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4 10/7/00 11:36 am Page 81

4
Insecticides

4.1 Introduction and pick-up at the target site;

• ease of use, safety and economics;
Chemical insecticides have been consid- • toxicological and ecotoxicological impact
ered an essential component of insect pest and insecticide resistance.
control since the early 1950s when
In this chapter, all of these factors are con-
organochlorine insecticides were first
sidered in order to provide an overview of
widely introduced. Since that time, how-
the benefits, difficulties and problems asso-
ever, the problems associated with insecti-
ciated with chemical insecticide use.
cide misuse and the advent of more
ecologically sound IPM approaches have
raised doubts about the wholesale use of 4.2 Objectives and Strategies
insecticides as a sole means of pest control.
Increasingly the use of chemical insecti- In general, if used correctly, chemical insec-
cides has been considered in terms of judi- ticides are incredibly effective at killing
cial applications within the context of a their target pest. If the most appropriate
more sustainable IPM approach. Despite insecticide is selected, if it is targeted effec-
this, however, the chemical insecticide tively when applied and the timing, rate of
market is estimated to be worth US$8 bil- application and number of applications is
lion annually which ably demonstrates the optimized in relation to the application
value placed on insecticides by farmers costs and subsequent benefits achieved
and other purchasers worldwide. While it through increased crop yield, then insecti-
may be appropriate to decry insecticides cides remain an efficient and economic
for their poor environmental and safety means of controlling insect pests. Even
record, insecticide use remains a corner- when used inappropriately, and applied
stone of pest management and is likely to incorrectly, the perceived benefits of insec-
continue as such for many years to come. ticides to the farmer still seem justified in
The correct and rational use of insecti- relation to their costs, the yields obtained
cides is a complex process that draws on a and the perceived benefits of reduced risk
thorough knowledge of: from pest damage. Hence, even in this sim-
• insect population dynamics and the plistic way it is easy to understand why
impact of chemical use; insecticides have proved so popular among
• the active ingredients of the insecticide, users as a means of pest control.
its mode of action and formulation; One of the objectives of pest manage-
• delivery of the chemical, its application ment research since the 1950s has been to

81
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82 Chapter 4

improve the decisions made in relation to for more direct decision making. So, for
insecticide application, mainly through the example, a simple decision rule such as
use of action or economic thresholds ‘spray every time it looks like there will
(Sections 2.5.1; 3.9). However, such thresh- be a three day dry spell at least two weeks
olds should not be seen as a universal after the previous spray’ may, if based on
solution (Mumford and Knight, 1997); sound economic and biological criteria,
alternative approaches which may be prove more cost-effective than either cal-
equally valid, depending on the circum- endar or threshold treatments without the
stances, include calendar-based applica- need for complex information or manage-
tions and standard operating procedures. ment (Mumford and Knight, 1997). The
A calendar-based or ‘scheduled, pro- objectives of the farmers will ultimately
phylactic’ application means that the affect the strategy adopted. Other stake-
insecticide is applied to the crop at regular holders have other objectives, however,
intervals without information on the level and the strategies they propose may be
of pest infestation. On each occasion the entirely different. Lower dose rates below
level of infestation is unknown or assumed those recommended to reduce residue
to be sufficient to justify application. levels may be requested by retailers; bet-
Where crop value is high, or damage ter means of targeting and application and
thresholds low, and while the returns from pesticide specificity will be required by
high insecticide input remain high this environmentalists wishing to reduce the
strategy, at least in the short term, may impact on non-target organisms and the
appear attractive. However, in the longer environment. All these and other objec-
term the disadvantages can far outweigh tives have an influence over the strategies
the benefits. There are now many well doc- adopted in the development and use of
umented examples of how, when insecti- chemical insecticides. Over time there
cides were used prophylactically over a has been a change in the type of pesticide
number of years, insecticide resistance used (Fig. 4.1), a decline in application
developed, secondary pest insurgence rates (Fig. 4.2) and active ingredient, a
occurred, natural enemy populations were general increase in specificity and a
destroyed and eventually insecticide use decrease in persistence combined with
no longer constituted a viable control reduced mammalian toxicity (Table 4.1)
method. The possible damage to the health (Geissbuhler, 1981).
of farmers and their families as a result of Despite these improvements in reduc-
over-exposure to poisonous chemicals or ing the disadvantages associated with
their residues must also be taken into chemical insecticides they remain haz-
account. ardous substances that need to be treated
Standard operating procedures provide as such, but within this context they con-
an alternative to calendar treatments that tinue to represent a highly effective and
substitute a predetermined application economic (to the user) means of pest con-
schedule (e.g. spraying every two weeks) trol.

Table 4.1. Comparative toxicology and use rates for pyrethroids, carbamates and organophosphates (from
Perrin, 1995). a.i., Active ingredient.

Typical range of Acute oral Acute dermal

field use rates LD50 (rat) LD50 (rat)
Chemical group (g a.i. ha21) (mg kg21) (mg kg21)

Pyrethroids 5–100 100–5000 1000–5000

Carbamates 125–1000 20–100 1000–5000
Organophosphates 250–1500 10–500 50–3000

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Insecticides 83

Fig. 4.1. Comparison of insecticide usage on cereals in Great Britain 1982–1992, amount used (tonnes)
(after Wilson, 1995).

Fig. 4.2. The reduction in application rates of insecticides since 1940. The graph is based on the following
insecticides: DDT (1942), parthion (1946), dieldrin (1948), diazinon (1951), azinphos-methyl (1955),
dimethoate (1956), carbaryl (1958), chlordimeform (1963), monocrotophos (1965), diflubenzuon (1972),
permethrin (1973), deltamethrin (1975) (after Geissbuhler, 1981).

