COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

UNIVERSITI TENAGA NASIONAL

SEMESTER 1 2021/2022

EPPB4143

POWER DISTRIBUTION ENGINEERING

SECTION: 01

MINI GROUP PROJECT

LECTURER: HALIMATUN BT HASHIM, IR. TS. DR.

NO. NAME STUDENT ID

1. TAN YI XU EP0104463
2. SHALINI A/P JEGANATHAN EP0104461
3. HIU QI ZHE EP0104288

1
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

1 INTRODUCTION 4

2 DEVELOPMENT LOCATION AND LOAD DATA 6

2.1 Development Location 6

2.2 Load Maximum Demand Data 7

2.3 Load Supply Scheme and Security Level Data 7

3 MV AND LV SYSTEM DESIGN 11

3.1 Substation Requirements 11

3.2 LV Distribution Transformers 14

3.3 LV Feeder Pillars 15

3.4 LV Feeders 16

3.5 LV Protection System Equipment 20

3.6 MV Cables 22

3.7 MV Protection System Equipment 25

4 DISTRIBUTED GENERATION 31

4.1 Solar Energy 31

4.1.1 Photovoltaics Type 31

4.1.2 Photovoltaics Technology 33

4.1.3 Photovoltaic System General Design 34

4.1.4 Photovoltaic Size 35

4.1.5 Battery Size 36

4.2 Cable Selection 37

4.2.1 DC Cables 37

4.2.2 AC Cables 38

4.3 Transformers 40

4.4 Inverters 41

4.4.1 String Inverters 41

2
 4.5 Protection Devices 43

4.5.1 Circuit Breaker 43

4.5.2 Over Current And Earth Fault Relay 44

4.5.3 Anti Islanding 44

4.5.4 Reverse Interlocking 45

4.5.5 Fuse Switch 45

4.5.6 Surge Arresters 47

5 SIMULATION AND ANALYSIS 48

5.1 Power System Stability 48

5.2 Contingency Analysis 49

5.2.1 N-1 Contingency 50

5.2.2 Case Studies 50

5.2.3 Result of Simulation 51

5.3 RESULT AND DISCUSSION 57

5.3.1 Result Analysis 57

5.3.2 Discussion 59

6 CONCLUSION 61

7 REFERENCES 62

8 APPENDIX A – WORK DISTRIBUTION 64

3
 1 INTRODUCTION
Chapter
Traditionally, distribution networks have been1planned
Distribution Planning
to provide Overview
secure electricity supply to
meet customer present and future load demand in the most economical and environmentally
Utilities are
sustainable moving
way. towards
A set of planningIntegrated Distribution
criteria has been used for Planning (IDP)
checking the model taking
compliance through
into effect
load-flow, of DER development
short-circuit and reliability and its requirement
studies. to enable
Recently, distributed energyeffective
resourcesenergy
(DERs)
transition.
and smart gridThe IDP are
systems constitute
emerging collective set of capabilities
as possible solutions to complementenables utilities
the existing to
networks
proactively plan the distribution system with integration of new resources
to improve supply reliability and enable higher consumer participation in the energy market.
effectively and better reflect the costs and benefits in planning.
However, these technologies could cause higher variability in the generation and load profile,
The IDP model as in Figure 1.2 coordinates centralized resources and distribution
disrupt traditional grid management practice, and require updates on the planning requirements
network assessment to establish network Hosting Capacity to accommodate
DER
for connection
distribution at Therefore,
systems. the distribution levelmodel
an integrated in a (see
transparent manner,
Figure 1) has and to
been proposed to
develop
smooth thisthe annual
transition andlong-term distribution
assist utilities planning.
in distribution planning [1].

Multiple Resource &

Scenario Transmission
Forecast Planning
Sourcing DER
Locational Provided
Net Benefits Services
Analysis
Annual (Pricing,
Current
Distribution Engineering Analysis

Long Term Programs &

Distribution Distribution Procurements)
Assessment Planning

Value of DER

Hosting Interconnection Distribution

Capacity Studies Investment
Roadmap

Interconnection Process

Figure 1.2: Concept

Figure 1 of Integrated
Integrated Distribution
distribution Planning Model1
planning model

1.4 Planning Horizon

It is important that planning of the distribution system is carried out

systematically ahead in time to ensure every possible system constraint is
identified with appropriate mitigation actions planned and executed timely in
cost effective manner. Good forward planning always ensures network to
perform in compliance to the desired performance standards.

Effective planning relies on accurate capturing and analysis of system facts and
details. Information such as demand growth projection and the associated
background system performance at the substation, feeder and asset levels are
4
This report aimed to propose an MV and LV distribution system design for a new residential
area in Lumut, Perak. Apart from having residential houses, the new development area will
also have 2 schools, a hospital, and commercial buildings. Other objectives of this report are
as follows:
• To suggest suitable ratings for primary equipment such as transformers, cables, and
switchgear to meet the technical requirements.
• To determine the appropriate sizing of the distributed generation (DG) to complement the
network.
• To propose suitable protection settings for the distribution network to protect the network
from abnormal conditions.
• To confirm the validity of the network design through software simulations by checking if
the equipment will be overloaded and bus voltage variations will still be within the statutory
limits for different scenarios.
The contribution of each group member is attached in this report as Appendix A.

5
2 DEVELOPMENT LOCATION AND LOAD DATA
2.1 Development Location
The suggested location for this new development is at an empty land in Lumut, Perak as
illustrated in Figure 2. This location is a suburb with a total area of 0.147 km2, and it is
reasonably near to cities (9 km to Sitiawan and 15 km to Lumut). This location is also close to
existing TNB substations (PPU Lumut Maritime and PMU Lumut Maritime), as depicted in
Figure 3. Additionally, PMU Lumut Maritime is one of the nodal points which are suitable for
DG interconnections [2].

Figure 2 Proposed location for the new residential area

Figure 3 Distances between the proposed location and existing TNB substations

6
2.2 Load Maximum Demand Data
Buildings to be built in this development and their maximum demand (MD) data in kW are
tabulated in Table 1.
Table 1 Load quantity and MD data of the development

Building Number of units MD (kW/unit)

1-storey semi-detached house 70 5.0 [3]
2-storey semi-detached house 30 7.0 [3]
1-storey shophouse 10 10.0 [3]
2-storey shophouse 10 20.0 [3]
School 2 15.7*
Hospital 1 1700.0**

Notes to Table 1:
* The study [4] reported that a local school had consumed 60,520.28 kWh of energy
annually. Therefore, with a load factor of 0.44 [3], the MD of the school could be
calculated as
Average load 60520.28 kWh/unit
MD = = = 15.70 kW/unit
Load factor 365 × 24h × 0.44
** This value is the 2-week average MD value of 35 local hospitals reported in the study
[5].

2.3 Load Supply Scheme and Security Level Data

As shown in Figure 4 to Figure 6, TNB has specified the appropriate supply schemes and
security levels for all consumers, based on their MD ranges and their load criticality. Besides
that, TNB has recently divided Security Level 3 into 3A and 3B, which have restoration
duration of less than 1 hour and 4 hours respectively in the event of power interruptions.
Therefore, based on the guidelines, the suitable supply schemes and security levels for
buildings in the development were determined and are tabulated in Table 2. The MD data in
kVA were calculated based on the assumption that each building will operate at the power
factor of 0.85 lagging.

7
 Electricity Supply Application Handbook
Table 2 Load supply scheme and security level data of the development

Building MD (kVA/unit) Supply scheme Security level

2.3.0
1-storey SUPPLY SCHEMES
semi-detached house 5.88 1-phase 230 V 3B
2-storey semi-detached
Based house
upon consumer’s declared demand 8.24
level and required 1-phase 230supply
security level, V schemes to 3B
consumers are appropriately designed to meet these requirements as discussed in section 1.
1-storey shophouse 11.76 3-phase 400 V 3B
2.3.1 Maximum Demand Levels And Supply Schemes
2-storey shophouse 23.53 3-phase 400 V 3B
The table below indicates the minimum supply schemes for various demand levels of individual
School
consumers. 18.47 3-phase 400 V 3B
Hospital
Consumers with the following M.D shall20000.00 3-phase
adhere to the minimum 11 kV
supply scheme. 1 or 2
Table 3-1: Minimum supply schemes for various M.D levels

M.D ranges of Supply

Minimum supply scheme
individual consumer voltage
Single phase overhead or underground
Up to 12 kVA 230V
services from existing LV network
Three phase overhead or underground
>12kVA to 100kVA cable service from existing LV network
400V
(Non-Domestic) subject to system capability study by
TNB
Three phase overhead or underground
Up to 100 kVA cable service from existing LV network
400V
(Domestic) subject to system capability study by
TNB
Underground cable service from feeder
pillar or a new/existing substation,
>100kVA to 350kVA 400V
subject to system capability study by
TNB
>350 kVA to Direct underground cable service from
400V
1000kVA new substation
Directly fed through TNB 11kV
1000kVA up to switching station. An additional PPU
11kV
<5000kVA land may need to be allocated subject to
system capability study by TNB.
Directly fed through TNB 22kV
1000kVA up to switching station An additional PPU
22kV
10000kVA land may need to be allocated subject to
system capability study by TNB’
Directly fed through TNB 33kV
5000kVA to switching station An additional PMU
33kV
25000kVA land may need to be allocated subject to
system capability study by TNB’
Directly fed through TNB 132kV or
275kV substation respectively. TNB
25,000kVA to 132kV , shall reserve the absolute right to
<100,000kVA 275 kV provide alternative arrangements after
taking into consideration the location,
economic and system security factor

31 | P a g e
Figure 4 Supply schemes for different MD ranges, adapted from [6]

8
 MV
Low Voltage (LV)
Area Segment MV Design Criteria criteria
Security Restoration
6

Chapter 2
(LV bulk customer)
Level Duration

Very critical areas/customers: TNB: Parallel circuit with full 1. LV restoration

1. High Profile public services: Government Hospitals Vacuum Circuit Breaker (VCB) < 10 seconds
with life-support equipment (ICU), International stations & unit protection; or 2. Two LV cables

