development of skills in critical thinking, problem solving, leadership,

decision making collaboration and communication.

ii Building of relationships with community members.

iii Connecting experiences to academic subjects.

vi Developing deeper understanding of themselves and empathy and respect for

others

LESSON FIVE: INNOVATIVE LEARNING STRATEGIES FOR MODERN

PEDAGOGY

5.1 Introduction
The 21st century is characterized by great strides in the fields of technology and scientific discoveries, globolization,
internetization, informatization and explosion of knowledge and artificial intelligence. In particular, the computers,
smart phones, video games, internetsearch engines have all redefined how we access information. The emerging
digital technologies environment has a major impact on how learning in the classroom takes place as visual
perception and discussion of knowledge replaces the traditional reading of textbooks have affected every sphere
of life including in education and created immense pressure on how the teacher – learner interaction in the
classroom takes place. In addition, the 21st century world requires innovativeness and creativity for the individuals
and nations to survive in a fast changing global environment. In this global village, Kenya cannot therefore be left
holding onto dysfunctional ways which have failed in enabling development in scienceand technology.

As the students gets exposed to alternative and interactive sources of information, it is not possible for the traditional
teaching approaches which heavily rely on promoting rote (memory) learning to remain intact. The teacher has to
therefore adapt innovative teaching approaches that are greatly influenced by the changed digital environment.

The characteristics of such modern teaching methods are:

i Learner centred
ii Task based or activity based
iii Resource based.
iv Interactive in nature
v Integrative in nature
vi Involve peer collaboration

5.2.1 Innovative Learning Methods

An innovative learning method is about solving given problems in a different way. This callsfor creativity in the
problem solving skills. Innovation therefore involves a different way of looking at a problem and solving it.

Modern Pedagogy Methods

Modern pedagogy is used to mean learner centred and activity based learning methods, which are used to get
learners fully involved. This approach enables the student to construct his/her knowledge and skills through active
participation in the teaching-learning process. The teacher acts as a guide, leading learners to achieve the objectives
through the activities that the learners are engaged in during the classroom interactions. The following are some
learning methods, in which the learner actively participates in the learning process.

i Crossover learning

ii learning through argumentation

iii Incidental learning

iv Context based learning
v Computational learning
vi Learning by doing
vii Adaptive learning

viii Collaborative learning

ix Cooperative learning

x Blended learning
xi E-learning.

We shall now consider each of these innovative learning methods.

Crossover Learning Method

Crossover learning method is premised on the understanding that learning does not end or stop in the classroom.
It involves the teacher proposing a question or problem in the class to be solved in the museum visit or a field
trip. The student could tackle the task by taking down notes, collecting pictures, asking other people for their own
thoughts, students can learn. The student can then present what he/she has learnt back to the classroom to
further illuminate the given problem.

The crossover learning methods has several benefits including enriching textbook knowledge with
personal experience.

Learning Through Argumentation

Argumentation involves elaboration, reasoning and reflection. Which contribute to deeperconceptual learning.
Argumentation is seen as a way of refining information and establishing the truth on an issue or to arrive at a
common understanding. The focus is to arrive at a common goal. Students are able to think critically and
independently about important issues and contested values by arguing to learn rather than to quarrel.

In the argumentation process, reasoning to justify claims based on evidence or critical evaluation and revision with
others is developed. When speakers take different positions, they challenge narratives, tend to make claims and give
reasons and evidence to support them resolve the disagreement.

Argumentation is a powerful vehicle for reaching shared understanding. It is very important in research, and in
science
Stages Of Sound Argumentation

Four stages of argumentation are given as

i Claim

ii The data

iii The warrant and

iv A qualifier

Incidental Learning

Incidental learning refers to any learning that is unplanned or unintended. It:

i can develop while the student is engaged in a task or activity as a by product.

ii can result from reflection on material that was consciously learnt but not recognized
as relevant or useful at the time of the study.

iii can happen when we least expect e.g. from talking with a friend or playing a videogame.

iv always happens in the context of another activity or experience

We can therefore see incidental learning as an indirect or additional (unplanned)

learning which takes place in the context of an activity or experience.

Context Based Learning

Refers to learning whereby real life examples are used in a teaching environment so as to enable learning through
actual/practical experience with a subject rather than using meretheoretical information. It is a learner centred
approach to learning utilizing scenarios to replicate the social political context of the students or potential working
environment.
Context based learning is premised on the understanding that learning takes place when the teacher is able to
present information in such away that students can construct meaning based on their own experiences. Learners
are therefore enabled to give meaning to concepts, rules and laws by creating connections between the concepts
and relating them to their own experiences and the real world. Examples are such learning experiencesas
internship and service learning.