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84 Chapter 4

4.3 Classes of Chemical Insecticides down during periods of food shortage suffi-
cient chemical can be released into the
The majority of chemical insecticides con- blood to cause poisoning and even death.
sist of an active ingredient (the actual poi- For these reasons organochlorine insecti-
son) and a variety of additives which cides have been banned by most developed
improve the efficacy of its application and countries, although they are still produced,
action. The chemical and physical proper- sold and used in many developing coun-
ties of the technical product, for example, tries where they are usually one of the
its state, melting point and vapour pres- cheapest insecticides available. The broad
sure, will to some extent influence the spectrum activity of organochlorines, their
type of additives that can be used and persistence and hazard to the environment
subsequently the overall formulation of mean that their use in insect pest manage-
the insecticide. The formulation of an ment is largely considered inappropriate,
insecticide will influence the method by although as a chemical group there still
which it is applied, its persistence in the remain situations where they are an impor-
field and also its toxicity. These two tant control option, e.g. mosquito control.
aspects then, the chemistry of the techni-
cal product and the insecticide formula- 4.3.2 Organophosphates
tion, are central to an understanding of The organophosphate insecticides (OPs)
chemical insecticides. Chemical insecti- were originally developed as a by-product
cides are usually divided into four major of research into nerve gases which was car-
classes, the organochlorines, organophos- ried out during World War II and they work
phates, carbamates and the pyrethroids. In by inhibition of the respiratory enzyme
addition to these there are now a number cholinesterase. They are a large group of
of new compounds representing other insecticides that are prepared from a small
‘smaller’ classes e.g. insect growth regula- number of intermediates by combination
tory, imidates, phenylpyrrazoles. with a wide variety of chemicals that are
readily available in the chemical industry
4.3.1 Organochlorines (Barlow, 1985). Many of the organophos-
The best known organochlorine insecticide phates are highly toxic to mammals but
is DDT, noted for its broad spectrum of they are usually non-persistent and hence
activity, its persistence and its accumula- are less of a threat to the environment
tion in the body fat of mammals. DDT than organochlorines (Edwards, 1987).
shares these properties with the other Nevertheless, they should be handled with
organochlorines, examples of which are care since doses may be cumulative (Hill
aldrin, dieldrin, endosulfan and gamma- and Waller, 1982). The fast breakdown of
HCH or gamma-BHC. The organochlorines organophosphate insecticides is an advan-
can be divided into subgroups according to tage as far as the principles of IPM are con-
structural differences but they have in cerned but it also means that the timing of
common chemical activity that affects application is critical to ensure an efficient
synaptic transmission, their stability, low kill. They therefore require an effective
solubility in water, moderate solubility in monitoring and action threshold strategy in
organic solvents and a low vapour pressure order to ensure timely application and
(Hill and Waller, 1982). The stability and maximum economic return.
solubility of the organochlorines means A large number of organophosphate
that they are highly persistent and this may insecticides have a systemic action that is
lead to long term contamination of the particularly effective against phloem feed-
environment and gradual accumulation in ing insects, many also have effective contact
animals at the higher end of the food chain. and stomach action. Organophosphate
If organochlorines present in the body fat insecticides have been used to control a
reach a high level, when the fat is broken wide range of pest insects from sheep

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Insecticides 85

blowfly (diazinon), locusts and grasshop- 1978). The hazards they present relate
pers (fenitrothion), nuisance flies such as mainly to short term toxicity, and particu-
houseflies (dichlorvos), aphids (dimethoate) larly toxicity to fish and non-target inverte-
and lepidopterous pests (malathion). brates. Although largely formulated as
emulsifiable concentrates for spraying they
4.3.3 Carbamates can be microencapsulated (e.g. Tefluthrin)
These are derivatives of carbamic acid for control of soil insect pests. They are
which have been developed more recently used to control a wide range of insect pests
than the organophosphates although their of agriculture and horticultural crops and
mode of action is basically the same as that for use in the control of insect vectors of
of OPs, that is, they affect the activity of disease (e.g. tsetse fly in parts of Africa)
acetylcholinesterases. However, in the case (Walker et al., 1996). Pyrethroids have also
of carbamates the enzyme inhibition is made substantial inroads into public
more easily reversed and the insects can health, industrial, amenity and household
recover if given too low a dose. Carbamates outlets, as well as grain and food stores
have a broad spectrum of activity and usu- (Perrin, 1995). Pyrethroids have become
ally act by contact or stomach action, a few the first choice for an insecticide in these
possess systemic activity (e.g. aldicarb and different situations because dosages can be
carbofuran). Carbamate insecticides are for- kept extremely low. For instance, 5 g of
mulated in a similar way to organophos- deltamethrin or lambda-cyhalothrin can
phates with the most toxic ones (i.e. protect the same area of cereals from aphid
aldicarb and carbofuran) being available damage as 0.5–1 kg of an organophosphate
only as granules (Walker et al., 1996). The and 15 kg can treat as many houses for
carbamates are used principally to control mosquito control as one tonne of DDT.
insect pests of agricultural and horticul- Since their introduction in the mid-1970s
tural crops. the pyrethroids have proved a powerful
insecticide control tool which has in some
4.3.4 Pyrethroids cases threatened their longer term viability
The most effective and safe natural insecti- through rapid development of pest resis-
cides are the pyrethrins derived from the tance.
flowers of Pyrethrum cinearaefolium and
their synthetic analogues the pyrethroids 4.3.5 Insect growth regulators
(Barlow, 1985). Synthetic pyrethroids are, Insect growth regulators (IGRs) interfere
in general, more stable chemically and bio- with embryonic, larval and nymphal devel-
chemically than are natural pyrethrins, opment, disrupt metamorphosis and repro-
however they are readily biodegradable duction. They are highly selective to
and have short persistence. Synthetic insects and arthropods but because they
pyrethroids have high contact activity and kill through disruption of growth and
are particularly effective against lepi- development they take more time to reduce
dopterous larvae (King and Saunders, insect populations than conventional
1984). The effect of pyrethroids is often insecticides. IGRs can be classified as juve-
extended beyond that of other insecticides nile hormones, chitin synthesis inhibitors
because of their ability to repel insects and triazine derivatives.
(Hammond, 1996). Permethrin and cyper- Two hormones are involved in the con-
methrin have been shown to offer such trol of larval and nymphal moulting: the
extended control through repellence of the moulting hormones or ecdysones and the
Mexican bean beetle Epilachna varivestis juvenile hormones. The ecdysones are nec-
on soybeans (Dobrin and Hammond, 1983, essary for the resorption of the old cuticle,
1985). deposition, hardening and tanning of the
Most, but not all, pyrethroids have a new cuticle while the juvenile hormones are
very low mammalian toxicity (Elliot et al., present during the larval stage at each moult