Supply Security, Reliability & Quality

Airports; Mass Rapid Transit(MRT) and Light Rail Automatic Transfer from different
<5 Transit(LRT). Scheme(ATS) at the substation substation and MV
1
seconds 2. VIP: Royal palaces; Office and Official residences of with Normal Off Point (NOP) from source, with LV-ATS
Prime Minister (PM), Deputy PM and State Chief different sources. to customer.
Ministers.
3. Parliament House and State Legislative Assembly Customer: Standby generator
Halls. for essential installation

Very important areas/customers: 1. Area-wide SCADA 1. LV restoration:

1. High Profile Areas: Motorized Guarantee
a. CBDs of Urban SAIDI area; Ring Main Unit (SCADA- Service Level (GSL)
b. Major industrial area (FTZ). MRMU)/SCADA-VCB at all compliance
2. National Security and Important public services: Distribution Substation (PE) in 2. Normal LV scheme
a. Police Headquarters(HQ),( i.e.,Bukit Aman and the feeder, including the
Distribution Planning Guideline 2.0

State Contingent HQ); NOP; or

b. All other Government Hospitals & Private 2. For specific customers,
< 15 Hospitals; minimum of 2 units SCADA-
2
minutes c. Domestic Airports; MRMU/SCADA-VCB at the
d. Water pumping stations and water treatment PE concerned and NOP for
plants. remote changeover by
3. Office and Official residences of Ministers / State Distribution System
Executive Council (EXCO) / Chief Secretary / Ministry Operation (DSO).
Secretaries / House Speakers.
4. Office and Official residences of Important
Stakeholders: Khazanah and TNB (Board members),
ST (Top Management).

Table 2.2:for
Figure 5 Security level planning Security Level
different Planning
consumer Reference
groups (Part 1), adapted from [1]

9
Distribution Planning Guideline 2.0 MV Low Voltage (LV)
Area Segment MV Design Criteria criteria
Security Restoration
(LV bulk customer)
Level Duration

Important areas/customers: 1. Area wide SCADA-MRMU/ 1. LV restoration:

1. Urban / Suburban city areas and Industrial SCADA-VCB at selected PEs GSL compliance
estates. in the feeder, including the 2. Normal LV scheme
2. Police Stations (District) / Military Bases / Fire NOP; or

Chapter 2
3A < 1 hour
Stations. 2. For specific customers,
3. All other Very Important Persons (VIPs) in the minimum of 2 units SCADA-
Stakeholders Trust & Relationship System (STARS) MRMU/ SCADA-VCB at the
program of TNB. PE concerned and NOP.

Supply Security, Reliability & Quality

Mainly SCADA Earth Fault 1. LV restoration:
Indicator (SCADA-EFI) with GSL compliance
3B < 4 hours All other areas in general
minimum number of PE on 2. Normal LV scheme
SCADA-MRMU/SCADA-VCB

4 < 24 hour (Not applicable) (Not applicable) (Not applicable)

Tableplanning
Figure 6 Security level 2.2: Security Level Planning
for different Reference
consumer (cont.)
groups (Part 2), adapted from [1]
7

10
3 MV AND LV SYSTEM DESIGN
3.1 Substation Requirements
Firstly, this development was divided into three areas: (i) an LV residential area comprising
100 semi-detached houses, (ii) an LV commercial area comprising 20 shophouses and 2
schools, and (iii) an MV commercial area comprising the hospital. After that, Eq. (1) was
applied to calculate the total MD of each area, and Eq. (2) was utilized to calculate the daily
energy consumption of each area. GCF is the group coincident factor of which the value was
obtained from Figure 7, whereas LF is the load factor of which the value was obtained from
Figure 8. The GCF for the MV commercial area was taken to be unity because the area will be
dedicated to 1 MV consumer only. The calculation results were tabulated in Table 3.

(1)
Total MD with GCF = ∑ Number of units × MD per unit × GCF

(2)
Daily energy consumption (kWh) = Total MD with GCF (kW) × 24 h × LF

Figure 7 Group coincident factors (GCFs) for different consumer groups, adapted from [3]

Figure 8 Load factors (LFs) for different consumer groups, adapted from [3]

11
 Table 3 Total MD and daily energy consumption of each development area

Area MD with GCF (kVA) Daily energy consumption (MWh)

LV residential Electricity
592.94 Supply Application
4.23 Handbook
LV commercial 339.20 3.04
M.D ranges of
MV commercial Supply
2000.00 17.95
Minimum supply scheme
individual consumer voltage
TOTAL 2932.14
Directly fed through TNB 275kV
25.23
substation. TNB shall reserve the
100,000kVA and absolute right to provide alternative
275 kV
TNB has defined the above arrangements
substation requirements for developmentafter taking
projects basedinto
on the total MD
consideration the location, economic
ranges, as depicted in Figure 9. Therefore, based on thesecurity
and system guidelines,
factor each LV residential and
commercial area will need an 11/0.4kV distribution substation (P/E). Next, an 11kV switching
Thewill
station above
beminimum supply
needed to scheme
provide for thepower
a bulk consumer
supply minimum
is theto the MVlevel of supply scheme
commercial shall
area (hospital).
be adhered by the consumer. If upon system analysis & study conducted by TNB, a higher supply
New scheme
primary distribution
is required to givesubstation(s)
quality supply (PPUs) will notthe
to the consumers, belater
required because the total MD of
prevails.

this development project is less than 5 MVA. Lastly, the P/Es and SSU for this development
The table below indicates the requirement of substations for various demand levels of single
will be indoor standalone
development.(more than substations, because
1 consumer), total theydemand
maximum provide easy access
including to TNB
all phases personnel
/ parcels in the for
development.
equipment installation/maintenance and have fewer requirements on fire-fighting facilities [3],
[7]. Table 3-2: Requirement of substations for single development

M.D ranges of single

Substations requirement
development
A new 11/0.4kV substation may be
Up to 350kVA required, subject to system capability
study by TNB
>350 kVA to <
A new 11/0.4kV substation is required
1000kVA
11/0.4kV and/or 11kV substations is
1000kVA up to required. A new PPU may be required,
<5000kVA subject to system capability study by
TNB
22/0.4kV and/or 22kV substations is
1000kVA up to required. A new PPU may be required,
10000kVA subject to system capability study by
TNB
11/0.4kV and/or 11kV and/or 33kV
5000kVA to substations and/or PPU is required. A
25000kVA new PMU may be required subject to
system capability study by TNB
11/0.4kV and/or 11kV and/or 33kV
substations and/or PPUs and PMUs
Above 25000kVA 132kV is required. A new PMU 275kV
may be required subject to system
capability study by TNB

Figure 9 Substation requirements for different total MD ranges, adapted from [6]

32 | P a g e 12
According to [1], all new MV networks shall have alternative feedback, and radial
configuration is no longer allowed. While the loop circuit from different PMU/PPUs is
recommended as the standard topology for 11kV networks, it is more recommended to adopt
the parallel circuit design for critical consumers (Level 1 and 2) to increase the supply
reliability. Moreover, an additional interconnection with an automatic transfer switch from a
different PMU/PPU shall be established to ensure 𝑛 − 1 source compliance. Hence, in light of
these guidelines, the distribution system for this project was designed, and the overview of the
system is illustrated in Figure 10. PPU Lumut Maritime will serve as the main source and PPU
Pantai Remis will act as the alternative source for this development.

Figure 10 Single-line diagram of the distribution system for the development

13
3.2 LV Distribution Transformers
According to the guidelines [3], distribution transformers should be oversized to account for
load growths for the next 15 years, and the transformers should be planned to achieve 85% and
60% of loading for a residential and a commercial development respectively [3]. Therefore,
after calculating the minimum transformer capacities, it could be concluded that the most
suitable rating for both transformers Tx1 and Tx2 in Figure 11 will be 750 kVA. The technical
data of the transformers are provided in Table 5.

Figure 11 Single-line diagram of P/E1 and P/E2 (with equipment labelled)

Table 4 Minimum transformer capacity calculations for the transformers Tx1 and Tx2

Transformer MD with GCF (kVA) Required loading Minimum transformer

capacity (kVA)
Tx1 592.94 0.85 697.58
Tx2 339.20 0.60 565.33

14
 Table 5 Technical specifications of the transformers Tx1 and Tx2 [7]

Rated voltage ratio 11/0.433 kV

Rated power 750 kVA
Short-circuit impedance at 75°C 4.75 %
Vector group Dyn11
No-load loss 1.2 kW
Load loss 6.0 kW
Tapping range ±5%
Earthing Solid earthing

3.3 LV Feeder Pillars

The feeder pillars FP1 and FP2 in Figure 11 were chosen to be of the DIN type instead of the
BS type. This is because the former is 30% smaller in size and could minimize the risks of
vandalism and theft than the latter [7]. The technical data of the feeder pillars are tabulated in
Table 6.
Table 6 Technical specifications of the feeder pillars FP1 and FP2 [3], [7]

Type DIN
Rated current 1600 A
Inputs 2 × 1000A link disconnectors
Outputs 8 × 400A fuse-switch disconnectors

15
3.4 LV Feeders
In this project, it was proposed to employ the overhead network design rather than the
underground network design for LV distribution systems. This is because an overhead network
eliminates the need to acquire wayleave and permits for road excavation from the local
authorities, thus it can be constructed faster [3]. Additionally, an overhead network has lower
technical costs and requires lower costs for construction, operation, and maintenance [3].

Apart from that, aerial bundled conductors (ABC) rather than bare conductors will be installed
in the overhead networks. With an insulation layer, an ABC cable has a longer service life, is
safer for TNB personnel, and requires lower costs associated with tree trimming and patrols
[8]. Besides that, an ABC system permits live-line maintenance work and could prevent
conductors from touching one another, thus minimizing the frequency of planned and forced
power outages [8].