Computational Learning

Computational learning (also known as thinking and problem solving) is solving problems like a computer
scientists. The computational learning is the thought process involved in formulating a problem and expressing its
solution in such a way that a computer, human or machine can effectively carry it out. It is therefore a problem
solving skill whereby, one looks at a problem and solves it systematically and arrives at a solution that both
humans and computers can understand.

Computational learning is made up of four elements as follows;

i Decomposition

ii Pattern recognition

iii Abstraction

iv Algorithm thinking

5.2.2 Learning By Doing Science

Learning by doing is a process of learning whereby students make sense of their experiences. The teachers
seek to engage learners in more hands-on creative modes oflearning.

The learning method is based on John Dewey’s (1938) believe that development of practical skills was very crucial
to children’s education. Human beings therefore learn through a hands-on approach.

Asking questions systematically and objectively gathering data and testing hypothesis to find answers is the essence
of scientific inquiry. In education, remote labs enables students to understand scientific principles through hands on
laboratory experience ‘learning by doing’ from wherever they are located.
Remote Labs

Remote laboratories (also known as online laboratory or remote workbench) is the use oftelecommunication to
remotedly conduct real (not virtual) experiment at the:

i Real physical location of the operating technology,

ii While the student is utilizing technology from a separate geographical location.

Remote laboratories are designed to allow students to remotedly conduct real experiments across the internet. The
actual laboratory, materials and the operating equipment are in one geographical location/place while the student is
controlling the experiment at a different geographical location sometimes very far apart.

Though remote laboratory applications is relatively new in classroom teaching, Conducting experiments remotely
has been in practice for many years. It has the potential to reach many students who are in remote locations and
without laboratory resources.

Advantages And Disadvantages Of Remote Labs.

Remote labs has the following advantages:

i It enhances sharing of knowledge and experiences.

ii It reduces startup costs of laboratories

iii It improves learning outcomes to support better learning.

iv It increases accessibility to laboratories.

v It decreases fixed and variable expenditure.

However, remote labs have the following disadvantages:

i Lack of equipment set up experience.
ii lack of hands on trouble shooting experience.

E-tivity 5.2.2 Innovative learning methods

 Numberi 5.2.2
ng, pacing
&
sequencin
g
Title Innovative learning methods
Purpose The purpose of this e-tivity is to enable you to understand a wide range of the
21st century teaching-learning methods that facilitate competence based learning and enable you
select the most suitable to use depending on learners’ needs, content complexity and the
objectives to be achieved.

Brief
• Using the content in the provided
summary
of the link [Link] and [Link]
overall
task and [Link]

i Explain why innovative learning methods haveto

replace the traditional learning approaches.

ii Define innovative learning in your own words.

iii Explain why modern pedagogy methods are

necessary in the 21st Century

iv For each of the discussed innovative learning

method, explain the benefits & steps to be

followed for their effective use.

Spark

Individual
• Using bullet points
task
i Compare the teacher’s and the student’s roles intraditional

learning approaches and the modern innovative learning

approaches.
 ii In one of your teaching subjects, identify a learning

situation in a specified topic, when it would be

advisable to use one of the innovative learning

methods presented in this lesson (repeatthis task for all

the other innovative learning methods)

iii Using the provided links [Link]

and [Link] and identify a topic in any of your teaching subjects which can be
best learnt through experimentation and which can be done through aremote lab.

(Do i, ii & iii on the discussion forum 1.3 on the kusoma platform)

Interactio Provide your assessment on the suitability of the topic given by the team learners in
n begins which experimentation would be done through remote lab method. Do this on the
discussion forum 1.3 on the Kusoma platform
E- 1. Ensure that learners are focused on the contents and
moderator
interventi context of discussion.
ons
2. Stimulate further learning and generation of new ideas.

3. Provide feedback on the learning progress.

4. Close the e-tivity.

Schedule This task should take three hours
and time
5.2.3 Adaptive Learning
Adaptive learning is a teaching – learning method which uses computer and other interactive teaching devices
(algorithms) to orchestrate the interaction with the learner anddeliver customized resources and learning activities
to address the unique needs of each learner. (Wikipedia). Computers adapt the presentation of educational
materials according to the students’ learning needs as indicated by their responses to questions, tasks and
experiences.