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86 Chapter 4

to prevent the insect maturing (Bowers, pomonella and Epiphyas postvittana

1971). The ecdysones have generally proved (Valentine et al., 1996) and termites (Su,
to be too expensive to synthesize and use as 1994). Pyriproxifen, another mimic, is
control agents. However, recently a new active against fleas at very small doses and
class of insect growth regulators which are has recently been released in the USA in
non-steroidal ecdysone antagonists have spray, collar and wash formulations (Wall
proven effective against Lepidoptera and Shearer, 1997).
(Chandler et al., 1992; Cadogan et al., 1997). The insect cuticle presents a potentially
The product tebufenozide demonstrates vulnerable and specific target for the disrup-
activity on neonate larvae of Helicoverpa tion of its chemistry, structure and function
zea, Spodoptera frugiperda (Valentine et al., by insecticides (Reynolds, 1989). The amino
1996) and Choristonsura fumiferaria sugar polysaccharide chitin is a particularly
(Cadogan et al., 1997). important component of the insect cuticle.
The role of juvenile hormones in meta- If synthesis of chitin is disrupted at crucial
morphosis is to perpetuate immature times, such as egg hatch or moult, then the
growth and development when they are insect will die. Among the substances
present and permit maturation when they known to inhibit chitin synthesis are the
are not (Bowers, 1971). A number of juve- benzoylphenylureas, e.g. diflubenzuron,
nile hormones have been identified and hexaflumuron and triflumuron. These IGRs
structures established. Derivatives of these have been found to be effective against a
hormones have also been produced, known range of pest species including termites, lep-
as juvenile hormone analogues or mimics idopteran, mites and scarid flies.
(sometimes referred to as juvenoids). The substituted melamine, cryomazine,
Potential utilization of the juvenile hor- has IGR effects causing reduced growth
mone or its analogues is dependent upon and eventually death from integumental
application at a late larval or early pupal lesions. However, it is considered to be in
stage when it can induce morphogenetic its own class of triazine insect larvicides
damage, resulting in development of inter- (Kötze and Reynolds, 1989) since it does
mediate larval/pupal or pupal/adult stages not act directly on chitin synthesis.
or ‘monster’ individuals that are unable to Cryomazine death of insects is character-
mature, but take some time to die. Herein ized by a rapid stiffening of the cuticle, and
lies a disadvantage of juvenile hormones. In it seems to have more specificity than the
pest species in which the larval stage is the benzoylphenylureas, affecting mostly lar-
most destructive, hormonal extension of the vae of Diptera.
feeding period may reduce any value from
control even if the insect does not manage 4.3.6 New classes and insecticide leads
to reproduce. This has restricted the use of New insecticides are developed through a
these IGRs to situations where only adult process known as biorational design and
stages are pests, e.g. mosquitoes, ants and the use of natural product leads or through
fleas, or where it is appropriate to prevent a directed synthesis approach. Whichever
the build-up of small populations causing process is used the majority of the impor-
negligible damage to levels causing eco- tant insecticides that are developed are
nomic loss e.g. stored products, long term neurotoxins which target one of four sites:
control of cockroaches (Menn et al., 1989). presynaptic acetylcholine production, the
A number of juvenile hormone mimics GABA-gated chloride channel, the voltage
are available, the oldest, methoprene, is regulated sodium channel and the post-
used for control of flies (particularly of synaptic acetylcholine receptor (Lund,
livestock), fleas, mosquitoes, stored food 1985; Wing and Ramsay, 1989).
and tobacco pests and pharaohs ants. A The pyrethroids still remain the last
commonly used newer IGR is fenoxycarb major insecticide class that has been devel-
which can be used to control Cydia oped and new pyrethroids continue to be

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Insecticides 87

produced (Hammond, 1996; Jin et al., stomach action on Lepidoptera, Diptera,

1996). Pyrethroids interfere at the sodium Hymenoptera, Thysanoptera, Isoptera and
channel with axonal transmission of the Homoptera and a favourable toxicological
nerve impulse. A new insecticide DPX- profile (Larson, 1997).
KN128, for broad spectrum control of lepi- The nitroquanidine insecticides, of
dopteran pests, blocks sodium channels which imidacloprid is a member, interrupt
which leads to poor coordination, paralysis the transmission of nerve impulses by
and ultimately death of the insect (Harder blocking the nicotinergic receptors on the
et al., 1996). postsynaptic membrane of insect nerve
The structural features of pyrethroids cells, as opposed to the acetylcholine pro-
have been combined with those of DDT to duction on the presynaptic membrane. In
produce a new broad spectrum class of this respect imidacloprid behaves in a sim-
insecticides known as the ‘Imidate insecti- ilar manner to the old fashioned insecti-
cides’. The imidates are less persistent than cide nicotine (Dewar et al., 1993) but is
DDT and more stable to enzyme hydrolysis representative of a new generation, known
than pyrethroid esters (Fisher et al., 1996). as neonicotinoids. A second generation of
This has been achieved by replacing the neonicotinoids, the thianicotinyl insecti-
ester functionality of pyrethroids with an cides, are now emerging (Senn et al., 1998)
imidate ester having a more hydrolytically which have clear advantages of lower dose
stable linkage. The imidates have signifi- rates and a much broader spectrum of con-
cant activity against lepidopteran larvae, trol than other neonicotinoid insecticides.
have favourable environmental properties They can be used on most agricultural
and low toxicity to fish. crops and control a wide range of sucking
Another new class of insecticide, the and chewing insects, including some
phenylpyrrazoles, has similarities to DDT. Lepidoptera.
The phenylpyrrazoles class is perhaps best Research continues to search for new
represented by fipronil which acts by leads among insect hormones. Despite con-
inhibiting the neurotransmitter g-aminobu- siderable research effort aimed at identify-
tyric acid (GABA). The effect is highly spe- ing or synthesizing anti-juvenile hormone
cific to the invertebrate GABA receptor agents, until recently, with the discovery of
making it very safe to the mammalian host. naturally occurring allatostatic neuropep-
The avermectins (Fisher, 1990) are also tides, this field has not fulfilled its
highly active against the GABA site. The undoubted promise (Schooley and
avermectins, ivermectin and abamectin are Edwards, 1996). However, novel IGRs are
fermentation metabolites of the Actino- still entering the market. Novaluron is a
mycete fungi Streptomyces avermytilis and novel benzoylphenylurea which acts like
have a broad spectrum of activity against others of its class by inhibiting chitin for-
arthropods and nematodes and low verte- mation but is dissimilar from other ben-
brate toxicity (Wall and Shearer, 1997). zoylphenylureas in that it acts both through
The screening of pathogens and their ingestion and contact (Ishaaya et al., 1996,
metabolites is proving a viable approach to 1998). Antiecdysis effects have also been
identifying novel insecticide leads. The found in leads based on hymenopteran
active ingredient of the spinosyn class of venom. The parasitic wasp Eulophus pen-
insecticide (Larson, 1997) was originally nicornis produces a venom protein which
isolated from a soil sample of has activity as a moult inhibitor in the
Saccharopolyspora sinosa in the Virgin tomato moth Lacomobia oleracea (Marris et
Islands in 1982. Spinosyns utilize a novel al., 1996; Weaver et al., 1997). The discov-
nicotinic site of action giving increased ery of low molecular weight toxins, the
sensitivity to acetylcholine. Spinosyn A polyamine amides in the venom of certain
was first synthesized in 1988 and this and spiders (Usherwood et al., 1984) and the
others identified have both contact and demonstration that they are glutamic acid