Each of the outgoing mains feeders C1 to C8 from the feeder pillars (in Figure 11) was selected
to be 1 × ABC 3C 185 mm2 + 1C 120 mm2 (neutral) + 1C 16 mm2 (streetlights) cable, whereas
the feeder C9 was selected to be 1 × ABC 3C 95 mm2 + 1C 70 mm2 (neutral) + 1C 16 mm2
(streetlights) cable. The technical data of the feeders are provided in Table 7.
Table 7 Technical specifications of the feeders C1 to C9 [8]

Feeder C1 to C8 C9
1 × ABC 3C 185 mm2 + 1 × ABC 3C 95 mm2 +
Type
1C 120 mm2 + 1C 16 mm2 1C 70 mm2 + 1C 16 mm2
Insulation High-density polyethylene (HDPE)
Aluminium for phase conductors,
Conductor
aluminium alloy for the neutral conductor
Rated voltage 0.6/1 kV
Rated current 300 A 180 A
Rated short-time current (1 s) 11.29 kA 5.80 kA
Resistance at 30°C 0.17 Ω/km 0.33 Ω/km
Reactance 0.103 Ω/km 0.108 Ω/km

16
The feeder selection was justified by calculating the load current of each feeder. The calculation
results (tabulated in Table 8) show that the feeders will not be overloaded, thus proving the
validity of the selection.
Table 8 Load current calculations for the feeders C1 to C9

MD Load Feeder
Feeder Load
(kVA) current (A) ampacity (A)
C1, C2, C3 20 × 1-storey semi-detached house 105.88 152.83 300
10 × 1-storey semi-detached house +
C4 127.06 183.39 300
10 × 2-storey semi-detached house
C5 20 × 2-storey semi-detached house 148.24 213.96 300
C6, C7 5 × 2-storey shophouse 102.35 147.73 300
C8 5 × 1-storey shophouse 102.35 147.73 300
C9 2 schools 32.14 46.39 180

The mains feeders will be joined with the underground (UG) feeders C10 to C18 from the
outgoing fuse-switch disconnectors at the feeder pillars through pre-insulated connectors
(transition). The selection of the UG feeders was based on [8] to match the corresponding ABC
mains feeders, and their technical data are given in Table 9.
Table 9 Technical specifications of the feeders C10 to C18

Feeder C10 to C17 C18

Type 1 × UG 4C 185 mm2 1 × UG 4C 120 mm2
Insulation Cross-linked polyethylene (XLPE)
Conductor Aluminium
Rated voltage 0.6/1 kV
Rated current [9] 315 A 248 A
Rated short-time current (1 s) [10] 17.5 kA 11.3 kA
Resistance [9] 0.164 Ω/km 0.253 Ω/km
Reactance [9] 0.073 Ω/km 0.073 Ω/km
Laying method [11] Single-layer flat formation

17
As illustrated in Figure 12, the mains feeders will further branch into the smaller service feeders
(C’1 and C’3) and the five-foot-way feeders (C’2, C’4, and C’5) before terminating at
consumers’ premises. These smaller feeders were selected in compliance with the guidelines
[8], and their technical data are tabulated in Table 10.

Figure 12 LV overhead ABC networks (with equipment labelled)

Table 10 Technical specifications of the feeders C’1 to C’5 [8]

Feeder C’1 and C’3 C’2 C’4 and C’5

1 × ABC 3C 95 mm2
2
1 × ABC 1C 16 mm2 1 × ABC 3C 16 mm2
Type + 1C 70 mm
2
+ 1C 25 mm2 + 1C 25 mm2
+ 1C 16 mm
Insulation HDPE
Aluminium for phase conductors,
Conductor
aluminium alloy for the neutral conductor
Rated voltage 0.6/1 kV
Rated current 180 A 80 A 70 A
Rated short-
time current 5.80 kA 0.98 kA 0.98 kA
(1 s)

18
 Resistance
0.33 Ω/km 1.99 Ω/km 1.99 Ω/km
at 30°C
Reactance 0.108 Ω/km 0.139 Ω/km 0.130 Ω/km

After that, the transformer LV tails C20 and C22 in Figure 11 were selected based on Figure
13, and their technical data are shown in Table 11.

Figure 13 Standard cable sizes for distribution transformer tails, adapted from [11]

Table 11 Technical specifications of the transformer LV tails C20 and C22

Type 7 x UG 1C 500 mm2

Insulation Polyvinyl chloride (PVC)
Conductor Aluminium
Outer sheath PVC
Rated voltage 0.6/1 kV
Rated current 620 A [12]
Rated short time current (1 s) 47.3 kA [10]
Resistance at 20°C 0.0605 Ω/km [12]
Laying method Trefoil formation [11]

19
3.5 LV Protection System Equipment
Fuses are often installed in distribution systems because they provide low-cost yet effective
protection for short circuits and overloads. Table 12 shows types of fuses (J-slotted, NH-type,
and barrel) that are present in TNB LV networks, and all fuses have a fusing factor of 1.5 [8].
Table 12 Fuses in TNB LV distribution systems [8]

Protection devices Standard Applications

▪ LV distribution board
J-slotted fuse BS 88 ▪ Feeder pillar (BS type)
▪ Combined sealing chamber
▪ Fuse-switch disconnectors
▪ Feeder pillar (DIN type) and mini
NH-type fuse (blade type) IEC 60269
feeder pillar
▪ Cut-out (DIN type)
Barrel fuse (or cartridge fuse) BS 1361 ▪ Cut-out

The sizing of fuses must meet the following criteria to ensure safe and definite fuse operation
only during abnormal conditions:
• Fuse ratings should be higher than the maximum load currents yet permit fuse operation
under the minimum fault currents. Therefore, fuse rating should be either one of the
following, whichever is lower [3]:
- 1/3 of the lowest short-circuit current of the feeder
- 1/1.5 of the feeder current-carrying capacity (see Table 13)
Table 13 Maximum fuse ratings for different ABC cables [8]

Size of phase Cable ampacity Maximum fuse rating Fusing current

conductor (A) (A) (A)
185 mm2 300 200 300
95 mm2 190 125 185
16 mm2 80 50 75

20
• Fuses should be coordinated such that downstream fuses will operate first when a fault or
overload occurs. To ensure proper fuse grading [8],
- The rating of the upstream fuse should be at least 1.5 times higher than that of the
downstream fuse if both are of the same type.
- The rating of the upstream fuse should be at least 2.0 times higher than that of the
downstream fuse if both are of different types. One exception is that the coordination
of 50A NH-type fuse and 30A barrel fuse is allowed.
• Section fuses are required at locations where two cables of different sizes are connected [8].

After considering these requirements, suitable ratings of fuse-switch disconnectors at feeder

pillars (F1 to F9), fuse-switch disconnectors at locations where cable size changes (F’1 to F’5)
and cut-out fuses at consumer premises (F’6 to F’8) in Figure 11 and Figure 12 were selected.
The technical data of these fuses are provided in Table 14 to Table 16.
Table 14 Technical data of the fuse-switch disconnectors F1 to F8

Fuse-switch disconnector F1 to F8 F9
Fuse type [7], [13] NH2
Fuse rating [8] 200 A 125 A
Minimum breaking current (A) [8] 300 A 187.5 A

Table 15 Technical data of the fuse-switch disconnectors F'1 to F'5 [8]

Fuse-switch disconnector F’1 and F’3 F’2, F’4, and F’5

Rated voltage 415 V
Rated current 400 A 160 A
Rated short-time withstand current (1 s) 5 kA
Rated impulse withstand voltage 15 kVp
Rated short-circuit making capacity 5 kA 1.2 kA
Rated breaking current at 0.65 pf 1.2 kA 480 A
Fuse type NH1 NH00
Fuse rating 125 A 50 A
Minimum breaking current 187.5 A 75 A

21
 Table 16 Technical data of the cut-out fuses F’6 and F’8 [8]

Fuse type Barrel

Fuse rating Chapter 3 Planning
30 A Criteria
Minimum breaking current (A) 45 A

3.6 MV Cables
TNB MV networks are mainly underground because using UG cables could maintain the
aesthetics and reduce power outages due to adverse weather conditions. Based on [1], all MV
feeders should be planned to meet the maximum 50% loading criteria so that the feeders will
be capable of fully supporting load demands under the worst-case contingency scenario. In
addition, the feeder selection should
Figure 3.2: be (economically optimized
Total Cost - to minimize the total cost of
ownership, which is the sum of installation costs- and costs due to energy losses over the feeder
service life. Smaller feeders have lower installation costs but higher energy losses than larger
3.5.2 Loading Criteria of 11kV Cable at Planning Stage
feeders. To comply with the technical and economical requirements, the anticipated MD of the
Table 3.8 and Table 3.9 show the list of optimal loading range of 11kV
11kV feeders C23 toconductors
C29 in Figure 15 foronthe
in TNB based thenext 10 years
economic were calculated
optimization [Link]
The tabulated in
table shall be used as reference for economic conductor size selection
Table 17, and the feeders were selected with reference to Figure 14. The technical data of the
during the planning stage with anticipated 10 years maximum demand
feeders are tabulatedgrowth horizon.
in Table 18.
Underground Cable XLPE 11kV
Conductor loading Equivalent loading Economic Conductor Size
Maximum Demand range selection
<1,000 kVA < 50 Amps 150 sqmm. 3C

1,000 kVA to 3,500 kVA 50 Amps - < 175 Amps 240 mmp. 3C

500 mmp. 1C
3,500 kVA to 5,000 kVA 175 Amps - 275 Amps
500 mmp. 3C
Table 3.8: Economic Conductor Size for 11kV Underground cable
Figure 14 Economic feeder selection for 11kV underground networks, adapted from [1]
ABC 11kV
Table 17 Anticipated MD calculations for the feeders C23 to C29, assuming the annual load growth rate of 3%
Conductor Loading Equivalent loading Economic Conductor Size
Maximum Demand range selection
11kV feeder <1,000 kVAPresent MD (kVA)
<50 Amps Anticipated MDmmp.
3x150 after 10 years (kVA)
1,000 kVA to 3,600 kVA 2932.14
C23 to C25 50 Amps - 180 Amps 3x240 3940.55
mmp.