The technology encompases aspects derived from various fields of study includingcomputer science,
education, psychology and brain science.
Adaptive learning is driven by the realization that tailored learning cannot be achieved on alarge scale using
traditional non adaptive approaches.

Adaptive learning endeavors to transform the learner from passive receptor of information to collaborator in the
educational process.

The Importance Of Adaptive Learning.

Adaptive learning has several benefits some of which are summarized as follows
;i Helps in providing focused attention on an individual.

ii Provides for one on one instruction.

iii Creates time efficiency

iv Brings about confidence based approach

v Creates individualized learning paths.

vi Creates personalized learning for a heterogeneous group.

vii Provides focused remediation.

Collaborative Learning Methods

This is a learning method that groups students to work together towards a common goal. The learning method is
based on the collaborative learning theory which emphasizes that:

a. knowledge is a social construct.

b. Educational experiences involve interaction and social exchange.

c. Contextually relevant and engaging learning activities are student centred and lead to deeper learning.

In addition, experts claim that:

i the active exchange of ideas within groups of students promotes critical [Link] Teams that
engage in cooperative learning achieve;

• Higher levels of thought and

• Retain information longer than students who work solely as individuals.

Strategies For Effective Collaborative Learning

Collaborative learning is hard work which does not just happen. It has to be intentionally designed so as to be
effective. There are strategies to promote effective collaborative learning.

Advantages Of Collaborative Learning.

This method helps students learn how to work effectively as a team. Cooperative learning is a specific kind of
collaborative learning where students work together in small groups ona structured activity.

The students are individually accountable for their work and the work of the group as a whole is also assessed.
Cooperative groups work face to face and learn to work as a team.

5.2.4 Cooperative Learning

Cooperative learning is where students of mixed levels of abilities are arranged into groups and rewarded according
to the group’s success rather than the success of an individual member. Sometimes cooperative learning method is
thought of simply as group work but groups working together might not be working collaboratively. Cooperative
learning is characterized by five elements as follows:

i Face to face interaction

ii positive interdependence

iii individual accountability

iv group processing
v collaborative skills
Types Of Cooperative Learning

There are three types of cooperative learning. The teacher may use one or more types ofgroups at a time. The
three types are as follows:

i Informal learning groups

ii Formal learning groups

iii Cooperative base groups

The Benefits And Limitations Of Cooperative Learning

There is no one best learning method for all learning environments. The Teacher has to be aware of all the
available learning methods then select the most suitable or combine several learning methods depending on the
concepts being taught, the students learning needs and the instructional media available. The cooperative learning
methods has many benefits to the learner but also has some limitations.

Blended Learning

This refers to learning which combines technology (online) and traditional learning modes. It therefore combines
the strengths of face to face and online learning by extending the reach of the instruction beyond the classroom
through the use of digital resources. For example, the instructor may ask students to view a provided video before
he/she introduces the concept in class.

Benefits And Challenges Of Blended Learning

Blended learning combines the strengths of both face to face and the digital learning. Thebenefits can be
summarized as follows:

i Its both efficient and effective in content presentation

ii Its efficient and quick in reaching a big audience

iii it saves on travel to attend classes and missing work and therefore it is cost
effective.
iv It provides desirable flexibility in presenting the content.

v It seamlessly transitions from classroom to computer and vice versa when well used.

vi It covers all learning styles through use of well chosen mediums and techniques.
vii It compensates for limited classroom space.

On the other side, there are several barriers or challenges to blended learning which canbe summarized as
follows:

i expense of technology

ii Inadequate training

iii Technological issues

iv The need to adapt content to blended learning

v Weakened relationship between the teachers and the students.

E-Learning

There are many terms used to describe e learning such as distance learning, computerizedelectronic learning, online
learning and internet learning. We can describe e-learning as learning that utilizes electronic technologies to access
educational content outside the traditional classroom. It can also be described as the acquisition of knowledge
which takesplace through electronic technologies and media.

e-learning is interactive (the student can raise his/her hand and interact with the teacher orother students in the
class) and therefore use of video tape, TV channel, do not facilitate learning. E learning is conducted on the
internet where students can access their learning materials online at any place and any time.

Challenges To Use Of E-Learning

The interactive nature of the learning process such as viewing a video, listening to audio and reading through a
manual makes the content very interactive and easier to recall information. However, e-learning has its share of
challenges including the following:
i limited funds

ii poor internet access in

some areas

iii lack of enough trained

staff