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receptor antagonists (Usherwood and agent or agents cause the technical product
Blagborough, 1989) provide considerable and organic solvent solution to disperse
potential as novel structures for new classes evenly in the water when mixed by stir-
of insecticide (Quicke, 1988). ring. It is sometimes necessary to maintain
The development of novel insecticides a level of agitation in order to keep the
and new leads continues apace despite the chemical dispersed in the tank. If separa-
increasing costs of such development for tion of the liquid into two phases occurs, a
agrochemical companies. In general, the process known as creaming, then the emul-
commercial companies still appear to be sion has been broken.
concentrating on developing broad spec-
trum products, but with lower mammalian 4.4.3 Water dispersible powders
toxicology and generally more favourable Water dispersible powders are, as the name
ecotoxicological profiles. suggests, powders that are insoluble but
can be dispersed in water. The technical
product can be either a solid or a liquid.
4.4 Formulations Liquid insecticides can also be absorbed
onto an inert solid and then used as a
The technical product of a chemical insec- water dispersible powder. Solid formula-
ticide is rarely suitable for application in tions are ground to a fine powder and sur-
its pure form. It is usually necessary to add face active agents added to promote
other non-pesticide substances so that the dispersion of the particles when they are
chemical can be used at the required con- added to water. If the particles are not agi-
centration and in an appropriate form, per- tated during application then a certain
mitting ease of application, handling, amount of sedimentation might occur, this
transportation, storage and maximum would result in a gradient in the concentra-
killing power. Thus, chemical insecticides tion of the technical product in the tank,
may be formulated as solutions, emulsion giving an uneven application rate.
and suspension concentrates, water dis- Water dispersible powders are usually
persible powders, baits, dusts, fumigants applied at high volume rates with low con-
and granules and pellets. centrations of the technical product but
there is a tendency, also reflected in the use
4.4.1 Solutions of emulsion concentrates, to use smaller vol-
One of the early methods of applying DDT umes at high concentrations (Barlow, 1985).
was as a solution of the technical product
in an organic solvent applied at high vol- 4.4.4 Suspension concentrates
umes. However, since this is both a danger- Suspension concentrates differ from water
ous and expensive method of application it dispersible powders in that they are formu-
was later discontinued. Now solutions of lated as a finely ground solid held as a sus-
technical products are used where the pension in a non-solvent liquid. This
active ingredient is soluble in water or an suspension is then diluted with the same
organic solvent and applied using equip- solvent (usually water) for application.
ment suitable for ultra-low volume (ULV) Sedimentation may be reduced by the
application. addition of polymers that tend to ‘fix’ the
solid in the suspension. However, one dis-
4.4.2 Emulsion concentrates advantage of suspension concentrates is
Technical products that are insoluble in that they may be unable to withstand tropi-
water can first be dissolved in an organic cal conditions of storage (Barlow, 1985).
solvent combined with emulsifying agents.
This product can then be diluted with 4.4.5 Baits
water to an appropriate strength in the Bait formulations combine insect attrac-
spray tank before use. The emulsifying tants with an insecticide. The attractant is

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Insecticides 89

used to lure the insect to the insecticide centrations to kill pests in soil or enclosed
which is then transferred by contact or spaces. The toxicity of the fumigant is pro-
ingestion. The attractant may be a potential portional to its concentration and the expo-
food source or, more recently, sex sure time. They are characterized by a good
pheromones, which lure specific pest capacity for diffusion and act by penetrat-
species to the bait. The active ingredient of ing the insect’s respiratory system or being
the insecticide must not deter feeding or absorbed through the insect cuticle. All
repel the insect and in some cases, for fumigants are toxic to humans (Benz, 1987)
instance with termites, the insecticide and hence should only be used where the
needs to be slow acting (Su et al., 1982). safety of the operators can be assured. The
Three types of toxicant are commonly number of chemicals suitable for fumiga-
incorporated into baits: chemical insecti- tion is limited; examples include hydrogen
cides, biopesticides and insect growth reg- phosphide, methyl bromide, ethylene
ulators (Su et al., 1995). Bait formulations dibromide and dichlorvos (Benz, 1987).
are used to control insects as diverse as Fumigants are applied to control stored
locusts and grasshoppers (Caudwell and product pests under gas proof sheets, in gas
Gatehouse, 1994), ants and cockroaches. sealed rooms or buildings or in special
chambers, they are, however, costly to use
4.4.6 Dusts and require strict supervision.
Insecticide dusts consist of the technical Fumigants are also used in a wide range
product mixed with an inert carrier which of quarantine treatments. For instance,
is then ground to a fine powder. They are methyl bromide for control of lepidopter-
applied, either as a seed dressing or as a ous pests in stone fruits (Yokoyama et al.,
foliage application, with a dust blower 1992), cabbage and lettuces (Yokoyama and
machine. Miller, 1993) and hydrogen phosphide for
control of Hessian fly in hay (Yokoyama et
4.4.7 Granules and pellets al., 1994).
Granules are solid particles between 0.1
and 2.5 mm in size (Barlow, 1985) that con- 4.4.9 Controlled release formulations
sist of the technical product combined The important feature of controlled release
with an inert carrier. Granules provide a formulations is that they allow much less
safe, easy to handle product which allows active ingredients to be used for the same
for precise targeting and slow release of the period of activity (Quisumbing and
active ingredient. The pelleting process by Kydonieus, 1990). The different formula-
which seeds are coated with an insecticide tions used for pesticides include: reservoir
varies from country to country, but the pel- systems with a rate controlling membrane,
let ingredients are usually organic in e.g. tefluthrin applied to the surface of
nature, such as wood fibre. Pelleting allows sugar beet pellets (Asher and Dewar, 1994);
a number of chemicals to be applied to a monolithic systems, e.g. plasticized
matrix without necessarily coming into polyvinyl chloride (PVC) strips with
contact with the seed, thus reducing the dichlorvos as an active ingredient used for
risk of phytotoxicity (Dewar and Asher, fly control, as tags or collars for cat flea
1994). Products such as imidacloprid have control or as ear tags for hornfly
been formulated as either a pellet or a gran- (Haimatobia irritans) control and as lami-
ule for use in control of sugar beet pests nated structures, e.g. chlorpyrifos used for
(Dewar, 1992a). household and industrial use against cock-
roaches, ants and wasps.
4.4.8 Fumigants
Fumigants are chemical formulations that 4.4.10 Spray adjuvants
have a relatively high vapour pressure and Spray adjuvants are chemicals that are usu-
hence can exist as a gas in sufficient con- ally part of the formulated insecticide