Table 3.9: Economic Conductor Size for 11kV ABC

C26 2000.00 2687.83
C27 to C29 932.14 1252.72

Distribution Planning Guideline 2.0 21

22
 Figure 15 Single-line diagram of the distribution system (with equipment labelled)

Table 18 Technical specifications of the feeders C23 to C29

Feeder C23 to C25 C26 to C29

Type 1 × UG 1C 500 mm2 1 × UG 3C 240 mm2
Insulation XLPE
Conductor Aluminium
Metallic screen Copper tape screen (CTS)
Outer sheath MDPE
Rated voltage 11 kV
Rated current
644 A 354 A
(buried direct in ground) [10]
Rated short time current (1 s) [10] 47.3 kA 22.7 kA
Positive-sequence impedance
0.069 + j0.0941 Ω/km 0.1294 + j0.0863 Ω/km
at 25°C [10]

23
 Zero-sequence impedance
10.8628 + j0.0358 Ω/km 4.7517 + j0.6839 Ω/km
at 25°C [10]
Single-layer
Laying method [11] Trefoil formation
flat formation

Then, the transformer HV tails C19 and C21 in Figure 11 were selected based on Figure 13,
and their technical data are shown in Table 19.
Table 19 Technical specifications of the transformer HV tails C19 and C21

Type 1 × UG 1C 70 mm2
Insulation XLPE
Conductor Aluminium
Metallic screen CTS
Outer sheath MDPE
Rated voltage 11 kV
Rated current
178 A [10]
(buried direct in ground)
Rated short time current (1 s) 6.62 kA [10]
Positive-sequence impedance at 25°C 0.4522 + j0.1266 Ω/km [10]
Zero-sequence impedance at 25°C 20.4678 + j0.0607 Ω/km [10]
Laying method Trefoil formation [11]

When laying UG cables, TNB prefers the direct buried method, where the cables will be
installed in cable trenches excavated at the site to the specified dimensions (for example, the
depth should be 1200 mm from the ground surface for LV and 11kV cables) [11]. When parallel
circuits are to be installed in the same trench, a minimum distance of at least two cable
diameters (D) should be maintained [11]. Typically, three-core (3C) cables are always laid in
the single-layer flat formation (see Figure 16), whereas single-core (1C) cables are preferably
laid in the trefoil formation (Figure 17) to save space and remove the need for transposition
[11].

24
 Figure 16 Single-layer flat formation for 3-core underground cables

Figure 17 Trefoil formation for 1-core underground cables

3.7 MV Protection System Equipment

Switchgear in TNB 11kV distribution networks is predominantly indoor air-insulated
switchgear (AIS) and ring main units (RMUs), whereas the current trend is to install gas-
insulated switchgear (GIS) for 33kV networks. RMUs are often used to provide economical
ring reticulation. The appropriate ratings of the AIS (CB1 to CB10 in Figure 15) and RMUs
(RMU1 and RMU2 in Figure 15) are shown in Table 20 and Table 21, respectively.

Table 20 Technical specifications of the switchgear CB1 to CB10 [7]

Type AIS
Rated voltage 12 kV
Rated current 630 A
Rated power-frequency withstand voltage 28 kV
Rated lightning impulse withstand voltage 75 kVp
Rated short-circuit breaking current 20 kA
Rated short-time withstand current (3 s) 20 kA
Rated short-circuit making current 50 kA

25
 Table 21 Technical specifications of the switchgear RMU1 and RMU2 [7]

Type SF6 RMU

Configuration 2S + 1F
(2 load break switches + 1 fuse-switch disconnector)
Rated voltage 12 kV
Rated current 630 A
Rated power-frequency ▪ Across earth and between poles: 28 kV
withstand voltage ▪ Across isolating distance: 32 kV
Rated lightning impulse ▪ Across earth and between poles: 75 kVp
withstand voltage ▪ Across isolating distance: 85 kVp
Rated short-circuit ▪ Load break switch: 20 kA 3s
breaking current ▪ Earthing switch: 2.1 kA 1s
Rated short-time ▪ Load break switch: 20 kA 3s
withstand current ▪ Earthing switch: 2.1 kA 1s
Rated short-circuit ▪ Load break switch: 50 kA
making current ▪ Earthing switch: 5.4 kA

MV fuses will be installed in the switch-fuse disconnectors of RMUs to provide fast isolation
in the event of faults at the distribution transformers or transformer tails. According to [7], MV
fuses should be able to withstand transformer inrush currents for 100 ms, periodic overcurrents
up to 150%, and properly coordinate with LV fuses. Besides that, for SF6 RMUs, the MV fuses
should comply with the dimensions stipulated in the DIN 43625 standard [7]. Hence, based on
Figure 18, the MV fuses F10 and F11 in Figure 11 should be rated at 80 A. The technical data
of the fuses are given in Table 22.
Table 22 Technical specifications of the fuses F10 and F11

Standard DIN 43625

Fuse rating 80 A
Minimum breaking current (A) 272 A [14]

26
 fuses operate properly when there is fault in the LV system.

Referring to the time-current characteristics for MV fuse, the ratings in

Table 6-26 should be observed for 11 kV and 22 kV SF6 gas insulated RMU.
6
Table 6-26: The fuse rating must be suitable with the transformer ratings
System Transformer capacity
Fuse rating (A)
voltage (kVA)
100 16
300 31.5
11 kV 500 50
750 80
1000 100
100 6.3
300 16
22 kV 500 25
750 40
1000 50

Figure 18 MV fuse selection for different transformer capacities, adapted from [7]

According to [1], parallel feeders should be protected with current differential (CD) relays as
the main protection and overcurrent and earth-fault (OCEF) relays as the backup protection.
On the other hand, other 11kV feeders in other configurations (radial, loop, or mesh) should be
protected by OCEF relays as the main protection. Hence, this protection scheme will be
adopted in this development.

OCEF relays typically are coordinated based on the inverse definite minimum time (IDMT)
characteristics: standard inverse (SI), very inverse (VI), and extremely inverse (EI). The most
often used relay characteristic in TNB is the SI characteristic [13]; and the relay operating time
is given by Eq. (3), where PSM is the plug multiplier setting and TMS is the time multiplier
setting of the relay.
0.14 (3)
𝑡𝑜𝑝 = × TMS
PSM 0.02 − 1

The usual practice in TNB is to begin the relay coordination at the PMU outgoing feeder
followed by subsequent downstream relays, and the relay operating time at a PMU is
conventionally set at 1.2s [1], [13]. However, as the interconnection data between PMU Lumut
Maritime and PPU Maritime are not publicly available, the relay coordination was started at
the outgoing feeder of the PPU instead. Other TNB standard practices when coordinating
OCEF relays are as follows [13]:

27
• The grading margin is normally set to 0.40 s. There are two coordination methods: (i)
applying grading margin between adjacent relays, (ii) applying grading margin between
adjacent sections (so no grading margin for relays in the same section). While the latter
method allows the discrimination of more busbar layers, a combination of these methods
is implemented in practical applications, and it was also adopted in this project (see Figure
19).
• A relay setting with TMS greater than 0.50 is prohibited. Moreover, TMS of less than 0.10
is discouraged because it could cause difficulties to achieve proper coordination between
the relay and the downstream MV fuses, and could increase the risks of sympathetic
tripping.
• The PSM value used in coordinating relays should be limited to 20.

Figure 19 Single-line diagram of the distribution system, showing the relay coordination

28
The first step was to apply three-phase faults at Bus 2 to Bus 7 in Figure 19, at one location at
a time, and then calculate the minimum and maximum fault currents through each circuit
breaker. According to [6], the fault level for 33 kV networks is 25 kA. This information could
be translated into the source impedance of 𝑍source = j0.07 pu, and it was used in the fault
current calculations. Furthermore, both transformers at the PPU were assumed to have ratings
of 15 MVA and short-circuit impedance of 10% [7], and the DG was neglected during
calculations because the fault current contributions by solar photovoltaics are negligible. The
calculation results are tabulated in Table 23.
Table 23 Minimim and maximum fault currents of circuit breakers

Circuit breaker Minimum fault current 𝐼𝐹,min (kA) Maximum fault current 𝐼𝐹,max (kA)
6.5069 7.1250
CB11 and CB12
(when CB13 was closed) (when CB13 was open)
3.5612 4.8014
CB1 to CB4 (when either one of CB13 and (when CB13 was closed and
CB5 – but not both – was closed) CB5 was open)
3.7175 7.0748
CB6 and CB7
(when CB13 and CB5 were open) (when CB5 was closed)
3.6267 6.7540
CB8
(when CB13 and CB5 were open) (when CB5 was closed)

Next, the current transformer (CT) ratios were set such as the primary rated currents were
higher than the load currents 𝐼𝐿 , and relay plug multipliers (PS) were selected to meet the
requirement given by Eq. (4). The results are shown in Table 24.

𝐼𝐿 < CT Ratio × PS < 𝐼𝐹,min (4)

Table 24 Load currents, CT ratios, and plug multipliers of circuit breakers

Circuit breaker 𝐼𝐿 (A) CT ratio PS (%) 𝐼𝑠𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 = CT ratio × PS (A)

CB11 and CB12 787.30 800/5 125 1000
CB1 to CB4 153.89 200/5 100 200
CB6 and CB7 104.97 150/5 100 150
CB8 48.92 75/5 100 75

29
Subsequently, the relays were set based on the aforementioned TNB usual practice [13] and
the relay discrimination depicted in Figure 19. PSM was calculated using Eq. (5). The relay
coordination settings are summarized in Table 25, and the relay operating times under different
fault conditions were calculated using Eq. (3) and tabulated in Table 26.
𝐼𝐹,max (5)
𝑃𝑆𝑀 =
𝐼𝑠𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔

Table 25 OCEF relay coordination settings

Circuit breaker CT ratio PS (%) TMS

CB11 and CB12 800/5 125 0.46
CB1 to CB4 200/5 100 0.49
CB6 150/5 100 0.31
CB7 150/5 100 0.13
CB8 75/5 100 0.31

Table 26 Relay operating times under different fault scenarios

Relay operating time 𝑡𝑜𝑝 (s)

Fault condition
CB11 & CB12 CB1 – CB4 CB6 CB7 CB8
3-phase fault at Bus 2
1.6078 1.1110 - - -
(with CB13 open)
3-phase fault at Bus 4
(with CB13 closed and 2.0203 1.1110 0.7029 - -
CB5 open)
3-phase fault at Bus 6
1.6138 1.1110 0.7029 0.2948 -
(with CB5 closed)
3-phase fault at Bus 7
1.6538 1.1110 - - 0.7029
(with CB5 closed)

30
4 DISTRIBUTED GENERATION
4.1 Solar Energy
Solar PV is at the forefront of the move to renewables, prompted by improved solar cell
efficiency, the lower production cost of PV panels, and the ease of installation compared to
other renewables: once installed, it starts generating energy instantaneously. Further, solar
energy is freely and abundantly available, with the earth receiving about 3.8 × 1014 kW of solar
energy per second. According to the International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA), the
global installed capacity of solar PV was 480.3 GW at the end of 2018 and is expected to reach
969 GW by 2025. With around 274.6 GW of installed capacity, Asia currently holds the largest
share of PV installation. With this, our residential area will be integrated with solar energy to
reduce the burden on the power grid during the peak load hours. The peak load hours for
residential area is during 4pm – 7pm.

4.1.1 Photovoltaics Type

For the type of solar cells being used for this design is the Mono-crystalline PERC solar panels.
One of the models found which matches our design is the HiKu7 Mono PERC CS7N-665MS
which has module efficiency of 21.4%. This solar panel uses Mono-crystalline PERC
Technology for its cell type. The nominal maximum power generated in the module is 665W
per module. This high maximum power per module has its advantages whereby it reduces the
number of solar panels needed to be installed. The electrical specifications of the CS7N-665MS
under Standard Test Conditions (STC) of irradiance of 1000 W/m2, spectrum AM 1.5 and cell
temperature of 25°C is as below [15]:

Table 27 Electrical specification under STC

Nominal Max Power (Pmax) 665 W
Optimum Operating Voltage (Vmp) 38.5 V
Optimum Operating Current (Imp) 17.28 A
Open Circuit Current (Voc) 45.6 V
Short Circuit Current (Isc) 18.51 A
Module Efficiency 21.4%
Operating Temperature -40˚C ~ +80˚C
Maximum System Voltage 1500 (IEC) or 1000V (IEC)
Module Fire Performance CLASS C (IEC 61730)
Maximum Series Fuse Rating 30 A
Application Classification Class A

31
The maximum power point (Pmax) is the highest power possible which can be generated by a
solar PV module, and it is multiplier function of Vmp times Imp. The maximum power point
is located at the point where it corresponds to the maximum voltage and current in a typical I-
V curve of a solar PV module. The open circuit voltage Voc, is the maximum voltage available
under open circuit conditions of the solar PV module (+ve and -ve in open condition with no
connections) while it is generating zero current, called Voc.

The short circuit current (Isc) is the maximum current that the solar PV module can generate
and is designated as Isc. The short circuit current helps to size the cables and design the
overcurrent protection while performing system design if there is solar PV module which is
short circuited. The short circuit current is directly proportional to the amount of radiation
incident on the solar cells. Increase in the intensity of radiation leads to a greater number of
photons absorbed in the solar cell which in turn generates a greater number of charge carriers
causing an increase in short circuit current Isc as well as the increase of the temperature of the
solar cell. A high-efficiency solar cell will have a higher short circuit current, Isc, a higher
open-circuit voltage, Voc. The solar PV module efficiency is the solar PV module power output
upon solar power input at STC, solar irradiance is 1000W/m2, cell operating temperature is
25°C, and air mass is 1.5. With the solar module efficiency being 21.4%, that would mean the
solar module can generate 210.4W for a square meter [16].

Table 28 Mechanical Data Specifications

Cell Type Mono-crystalline

Cell Arrangement 132 [2x(11x6)]
Dimensions 2384 x 1303 x 35mm (93.9 x 51.3 x 1.38 in)
Weight 34.4 kg (75.8lbs)
Front Cover 3.2 mm tempered glass
Frame Anodized aluminium alloy, crossbar enhanced.
J-Box IP68, 3 bypass diodes
Cable 4mm^2 (IEC)
Connector T4 series or H4 UTX or MC4-EVO2
Per Pallet 31 pieces
Per Container (40’ HQ) 527 pieces

32
4.1.2 Photovoltaics Technology
Mono Passivated Emitter and Rear Cell (PERC) technology which is an advanced version of
mono-crystalline panels that are considered to have higher efficiency even in low-light
conditions. This is done by adding a passivated layer in the rear of the cell. The sunlight that
falls on the surface of a standard module is either reflected, absorbed, or passed through the
surface. The passivated layer can reflect the photons passed away from the panel hence more
light is absorbed by the module.

Figure 20 Difference between conventional and PERC cell

This solar panel also has the benefits of 40% lower hot spot temperature which will greatly
reduce the module failure rate. Hot-spot heating occurs when many series connected cells cause
a large reverse bias across the shaded cell, leading to large dissipation of power in the poor cell.
The enormous power dissipation occurring in a small area result in local overheating, or "hot-
spots", which in turn leads to destructive effects, such as cell or glass cracking, melting of
solder or degradation of the solar cell. Hence with this benefit of 40% lower hot spot
temperature, it will be able to withstand longer [16].

The way of using the photovoltaics in buildings is by substituting the parts of the building
envelope using PV, which is called BIPV (building integrated photovoltaics). The solar
modules are integrated in building elements or material and function not only as energy
generators but also as part of the building structure. They replace conventional building
elements such as roof tiles, roof membranes, facade cladding, or facade or skylight glazing,
rather than attaching to the roof or the facade. It means that a BIPV module not only generates
electricity, but also adds functionality to the building element [16].

Besides harvesting energy, well-integrated PV modules are suitable to contribute to the comfort
of the building: they serve as weather protection, heat insulation, shading modulation, noise

33
protection, thermal isolation, electromagnetic shielding, etc. Installation cost reductions in the
building take place due to lower non module costs by the elimination of racking hardware and
the greater use of traditional roofing labor and installation methods. There are cost offsets for
displacing traditional building materials due to lower supply chain costs. The other benefits of
BIPV are improved aesthetics of the building, reduction in the thermal gain in facades, light
and thermal management, effective shading, glare protection, innovative architecture, acoustic
insulation, and replacement of claddings.

4.1.3 Photovoltaic System General Design

An off-grid solar PV system provides electricity in situations where utility power is not
available. Solar PV modules are connected in series to form strings and these strings are
combined together in a string combiner box (array junction box), which is located near the
array. The generated DC electricity from the PV panels flows through the string combiner box
and from there to a controller in the inverter system. The controller regulates the DC power to
the batteries. The inverter converts the DC power from battery to AC electricity and the AC
electricity goes to the main electrical panel. From the main electrical panel, the electricity is
used by the loads connected to the main panel. These systems allow the solar power to be stored
in batteries, then power can be supplied to the loads during the grid outage or whenever
required.

Figure 21 General design of PV system

34
4.1.4 Photovoltaic Size
Based on the Distribution Planning Guidelines on the Low Voltage Penetration Level for
Distributed Generation, the maximum allowable DG capacity connected to a substation of LV
side is 90% of transformer or a maximum of 425kW. Hence, we are proposing for the
generation of DG on LV side to be 425kW to support the residential loads [6].

Step 1 of PV sizing: To determine the residential demand that can be supported by PV

i) Calculate the total PV panel energy demand.

* panel generation factor is a varying factor that affects the generation of PV panel due to
climate of site location. The panel generation factor in Malaysia is 3.4 [18].
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑃𝑉 𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑
The total watt-peak rating of the PV panel = 𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑙 𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑃𝑉 𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑
425kW = 3.4

The total PV panel energy demand = (425k x 3.4)

The total PV panel energy demand = 1445 kWh

ii) To determine the residential load demand supported by PV

* Energy losses of the PV panel shall be taken into consideration, where the recent PV
technology efficiency is around 70%.
𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑
Total PV panel energy demand = 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠 𝑏𝑦 𝑃𝑉 𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑙
𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑
1445kWh = 0.7

Residential demand = (1445k x 0.7)

Residential demand = 1011.5 kWh

Step 2 of PV sizing: To determine number of PV panels required

* The PV module is assumed to be 12𝑉𝐷𝐶 and 665W
425 𝑘
Number of PV panels needed =
665

Number of PV panels needed = 639.09 ≈ 640 panels

35
4.1.5 Battery Size
For an effective PV supported home, battery energy storage are usually used to store excessive
power for later use. The battery should be large enough to store sufficient energy to operate the
appliances at night and cloudy days to balance the solar intermittence issues.
To determine the battery size to store the excess [18]:

* Assumptions made are:

1) battery loss is around 85%,
2) battery depth of discharge is around 60%
3) days of autonomy refers to the number of days that the system needs to operate when there
is no power produced by PV panels is 5 days

Battery Capacity (Ah) =

Total energy demand per da𝑦
Total energy demand per day battery loss 𝑥 battery depth of discharge 𝑥 nominal battery voltage
1011.5 𝑘𝑊ℎ
Battery Capacity (Ah) = 0.85 𝑥 0.6 𝑥 12

Battery Capacity (Ah) = 165. 27 𝐴ℎ ≈ 166 Ah

Hence, the battery should be rated at 12 V 166 Ah.