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90 Chapter 4

although in some circumstances they are and transferred to the targeted stage of the
added to the insecticide tank mix prior to insect life cycle.
application. These additives may improve
mixing with the dilutent, or improve insec- 4.5.1 Efficacy testing
ticide activity in the field. The former type The techniques used to evaluate insecti-
of additive includes dispersants that are cide efficacy have been reviewed by
added to wettable powders to prevent sedi- Matthews (1984, 1997a) and Busvine
mentation, and emulsifiers which are used (1971). The experimental process starts
to ensure that stable emulsions occur when with laboratory evaluation and then pro-
the oil soluble form of a technical product gresses with small plot trials and then large
is mixed with water, as in emulsion con- scale testing on research station fields
centrates. The types of additive that (Reed et al., 1985). Following this trials
improve activity in the field include surfac- will be carried out as multi-location experi-
tants, spreaders, penetrants, stickers and ments on the fields of cooperating farmers.
humectants. The surfactants and spreaders Laboratory bioassays to establish insec-
improve both the contact with and the ticide efficacy include standardization of
spreading of the insecticide over the insect species, stage, sex, age and physio-
sprayed surface, by reducing the surface logical and behavioural condition (Dent,
tension of the spray droplets. The pene- 1995), since all of these factors will influ-
trants are oils that are added to improve ence the susceptibility of a pest. Extrinsic
the penetration of a contact insecticide factors such as temperature, humidity,
through the insect cuticle. These are partic- feeding and time of treatment, density of
ularly important if the insect has a very treated insects and illumination also have
waxy cuticle. Stickers are added to an impact on susceptibility and need to be
increase the adhesion of the spray to the standardized. The insecticide may be
leaf surfaces to improve the persistence of applied topically to the outer surface of the
the insecticide, especially in situations insect using micro-pipettes or special
where rainfall is high and a large amount syringes, as a residual film applied to a
of runoff from the foliage is expected. suitable surface (e.g. glass slides, filter
Humectants are more commonly used with papers, leaves) or systemically through the
herbicides and they decrease the rate of xylem of treated laboratory plants to evalu-
evaporation of the water dilutent in a spray ate efficacy against sucking pests such as
formulation. aphids and whitefly.
The results of a bioassay (the mortality
recorded over a range of insecticide con-
4.5 The Target and Transfer of centrations) are plotted as dosage mortality
Insecticide curves. These are analysed by Probit analy-
sis (Finney, 1971; Gunning, 1991) (Fig.
An insecticide can only control an insect 4.3). Toxicity, quoted in milligrams of
pest if it is suitably toxic and applied in active ingredient for each kilogram of body
such a way that it reaches its intended tar- weight (i.e. parts per million of the test
get. A large number of interacting factors organism), is measured as the dose at
are involved in the process of ensuring a which 50% of the test insects are killed, in
suitably formulated, toxic active ingredient a specified time (often 24 hours) and is
is applied to provide adequate coverage referred to as the LD50 (LD = lethal dose)
and subsequent pick-up and mortality of (Busvine, 1971; Finney, 1971).
the insect. It is first necessary to ensure Field trials can be costly, hence there
that, under optimal conditions, the active may be situations where smaller scale
ingredient is sufficiently efficacious, then investigations are needed to more precisely
that the application parameters produce determine the treatments to be used in
droplets or deposits that can be picked-up larger, more formal field trials (Matthews,

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Insecticides 91

1997a). Field trials methodology is dealt tively low perimeter length and reduce the
with in Section 3.8 (see also Perry, 1997) area sacrificed to guard rows (Reed et al.,
but there are a number of aspects of field 1985). Small plots can be physically
trials methodology that are specific to the shielded from drift particles with erection
testing of insecticides, particularly the size of portable screens but these require extra
and shape of plots, methods of preventing staff to move them between plots as each
spray drift and the use of control untreated plot is treated. The most reliable method of
plots. The size of plot used in insecticide preventing drift contamination is the use of
trials will be dependent on the type of sufficiently large plots or spraying systems
insecticide application equipment used to which minimize drift (Matthews, 1981).
apply the treatments. Quite small plots can The use of untreated control plots can
be used for granular insecticides, plots promote undesirable inter-plot effects. In
treated with knapsack sprayers need to be insecticide trials untreated control plots
at least 10 3 10 m in size, while plots of 30 can sometimes be replaced with a standard
3 30 m have been used with hand held check insecticide treatment. The check
spinning disc sprayers (Matthews, 1984; treatment could be the current recommen-
1992). Smaller plots than these need to be dation for the insecticide and its rate of
shielded in some way to prevent drift cont- application. The experiment would then
amination between plots. Rectangular plots determine the value of differing dosages,
can go some way to preventing drift conta- timings of application and different insecti-
mination if the long axis of the plot coin- cides from those currently used. Such an
cides with the direction of the wind at the approach would reduce, although not
time of application, but if the wind direc- remove, the inter-plot effects. Reed et al.
tion is at all variable this approach is (1985) suggested the need for maintaining
unsatisfactory. Square plots have a rela- standard unsprayed crop areas well away
from insecticide sprayed crops to provide
information on seasonal fluctuations in
pest numbers, unaffected by insecticide
treatments, however, there are probably
few research stations that could afford this
luxury, despite its obvious value.
The insecticide treatment may be
applied using conventional spray equip-
ment or, because field trials are often car-
ried out over relatively small areas, a
number of specialized sprayers have been
developed as plot sprayers (e.g. the Oxford
Precision Sprayer) (Matthews, 1997a).
The evaluation of treatments is ultimately
concerned with the measurement of crop
yield but measures of insect damage and
numbers may also be considered relevant.
The ease with which these variables can be
measured depends on many things but the
simplest trials will involve univoltine pests
Fig. 4.3. A hypothetical example of a regression
for which only a single application of insec-
line (solid line) used to calculate an LD50 through
ticide is required to reduce yield loss. Where
probit analysis. The dotted line is a provisional line
from which the expected probits are determined. multivoltine pests reinfest a crop after insec-
Response % is the percentage of insects killed; ticide application, repeated applications
probits are a transformed estimate of the % response may be needed which may require estima-
(after Matthews, 1984). tion of the extent of pest re-invasion.

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92 Chapter 4

Table 4.2. The approximate range of spray volumes applied in field crops and trees and bushes (from
Matthews, 1979).

Volume of spray (l ha21)

Description of spray Field crops Trees and bushes

High volume >600 >1000

Medium volume 200–600 500–1000
Low volume 50–200 200–500
Very low volume 5–50 50–200
Ultra low volume <5 <50

The size of an insect infestation can be Ca − Ta

measured before and after insecticide % efficacy = × 100 (4.2)
Ca
application to quantify the effectiveness of
the treatment and to measure the subse- since Tb = Cb = 1.
quent rate of reinfestation. Problems may
Measures of yield are considered in
arise with this method with slow acting
Chapter 3.
microbial insecticides because of the time
needed to kill insects (e.g. Prior et al.,
1996). Counts immediately after applica- 4.5.2 Spray characteristics and droplet
tion would probably not differ from counts deposition
in controls or be greater than those from a Insecticide application aims to provide suf-
check standard chemical treatment. The ficient insecticide dose and cover to ensure
time taken for insect mortality to occur in an adequate level of control of the target
the field would need to be known before insect. In the past this was achieved
counts could be usefully employed as a through the use of high volume applica-
measure of effectiveness. Puntener (1981) tions. These used large amounts of the
provides a number of formulae using insect water dilutent so that the treated surface
counts before and after treatment to calcu- became wet and coverage was assured.
late insecticide efficacy. Two formulae However, the time required to repeatedly
based on counts of surviving insects are refill large sprayers tanks, and the environ-
included here. The Henderson–Tilton for- mental concern associated with insecticide
mula should be used when infestation runoff has led to the use of lower volume
between plots is non-uniform before treat- applications. These are classified differ-
ments are applied: ently for field crops and tree crops (Table
4.2) although the abbreviations HV, MV, LV,
Ta Cb VLV and ULV for high, medium, low, very
% efficacy = 1 − × × 100 (4.1)
Ca Tb low and ultra low volume are usually
accepted in both cases. Reducing the vol-
where:
ume that is applied to a surface means that
Tb and Ta are the sizes of infestation in the
other interacting factors (Fig. 4.4) also have
treated plots before and after application.
to change in order to ensure adequate cov-
Cb and Ca are the corresponding infesta-
erage. The size of droplets is particularly
tions in the control or check plot.
important as this affects their impaction
If the infestations in plots before treatments and retention on the treated surface and,
are uniform then the Henderson–Tilton for- depending on the relative size of the insect,
mula reduces to Abbott’s formula: the likelihood that a deposit will transfer

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Insecticides 93

Fig. 4.4. The interaction of droplet diameter with density and application rate, and with LD50 ng per insect
and the percentage concentration of active ingredient (a.i.) per droplet.

from the surface to the insect. Thus, the

type of target must influence the choice of
droplet size (Table 4.3) which in turn will
influence the volume application rate (Fig.
4.5). The droplet density that is required
will depend on the size of the insect and
its mobility, higher densities of small
droplets would be required for a small,
immobile insect egg than for a large, highly
mobile caterpillar.
Reducing droplet size but maintaining
the same level of active ingredient
increases the concentration of the insecti-
cide which is not necessarily desirable.
The required concentrations for reduced
volumes of spray have to be evaluated by
experiment, but the concentration of active
ingredient should not normally exceed
10% of a droplet (Matthews, 1984; Fig.
4.6). The influence of differing percentage
concentrations of active ingredient for a
range of droplet sizes on the toxicity of the
acaricide difocol against eggs of the red
spider mite, Tetranychus urticae, was aptly
illustrated by Munthali (1981). This study
indicated that the most effective treatment
did not occur at the highest concentration

Table 4.3. Optimum droplet size ranges for selected

targets (from Matthews, 1979).

Droplet sizes
Target (µm)

Flying insects 10–50

Fig. 4.5. The relationship between the number of
Insects on foliage 30–50
droplets (1, 2, 5, 10, 20, 50, 100; number cm22),
Foliage 40–100
their diameter and the volume of spray applied
Soil (and avoidance of drift) 250–500
(after Johnstone, 1973).