36
4.2 Cable Selection
Cables and associated connectors, which are used for the interconnection of solar arrays and
all other BOS components, must be of solar grade and must withstand the harshest
environmental conditions such as high temperature, snow, UV radiation, rain, humidity, dust,
salt spray, invasion by fungi, etc., and must comply with the latest IEC standards. Insulation
provided on the conductor are of different materials such as PVC, XLPE, and various types of
rubber. Inner sheathing (beading) works as a binder for insulated conductors in multicore
cables and it is mainly made up of PVC and rubber material. Armoring is a process to provide
extra earthing shielding to current carrying conductors. It also provides extra protection and
mechanical strength to cables. There are mainly G.I. wire armoring and G.I. steel strip armoring.
The outermost cover of the cable is PVC outer sheath made up of PVC or rubber material. It is
provided over the armor layer for overall mechanical, weather, chemical, and electrical
protection of the cable. XLPE insulated PVC sheathed copper conductor cables are used for
solar PV systems.

4.2.1 DC Cables
The DC cables used are designed for outdoor applications with a continuous ambient
temperature of 40˚C, 1.1kV grade, heavy duty, stranded copper conductor, XLPE insulated,
rated for minimum 90˚𝐶, galvanized steel wire round armored, flame-retardant low-smoke
(FLRS) extruded PVC type outer sheadthed insulation [17].

Assumptions made to calculate the sizing of DC cables:

* The total voltage drop on the cable segments from the solar PV modules to the solar grid
inverter shall not exceed 2.0% for a better harvest of energy.
*The total voltage drop on the cable segments from the solar grid inverter to the nearest
building distribution board shall not exceed 2.0%.
* The arrangement of the solar modules is in 50 columns and 13 rows.
* The distance from the modules to the charge controller is 10 metres for the first column and
increases by 1m for the following rows.

37
Step 1: To determine the voltage drop index.

𝐷𝐶 𝐼 𝑥 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ(𝑓𝑒𝑒𝑡)
Voltage Drop Index = % 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝐷𝑟𝑜𝑝 𝑥 𝐴𝑟𝑟𝑎𝑦 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒𝑠

𝐼𝐷𝐶 of 13 sets of parallel connected PV modules = 13 x 17.28 A

𝐼𝐷𝐶 of 13 sets of parallel connected PV modules = 224.64 A
Length = 1600 feet
Array voltages = 12 x 38.5 V
Array voltages = 462 V

224.64 𝐴 𝑥 700 (𝑓𝑒𝑒𝑡)

Voltage Drop Index = 2 𝑥 462 𝑉
Voltage Drop Index = 170.18 𝑚𝑚2

Step 2: To determine the DC cable size in 𝑚𝑚2

DC cable size in 𝑚𝑚2 = VDI x 1.1
DC cable size in 𝑚𝑚2 = 187.2 ≈ 190 𝑚𝑚2

Hence, the suitable size for the DC cable size is 240 𝑚𝑚2

4.2.2 AC Cables
AC cables used is XLPE insulated, and PVC sheathed 3 core copper cables. To determine the
AC size of the cables, the calculation is as follows:

Step 1: To determine the line current

𝑷 = √𝟑𝑽𝑳 𝑰𝑳 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽
𝑃
𝐼𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒,𝐿𝑉 =
√3 𝑉
425𝑘𝑊
𝐼𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒,𝐿𝑉 =
√3 𝑥 400
𝐼𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒,𝐿𝑉 = 613.43 𝐴

All equipment proposed to be installed and connected to TNB supply must comply with the
following short circuit ratings:

38
 Table 29 Short circuit current ratings from ESAH book

The current rating of 400V should be more than or equals to the continuous load current of
613.43 A as calculated above for the line current. The fault current is considered during the
cable selection from the fault analysis. As from the figure above, according to the Electricity
Supply Application Handbook, for 400V, the fault level is 31.5k A for 3s. Based on the graph
short circuit current for XLPE copper cables, the suitable size for these AC cables is minimum
of 300 𝑚𝑚2 .
Hence, the cables chosen for AC is 0.6/1kV, XLPE Cable, 3 Core, 300 𝑚𝑚2 , copper, SCW,
MDPE.

39
4.3 Transformers
The transformer is an electrical device used to transfer electric power from one circuit to
another without changing its frequency and it achieves by electromagnetic induction. For
measurement purposes, instrument transformers are used because these transformers measure
current, voltage, energy and power. These are used in different instruments with a conjunction
like a voltmeter, ammeter, wattmeter & energy meter. These transformers are classified into
two types namely the current transformer and potential transformer. In this PV design, we have
integrated current transformer instead. The CT rating for CD relay at LV side is 800/5 A.

The current transformer is a special type of electrical equipment, that steps down high primary
currents to low secondary currents. The primary winding is connected to the current being
measured and the secondary winding to measuring instruments. The primary winding of the
current transformer consists of few turns and is connected in series with the line carrying
current. The secondary winding has a larger number of turns and is connected to the
instruments. By using a current transformer, we can measure high currents easily. Current
transformers have two basic functions which are limiting and minimizing the current for
metering and protection devices and isolating power circuits from the metering and/or
protection circuit.

Figure 22 Working principle of current tranformer

40
4.4 Inverters

Inverters converts solar array-generated DC power into AC power in synchronization with the
grid. The inverter is also known as a power conditioning unit (PCU), as it has additional
functions such as maximum power point tracking, grid monitoring, and anti-islanding
protection in addition to DC to AC inversion. Solid-state switching circuits are responsible for
DC to AC conversion. The inverter contains magnetic circuits, capacitors, AC and DC
disconnects, electromagnetic and radio frequency interference filtering equipment, a cooling
system, a ground fault detection interruption circuit, and command and control and
communication components to reliably feed high-quality AC power in a safe manner.

The method by which DC power from the PV array is converted to AC power is known as
inversion. The physical principle involved in the conversion of DC current into AC current is
electromagnetic induction. As per electromagnetic induction, if a conductor is exposed to a
varying magnetic field, an electromotive force is induced in the conductor. If there are two
coils, one is considered as primary coil and the other as secondary coil. If the direction of
current is continuously changing in the primary coil, the alternating magnetic field in the coil
will induce AC current in the secondary coil. The DC current is made to flow through switches
that are on/off with certain frequencies and times using a pulse width modulation technique
creates square wave. The square wave is modified to a pure sine wave using digital signal
processors. In an inverter, DC power from the PV array is inverted to AC power via a set of
solid-state switches - MOSFETs (metal oxide field effect transistor) or IGBTs (insulated gate
bipolar transistor) - that essentially flip the DC power back and forth, creating AC power [17].

4.4.1 String Inverters

String inverters are used as inverters in the solar system design. String inverters applies to
smaller capacity inverters (between 10 and 200 kVA) with a single-phase or three-phase AC
output. While all have a high DC input voltage, they are dedicated exclusively to a single series
string input. More strings are added in parallel to the MPPT of the inverter to get the required
current. The MPPT tracks the maximum power and boosts it to higher voltage. The most
common use for grid-direct string inverters is in single-phase applications, which are primarily
residential installations. String inverters not only convert DC to AC power, but also provide

41
anti-islanding protection, AC leakage current fault protection, DC reverse-polarity protection,
AC surge protection, DC surge protection with a metal oxide varistor, DC overvoltage
protection, ground fault protection, and IP-65 ingress protection. Inverters are commonly
available in the wattage range from 1 to 200 kW with peak efficiency around 97.2%, MPPT
efficiency >99.5%, THD <3%, power factor 0.8 leading to 0.8 lagging, transformer-less type,
with a night standby power consumption of <2W. The inverters produce a noise level <40 db
under full load operation and provide an RS 485/232/WIFI/GPS/Ethernet or an LAN-based
communication interface for remote monitoring. The power capacity of inverters has grown
larger, but for low voltage 400/415 V on-grid inverters, the maximum capacity could reach up
to 200 kVA.

The advantages of this is optimized inverter-to-array ratio can be obtained with string inverters
using long string lengths. Central inverters use separate DC string combiner boxes to combine
and connect the PV source circuits to the inverter. The use of string combiner/array junction
boxes with a central inverter drives up the cable sizes and the associated costs. The use of string
inverters with integrated junction boxes eliminates the need for separate DC source-circuit
combiners. Hence, there is a decreased DC cable cost. But, if multiple inverters are used, AC
junction boxes are required to be used to combine the output of the inverters. With the use of
multiple string inverters in a distributed design approach, there is an increase in the number of
inverter-direct monitoring points. The system with a central inverter design uses zone- or
string-level monitoring. Hence, there is cost-effective granular monitoring of the system with
the use of string inverters. For central inverter design, a large control room or shelter is required
to protect the inverter from harsh weather conditions. This consumes extra space and adds cost
to the system. There are reduced space and infrastructure requirements with the use of string
inverters, as they can be mounted on an existing wall, a module mounting structure, or with a
localized shelter.

Figure 23 String inverter layout

42
4.5 Protection Devices
4.5.1 Circuit Breaker
A circuit breaker is an automatically operated electrical switch designed to protect an electrical
circuit from the damage caused by the excess current from an overload or short circuit. A CB
can be reset to resume normal operation. The function of a circuit breaker is to interrupt or
close all currents, including the fault current. It provides protection to electrical equipment and
personnel during faults.

The circuit breakers are different types and designated based on the arc interrupting media.
Vacuum circuit breakers (VCB) are used for 11, 22, and 33 kV voltage levels. Air circuit
breakers are used up to 11 kV voltage level. The VCB is a triple-pole arranged for
motor/manual-operated spring-charged, independent closing and shunt tripping from a suitable
voltage from the battery. The close/trip control switch will be interlocked to the trip before
close. The closing and tripping circuits are self-opening upon completion of their respective
functions irrespective of the position of the control switch. In VCB, arc quenching takes place
in vacuum. Service life is longer than the other types of CBs. There is no chance of fire hazard
like in case of oil CB. It is environmentally friendly compared to SF6-based CB. Hence, VCBs
are used as circuit breakers for the solar system.

To design the circuit breaker, the general rule of thumb is that circuit breaker size should be
125% of the ampacity of cable and wire or the circuit which must be protected by the CB.
𝐼𝐶𝐵 = 1.25 𝑥 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝐼𝐶𝐵 = 1.25 𝑥 613.43
𝐼𝐶𝐵 = 766.79 𝐴
Hence, the type of circuit breaker to be used is vacuum circuit breaker with 800 A.