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94 Chapter 4

cult to target with an insecticide than foliar

feeders. Thus, there is a need to understand
the basic biology, resource use and behav-
iour of a pest insect before an insecticide
can be applied effectively (Fig. 4.8).
Insecticides can be transferred to their
target insects by direct interception, by
gaseous or contact transfer or through
ingestion of treated material. Direct inter-
ception of droplets by a target insect can
occur by either impaction or sedimentation
and is dependent on the insect’s size and
shape as well as droplet size and density.
Different parts of an insect will be more
likely to intercept droplets than others, so
that the surface distribution of droplets
will depend on the morphology of the
insect. In flying locusts the area on which
sedimentation and impaction occurred was
calculated using a measurement referred to
as the horizontal equivalent area (HEA;
Wootten and Sawyer, 1954). When only
large droplets and the process of sedimen-
tation on the horizontal plane of the insect
is involved, then the HEA was defined as
the horizontal plane area which, when
Fig. 4.6. The relationship between toxicity (1, 10,
passed through a curtain of droplets of a
100, 1000; LD50 ng per insect), droplet diameter given diameter at the same velocity of a
and the concentration of a.i. for one droplet to locust, collected the same number of
contain an LD50 dose (Johnstone, 1973). droplets as the locust. However, droplets
are also transferred by impaction as the
locust flies into a spray and hence the HEA
of active ingredient but at a 1% concentra- by definition is the horizontal area which
tion with an appropriate droplet size and collects by sedimentation alone the same
density (Fig. 4.7). number of droplets as the locust collects by
sedimentation and impaction. An approxi-
4.5.3 Factors influencing the target and mate allowance for impaction was made by
pick-up adding to the area of the locust, the pro-
An insecticide can only control an insect jected horizontal area of the surfaces on
pest if it is applied in such a way that it which impaction takes place, and then
reaches its intended insect target. This tar- treating the problem as one of sedimenta-
get can be the eggs, nymphs, larvae, pupae tion only (e.g. Fig. 4.9; Wootten and
or adults, depending on which are the most Sawyer, 1954). The HEA was greater for
harmful stages and the ease with which small droplets than for large and was also
they can be targeted. The different life cycle influenced by the air speed of the locust
stages of an insect vary in behaviour and (Fig. 4.10). A change in air speed from 3 to
habitat use which affects their ‘trans- 5 m s21 (Fig. 4.10) added about 10% to the
parency’ to the insecticide, that is, their HEA for larger droplets and about 80% for
presence at a site that can be usefully smaller ones; that is, as the locust increases
treated with an insecticide. For instance, its air speed the importance of pick-up by
boring stages of an insect will be more diffi- impaction of small droplets increases dra-

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Insecticides 95

Fig. 4.7. The relationship between the LD50 (4 days post-treatment) of dicofol and the concentration applied
against the red spider mite Tetranychus urticae on the adaxial surface of beans, for a range of droplet sizes
(after Munthali and Scopes, 1982).

matically. The impaction of droplets pletely different. In such cases the proba-
occurred mainly on the wings of the locust bility of interception is entirely dependent
and on the head region; this in association on the location of the insect and its size in
with a more even distribution of deposit relation to the size and density of droplets.
was thought to be responsible for the When difocol was applied to the adaxial
observed toxicity response. leaf surface of bean plants with an in-flight
Insects such as locusts will readily diameter of 53 µm and density of 300
intercept droplets because they are rela- drops cm22, only 10% of eggs of the red
tively large and mobile, so that if they are spider mite were directly hit by spray
within a spray area their chances of inter- droplets (Munthali and Scopes, 1982).
cepting an insecticide will be increased the Small insects such as aphids, mites or
more they fly around. The situation with whitefly may be less susceptible to direct
small, sessile life stages of insects is com- interception of insecticide droplets than

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96 Chapter 4

Fig. 4.8. Factors that could influence the location of insects on their hosts.

larger insects but because of their small few insecticides which have high enough
size they may be more susceptible to a vapour pressures at appropriate tempera-
gaseous form of insecticide transfer. tures for this method of transfer to be gen-
Insecticides that have a high vapour pres- erally applicable; the main processes of
sure (>1022 Pa), such as demeton-S-methyl, transfer of insecticides involve direct con-
dichlorvos and phorate may, in conditions tact and ingestion by insects.
of still air, saturate the air of the boundary Contact insecticides are only appropri-
layer with toxic vapours. Small insects that ate against insects that are sufficiently
are within the boundary layer may receive mobile to ensure they come into contact
a lethal dose of an insecticide by gaseous with the insecticide deposit. Contact with
transfer, while larger insects that have a the insecticide deposit will depend on
significant portion of their bodies above the droplet size and density. In addition, the
boundary layer are less likely to succumb. proportion of the insect that comes into
Ford and Salt (1987) considered the effec- contact with the deposit and the extent of
tiveness of gaseous transfer to be depen- movement over treated areas will also
dent on the insect body size, its location influence insecticide transfer.
and behaviour (sessile insects would be The size and nature (e.g. oils) of the
most susceptible), the air speed at the plant deposit will affect the transfer of insecti-
surface, vapour pressure and the toxicity of cide to the insect. While large particles
the active ingredient. However, there are may be more readily dislodged from an

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Insecticides 97

Fig. 4.9. The estimation of the horizontal equivalent (HE) area (HEA) of a locust: (a) variation of HE of a
vertical measurement projected at various angles of approach of droplets; (b) horizontally projected area; (c)
vertical areas presented to droplets (after Wootten and Sawyer, 1954).

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98 Chapter 4

of time crawling or walking across treated

surfaces are most susceptible to this form
of insecticide transfer, e.g. lepidopterous
larvae. The behaviour of the insect will
also affect the likelihood of contact with
insecticides. However, insect behaviour
may be influenced by the presence of
insecticide deposits (Head et al., 1995).
Spodoptera littoralis moves 45 times faster
when walking than when feeding (Salt and
Ford, 1984) and this difference could
account for the proportion of contacted
deposit that is transferred to the insect
(Ford and Salt, 1987).
The feeding behaviour of the insect may
affect the uptake of a stomach poison
applied to the food of the pest insect. The
insecticide must be applied to a site on
which the insect feeds, the coverage must
be sufficient for a lethal dose to be
ingested, repellancy and vomiting of the
insecticide must be avoided, and the
deposit size should be small enough to be
Fig. 4.10. The horizontal equivalent area (HEA) as a eaten by the insect. Wettable powder
function of droplet size at locust flight speeds of deposits tend to remain proud of the leaf
3 m s21 (– – – –) and 5 m s21 (––––) (after Wootten
surfaces and hence are less likely to be
and Sawyer, 1954).
ingested than emulsifiable concentrates
that sometimes mix with leaf epicuticular
waxes (Ford and Salt, 1987).
insect cuticle once picked up, small parti- The behaviour of target insects must
cles which can penetrate the insect cuticle always be studied, in some instances it
more effectively tend to adhere to a surface reveals unexpected results and invaluable
making transfer to the insect more difficult information. A study of particle size and
(Ford and Salt, 1987). The pick-up and bait position on the effectiveness of boric
retention of DDT crystals was described for acid and sodium borate to control the
the tsetse fly, Glossina palpalis, by American cockroach, Periplaneta ameri-
Hadaway and Barlow (1950). Particles were cana, (Scriven and Meloan, 1986) provided
picked up on the legs and ventral surface a possible explanation for variable results
of the abdomen. The small particles were found previously by other workers. The
transferred from the legs to the antennae, cockroaches do not intentionally feed on
head and other body parts as the flies the boric acid or borate but if it is provided
cleaned themselves. The few larger crystals at an appropriate particle size (< mesh size
picked up by the insects were easily 80) and placed in positions where normal
removed from the body during cleaning behavioural patterns take the cockroaches
and other movements. Particles were (such as along edges and corners) then the
picked up on the legs and ventral aspect of fine powder is picked up by their bodies.
the abdomen as these were the parts of the However, the insecticidal effect only
insect that came into contact with the occurs when the cockroaches ingest the
treated surface. Insects that are not capable particles as they clean themselves. The
of flight or larvae that have a large sur- results of experiments depend on where
face/contact area and spend a large amount the compounds are placed and the particle