The CB (LV side) is operated by the current differential (CD) relay.

𝑃
𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥,𝐿𝑉 =
√3 𝑉
425𝑘𝑊
𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥,𝐿𝑉 =
√3 𝑥 400
𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥,𝐿𝑉 = 613.43 𝐴
Hence, the CT rating for CD relay at LV side is 800/5 A.

43
4.5.2 Over Current And Earth Fault Relay
The overcurrent relay is defined as the relay, which operates only when the value of the current
is greater than the relay setting time. It protects the equipment of the power system from the
fault current. The relays work on IDMT characteristic and are made directional and
nondirectional as per requirement. It is a current actuated relay. Inverse Definite Minimum
Time Relay is a relay whose operating time is approximately proportional to the fault current.
The operating time of the relay is maintained by adjusting the time delay setting. The IDMT
relay uses the electromagnetic core because it can easily saturate for the current having larger
magnitude than pick up current. The relay is used for the protection of the distribution line. The
relay is connected to the current transformers of the object to be protected.

The overcurrent unit and the earth-fault unit continuously measure the phase currents and the
neutral current of the object. Earth-fault relay is used to protect feeder against faults involving
ground. Typically, earth faults are single line to ground and double line to ground faults.
Usually, for the purpose of setting and coordination, only single line to ground faults are
considered. Earth fault current is always less than phase fault current in magnitude. This relay
can be of these major types: residual current earth fault relays, sensitive earth fault relays and
restricted earth fault relays. On detection of a fault, the relay will start, trip the circuit breaker,
provide alarms, record fault data, etc., in accordance with the application and the configured
relay functions.

Residual current devices ensure protection of people and installations against fault current to
earth and fire risks. An RCD B type is required on the AC side in case of lack of electrical
separation between the AC and the DC side. The devices save money and improve global
efficiency by using PV connectors without an internal insulation transformer. The devices, with
their wide range of accessories are suitable for international use. The RCCBs F202 PV B and
F204 B are intended for installation of single and three phase PV converters. they protect
against fire risks and leakage currents.

4.5.3 Anti Islanding

Islanding occurs when there is a blackout, but some part of the electrical grid is still producing
power for itself. Islanding occurs when a grid supply is powered by solar panels. During a
blackout, without controlled prevention solar panels would continue to feed excess power back

44
into the grid if there is an excess at the point of generation. The affected area is identified as an
island because it is surrounded by lines that are not delivering power. The impacts of island are
uncontrolled islands can complicate the power restoration process. A grid outage, bringing all
homes and businesses back on the grid needs to be done in stages. That onslaught can
quickly overburden the power grid. Islanding produces a dangerous situation for electric
personnel who might not realize a particular circuit is still energized. Without anti-islanding,
the “should-be-dead” power lines are being back-fed by the generation from the island. Without
inverter anti-islanding protection, equipment failure can occur.
According to IEEE 1547 section 4, an Area EPS must be de-energized within two seconds of
the formation of an island. In other words, for an unintentional island in which the PV Plant
energizes a portion of the grid through the interconnection point, the PV Plant interconnection
system shall detect the island and cease to energize the grid within two seconds of the formation
of an island. There are two methods to ensure the anti-islanding functions. The first method it
the passive method that monitors the voltage and frequency. Second method is an active anti-
islanding method which varies the output of the reactive power to help destabilize the island
and accelerate the dissolving of the system to extinguish the island [17].

4.5.4 Reverse Interlocking

Busbars have a particular key role in power transmission and distribution. They are the central
distribution point for many feeders. In the event of a fault, the short-circuit current on the busbar
is very high, resulting potentially in mechanical destruction and the consequent long repair
times, which would affect all feeders. In the case of single busbars with one defined incoming
feeder and otherwise only defined outgoing feeders, fast busbar protection can be provided
with no major additional effort by means of reverse interlocking. Such busbar configurations
are common in medium-voltage systems and in auxiliary supply networks.

4.5.5 Fuse Switch

HRC fuse (high rupturing capacity fuse) is one kind of fuse, where the fuse wire carries a short
circuit current in a set period. If the fault occurs in the circuit, then it blows off. The HRC fuse
is made with glass otherwise some other kind of chemical compound. The enclosure of the fuse
can be closed tightly to avoid the air from the atmosphere. At both sides of the fuse, the ceramic
enclosure is made with a metal cap which is welded with fusible silver wire. Its enclosure

45
includes some space that is surrounding by wire otherwise element of the fuse. HRC fuse is
consistent & it has the feature like if it has a high fault current then break time is low. Similarly,
if the fault current is not high, then break time is long.

The advantages of these fuses include the following. They are cheaper as compared with other
types, easy to design and very simple, maintenance is not necessary, high breaking capability,
the performance of this is consistent, easy operation and the inverse time characteristic is
suitable for overload protection.

In normal conditions, the flow of current through the fuse doesn’t provide sufficient energy to
soften the element. If the huge current flows through the fuse then it melts the element of the
fuse before the fault current achieves the climax. When the fuse is in an overload condition,
then the element of the fuse will not blow-off however if this condition exists for an extended
period, then the material like Eutectic will dissolve & break the element of the fuse. When the
fuse is in short circuit condition, then the thin parts of the fuse element is less area will dissolve
quickly & will smash before the eutectic material. So this is the reason to provide the limitations
within the element of HRC Fuse.

Figure 24 Fuse construction

The internal space of the fuse body is filled by a filling powder material. Here the material used
in this is quartz, plaster of Paris, dust, marble, chalk, etc. This is the reason the flow of current
cannot overheat. The generated heat vaporizes the melted element. The chemical reaction will
occur between filling power and silver vapor to result in high resistance material to help in
reducing the arc within the fuse.

46
4.5.6 Surge Arresters
Solar arrays, which are generally sited in exposed positions and, for the higher power versions,
over wide areas, are subject to atmospheric activity and may be damaged by the over voltage
generated by lightning. To avoid problems, it is advisable to install Surge Protective Devices
(SPD) on each polarity towards earth in the parallel switchboards once the risks have been
correctly assessed in accordance with EN 62305-2 standards. The impedance of these devices
varies, depending on the voltage applied: when on hold, their impedance is extremely high and
is reduced in the case of over voltage, by discharging the associated current towards earth. It is
advisable to choose the right sort of SPD with tripping thresholds that suit the operating voltage
values of the circuit. The state of efficiency of the equipment must be constantly displayed
locally and in the remote mode, if necessary, by use of products equipped with remote
signalling contacts. SPD with varistors or combined SPD should be used in the protection for
the direct current side.

These SPD must therefore possess the following characteristics which are type 2, maximum
continuous operating voltage Uc > 1.25 Uoc, protection level Up < Uinv, where Uinv is the
impulse withstand voltage of the inverter on the d.c. side; - rated flashover current In > 5 kA
and finally thermal protection with short-circuit extinction capacity at life end and coordination
with a suitable backup protection. the SPD installed to protect these generally allow the
modules to be protected as well, so long as the distance between the modules and inverter is
less than 10 meters. The SPD must be installed on the supply side (direction of the PV
generator’s energy) of the inverter’s isolating device so that it also protects the modules when
the isolating device is open

47
5 SIMULATION AND ANALYSIS
5.1 Power System Stability
The definition of power system stability is the ability of a power system that enables to run
operation for power supply under nominal conditions [19]. It could classify into rotor range,
voltage, and frequency stability. Rotor angle stability is defined as the ability of the
interconnected synchronous machines that run to maintain the power system. It is usually
determined by the electromagnetic and mechanism torque equilibrium to maintain or restore.
Next is voltage stability. It refers to the ability of the power system to maintain the sustainable
voltage at all buses in the system under nominal conditions as well as after being subjected to
a disturbance. In addition, it is usually determined by the load demand and load supply
equilibrium from the power system.

For frequency stability is the ability of the power system to maintain the steady voltage
and most of the time determined by the system generation and load. However, several
instabilities may affect the entire effectiveness of the power system due to high dimensionality
and complexity issues. It is subjected to a wide range of disturbances such as loss of
synchronism due to loss of load, loss of a tie line between sub-systems, the occurrence of a
short circuit on the transmission lines, and the variable of the load demand determined by the
characteristic of individual load. Furthermore, the network topology also will be altered as the
variations in power flow when the system responses to abnormal system conditions.
Simultaneously, as the growth of the load in the power system, the reactive power absorption
will also be expected to increase which could result in voltage drop and unable to keep up with
the reactive power demand once it is reached the point.

Therefore, in order to overcome these problems, several proper protection equipment

is significantly selected and implemented in our project in order to mitigate the instabilities in
distribution network.

48
 Figure 25 Classification of power system stability

5.2 Contingency Analysis

The contingency analysis (CA) is considered as one of the major tasks in this modern energy
systems as it is an abnormal condition. The study of it is to simulate, calculate, analyse, and
evaluate the effect on the power system planning and operation [20]. According to the
Distribution Planning Guidelines 2.0 [21], the utility company has set up the which the
contingency conditions for medium voltage system is 10% of nominal voltage, whereas for the
low voltage system is +10% and -6% of nominal voltage as shown in Table 30. For contingency
conditions, the percentage of variation is +/- 10% for all voltage levels as shown in Table 31.

Table 30 Steady-state voltage level regulation limits under nominal conditions [21]

Voltage Level % Variation

400V and 230V -6% & +10%
6.6kV, 11kV, 22kV, 33kV +/-5%
132kV and 275kV +/-5%
500kV +/-5%

Table 31 Steady-state voltage level regulation limits under contingency conditions

Voltage Level % Variation

400V and 230V +/-10%
6.6kV, 11kV, 22kV, 33kV +/-10%
132kV and 275kV +/-10%
500kV +/-10%

49
5.2.1 N-1 Contingency
N-1 contingency means the failure of a single element component in the power system. The
criterion of N-1 contingency is to withstand the long-term unpredicted failure or the outage of
a particular distribution component that has an allowable reliability level, such as generator,
transmission line and/or transformer [22] [23]. Therefore, in this project, N-1 contingency is
significantly taken into our primary consideration because it is often subjected to the study of
distribution networks.

5.2.2 Case Studies

After selecting the appropriate specifications to design distribution network, a comprehensive
software is also required to simplify the tasks and obtain data and information by running
simulations and analysis. In this project, Power World Simulator software is a main software
that used for designing and evaluating technically for power system. Additionally, several cases
can be taken to test, evaluate and compare different results and showed in following:
1. Case 1: Circuit with presence of solar PV
2. Case 2: Circuit with absence of solar PV
3. Case 3: N-1 Contingency at 33/11kV Transformer (presence of solar PV)
4. Case 4: N-1 Contingency at transmission line between bus 2 and 4 (presence of solar
PV)
5. Case 5: N-1 Contingency at 33/11kV Transformer (absence of solar PV)
6. Case 5: N-1 Contingency at transmission line between bus 3 and 5 (absence of solar
PV)

50
5.2.3 Result of Simulation
Case 1: Circuit With Presence of Solar PV

Figure 206 Load Flow of circuit with presence of solar PV

Figure 27: A simulation data of circuit with presence of solar PV

51
Case 2: Circuit With Absence of Solar PV

Figure 28 Load flow of circuit with absence of solar PV

Figure 29 A simulation result of circuit with absence of solar PV

52
Case 3: N-1 Contingency at 33/11kV Transformer (With Presence of Solar PV)

Figure 30 Load flow of N-1 contingency at 33/11kV Transformer with presence of solar PV

Figure 31 A simulation result of N-1 contingency at 33/11kV Transformer with presence of solar PV

53
Case 4: N-1 Contingency at Transmission Line Between Bus 2 and 4 (With Presence of
Solar PV)

Figure 32 Load flow of N-1 contingency at transmission line between bus 2 and 4 with presence of solar PV

Figure 33 A simulation result of N-1 contingency at transmission line between bus 2 and 4 with presence of
solar PV

54
Case 5: N-1 Contingency at 33/11kV Transformer (With Absence of Solar PV)

Figure 34 Load flow of N-1 contingency at 33/11kV Transformer with absence of solar PV

Figure 35 A simulation result of N-1 contingency at 33/11kV Transformer with absence of solar PV

55
Case 6: N-1 Contingency at Transmission Line Between Bus 3 and 5 (With Absence of
Solar PV)

Figure 36 Load Flow of N-1 contingency at transmission line between bus 3 and 5 with absence of solar PV

Figure 2137 A simulation result of N-1 contingency at transmission line between bus 3 and 5 with absence of
solar PV

56
5.3 RESULT AND DISCUSSION
5.3.1 Result Analysis
Based on the simulation results, most of the voltage levels for nominal conditions in Case 1
and 2 are recorded in the range between 0.97 and 1.0pu, whereas for the contingency conditions,
the voltage levels in Case 3, 4, 5 and 6 are recorded in the range between 0.96 and 1.0pu. By
referring to standards of voltage level in Distribution Planning Guidelines 2.0 as shown in
Table 32, all the buses of all cases are proven that the designed distribution network are secured
as they are matched with the standards in the nominal and contingency conditions, it makes no
difference if the presence of solar PV. Apart from this, the voltage level at bus 8 in Case 1, 3
and 4 are displayed at 0.433kV which the value is unchanged compared to its original voltage
level. However, it is still accepted because the acceptable voltage level range in the nominal
condition is between 0.376kV and 440kV, as referred to the Table 32.

Table 32 The range of voltage level in the nominal and contingency conditions [21]

Voltage Level Nominal Conditions Contingency Conditions

Minimum Maximum Minimum Maximum
33kV 31.35kV 34.65kV 29.7kV 36.6kV
11kV 10.45kV 11.55kV 9.9kV 12.1kV
400V 376V 440V 360V 440V

Next, for the overloading issue, the results are showed that only the circuits without solar PV
have the higher percentage at the transformer between bus 7 and 8 as shown in Table 33. The
percentage of overloading at the transformer is recorded at 81% in Case 2, 5 and 6.

57
 Table 33 A data of overloading percentage in all cases

Buses Percentage of Overloading (%)

Connection Case 1 Case 2 Case 3 Case 4 Case 5 Case 6
1-2 8% 105 - 8% - 10%
1-3 8% 10% 16% 8% 20% 10%
2-4 7% 9% 7% - 9% 15%
3-5 7% 9% 7% 12% 9% -
4-6 30% 30% 30% 30% 30% 30%
5-7 6% 14% 6% 6% 14% 14%
7-8 23% 81% 28% 26% 81% 81%
7-9 5% 5% 5% 5% 5% 5%
9-10 46% 46% 46% 46% 46% 46%

58
5.3.2 Discussion
Voltage Stability:
Since the designed distribution network is simulated, the drop voltage showed in all bus
systems is below 5% for all cases. Hence, the distribution network is proved that it is within
safe limits as shown in Table 34. Below showed the different cases that have been simulated:
1. Case 1: Circuit with presence of Solar PV
2. Case 2: Circuit with absence of Solar Farm
3. Case 3: N-1 Contingency at 33/11kV transformer (with presence of Solar PV)
4. Case 4: N-1 Contingency at transmission line between bus 2 and 4 (with presence of
Solar PV)
5. Case 5: N-1 Contingency at 33/11kV transformer (with absence of Solar PV)
6. Case 6: N-1 Contingency at transmission line between bus 3 and 5 (with absence of
Solar PV)

Table 34 A comparison table of bus voltage for all cases

No. of bus Bus Voltage (p.u.)

Case 1 Case 2 Case 3 Case 4 Case 5 Case 6
1 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
2 0.99627 0.99465 0.99284 0.99636 0.98915 0.99457
3 0.99627 0.99465 0.99284 0.99636 0.98915 0.99457
4 0.99096 0.98760 0.98765 0.98869 0.98204 0.98403
5 0.99096 0.98760 0.98765 0.98866 0.98204 0.98403
6 0.99083 0.98747 0.98752 0.98859 0.98191 0.98390
7 0.99078 0.98711 0.98749 0.98853 0.98155 0.98353
8 1.00014 0.96697 1.00002 1.00001 0.96041 0.96244
9 0.99069 0.98702 0.98740 0.98844 0.98146 0.98344
10 0.97896 0.97524 0.97563 0.97668 0.96961 0.97162

59
Impacts of Solar PV implementation in Designed Distribution Network
With regard to solar PV, all the cases have been demonstrated for nominal and contingency
conditions. By looking at the simulations results, the bus voltage in the circuit with the presence
of solar PV is slightly higher than the circuit with the absence of solar PV. The reason is the
solar PV does not lead to overloading instead all the bus systems are being stabilised
significantly by supplying power to the loads. However, the circuit without solar PV can be
possibly led to the overloading of transformer due to excessive voltage. In Case 2, 5 and 6, the
circuits with the absence of solar PV have displayed a warning of overloading at 11/0.433kV
transformer that it reached at 81%, which is considered as heavy load. If the transformer is
exceeded, resulting in overheating and the insulation will be affected [24]. Thus, the
implementation of solar PV in our designed distribution network is recommended to overcome
the overloading of 11/0.433kV transformer as well as further improve at every bus system.

Impacts of N-1 Contingency at 33/11kV transformer

By assuming one of the 33/11kV transformers is failed in Case 3 and Case 5, the voltage level
at every bus is slightly decreased when compared to Case 1 and Case 2, respectively. In case
of failure of a transformer, another 33/11kV transformer is still operating effectively by
supplying sufficient power to the loads as a backup. The voltage level of every bus is
maintained between 0.96 and 1.0pu, which is considered as the safest limit, based on the
simulation results.

Impacts of N-1 Contingency at Transmission Line

Case 4 and Case 6 have been demonstrated in different bus connections for N-1 contingency
at the transmission line, bus 2-4 and bus 3-5. According to the simulation result, the voltage
level at every bus is slightly decreased except at bus 2 and 3 in Case 4, when compared to Case
1 and Case 2, respectively. Due to the presence of solar PV, the voltage in bus 2 and 3 are
surprisingly increased in Case 4. When one of the transmission lines is failed in our design, the
power will shift to another transmission line and continuously supply sufficiently to the loads
via the circuit breaker connected between bus 2 and 3, as well as bus 4 and 5. Besides, the
voltage level of every bus is still maintained between 0.97 and 1.0pu, which is also considered
as the safest limit, based on the simulation results.

60
6 CONCLUSION
This report has successfully designed a new residential area in Perak, Malaysia equipped with
schools, hospital, and shop lots up. The proposed design is susceptible to meet the customer
needs. The system is designed to withstand with N-1 contingency condition to enhance system
stability, also the protective equipment such as CBs and cable are designed to improve utility
and customers’ power system security. With the integration of solar energy into the residential
area, we have managed to reduce the load demand from the power grid during peak hours. This
report also discusses the proper design and technology used for the solar energy in detail to
further increase the efficiency of the energy.

In conclusion, the objectives of this project are achieved by designing a stable Medium Voltage
and Low Voltage distribution system. The system is proven with system stability by using
Power World Simulator software simulation. By running the simulations and collecting the
results, we can conclude that our designed distribution network can be proposed as is successful
to meet the voltage fluctuation requirements of nominal and contingency conditions in
Distribution Planning Guidelines 2.0. Most importantly, the distribution is stable, in term of N-
1 contingency, to operate with the proofs using software simulation result.

61
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8 APPENDIX A – WORK DISTRIBUTION

Section Person in charge

Introduction ▪ Tan Yi Xu*
▪ Hiu Qi Zhe
Development Location and Load Data ▪ Shalini A/p Jeganathan
▪ Tan Yi Xu*
MV and LV System Design ▪ Tan Yi Xu*
Distributed Generation ▪ Shalini A/p Jeganathan*
Simulation and Analysis ▪ Hiu Qi Zhe*
Conclusion ▪ Shalini A/p Jeganathan*

Note: The name of the principal author has been asterisked.

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