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Insecticides 99

Fig. 4.11. An approach to the development of effective insecticide application procedures based on the
properties of insecticide deposits.

size distribution of the powder (Scriven 4.6 Application Equipment

and Meloan, 1986).
A knowledge of insect behaviour is A detailed description of the equipment
imperative if insecticide targeting is to be used for the application of insecticides is
improved (Fluckiger, 1989; Adams and beyond the scope of this book (see
Hall, 1990). This knowledge combined Matthews, 1992) but because spray pat-
with optimal placement, density and terns, droplet size distribution and volume
droplet size of insecticides provides a applied are influenced by the type of
means by which more effective transfer can equipment used, a brief outline of the sub-
be achieved (Adams and Hall, 1989). An ject is required.
understanding of these interactions can The application of insecticides is still
then be used to determine the most effec- dominated by techniques initiated over a
tive formulations and to modify spray char- century ago, that is, as water based sprays
acteristics and application procedures (Fig. applied through hydraulic nozzles
4.11). This approach is likely to gain favour (Matthews, 1997a). These sprayers force
over empirical observation made during the liquid insecticide and dilutent, under
field trials as new techniques lead to a bet- pressure, through a small aperture nozzle
ter understanding of processes underlying producing a sheet of liquid that becomes
the field performance of insecticides (Ford unstable, breaking into droplets having
and Salt, 1987). a wide range of sizes and volumes. The

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100 Chapter 4

Fig. 4.12. The percentage of the total number of droplets of different diameters produced by a hydraulic
nozzle (histogram) and by a centrifugal energy nozzle with a flow rate of 2.0 ml s21 (––––) and 55 ml s21
(– – – –) (after Dombrowski and Lloyd, 1974; Matthews, 1979).

volume of the largest droplets can be up to droplets of < 50 µm diameter are required.
one million times larger than the smallest. Droplets of this size produce fogs which
Herein lie the disadvantages of hydraulic readily penetrate through air to cover sur-
nozzles. The high proportion of small faces, foliage and stored produce. Use of
droplets produced (<100 µm; Fig. 4.12) are such small droplet sizes lends itself to rates
prone to drift and evaporation while most of insecticide application that are classified
of the spray volume is taken up with a few as ultra low volume.
large droplets that tend to bounce or run Ultra low volume (ULV) application
off the foliage (Matthews, 1985). In arable rates became possible through develop-
farming hydraulic nozzles are mounted as ment of equipment that permitted con-
a series along a boom which is typically trolled droplet application, i.e. the
held 50 cm above the ground. In tree and application of a very narrow range of
other crops the nozzles are usually droplet sizes. The accurate control of
mounted in an air stream to project the droplet size and flow rate was made possi-
spray droplets into the crop canopy. Air ble with the development of spinning disc
assisted application is particularly useful or cup sprayers. These sprayers make use
in glass houses and stores where very small of the centrifugal energy of a spinning disc

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Insecticides 101

which produces uniform sized droplets at their effectiveness and to some extent their
the edge of the disc. The range of droplet ease of use, since one would not expect a
sizes can be varied by the speed of the disc technique that was ineffective or too diffi-
and the flow rate (Fig. 4.12). cult to use to gain its present level of
A relatively novel form of application acceptance. However, there are still obvi-
involving the electrostatic charging of ous practical problems with insecticide
droplets was developed during the 1980s. use, such as the hazard during mixing and
The electrodynamic sprayers have no mov- application and hence the need for protec-
ing parts, they charge the spray as it passes tive clothing, difficulties in sprayer calibra-
through the nozzle so that the droplets are tion, the necessity for appropriate weather
then deposited on the nearest earthed conditions, practical thresholds for timing
object, i.e. the crop. Although an excellent applications and disposal of used contain-
idea, in practice the penetration of the crop ers (Fig. 4.13).
by droplets was often inadequate to control Practical problems associated with
some pests. Electrostatic charging can be insecticide application include the time
applied to spinning disc and hydraulic and difficulty associated with transporting
nozzles but to date the only commercially and moving large volumes of water. A large
successful applicator is a hand held proportion of the time used applying an
sprayer which is used for spraying cotton insecticide can be spent filling a tractor
in a number of countries in Africa. mounted sprayer (ADAS, 1976; Matthews,
Developments to spray equipment in the 1984), a fully loaded knapsack sprayer can
next few years will be mainly in relation to weigh 21.5 kg (Pawar, 1986) and it can take
improved use of existing equipment up to three to four man days to spray a 1 ha
(Matthews, 1997a). The development of a field (Matthews, 1983). The effort required
commercially viable large scale sprayer to carry the full sprayer, to refill it (this
based on electrostatic charging of droplets may be needed over 30 times to spray 1
would revolutionize insecticide spray ha), the continuous pumping required (if
equipment, but in the absence of this, the sprayer is a hydraulic energy sprayer)
efforts will concentrate on better nozzle is certainly sufficient to discourage many
selection, modifications to improve opera- farmers from using insecticides, especially
tor safety and ease of use and reducing in a hot climate. Some of these problems
wastage of insecticide. have been overcome with the introduction
of ULV sprayers, which as the name sug-
gests, use less water than high volume
4.7 The Farmer/User Requirements sprayers and hence do not have to be
refilled as often. The hand carried versions
The decision to adopt insecticide applica- are light (4 kg; Pawar, 1986) and require
tion as a method of insect pest control will less manual effort for application because
not only depend on the type and level of they are battery powered.
pest infestation but also on a number of Application equipment needs to be reli-
other factors which relate to the potential able and simple in design so that it
user. Although individual circumstances requires little maintenance. This simplicity
will differ and the relative importance of and ease of maintenance has been one of
each factor will vary, every user will have the main advantages of hydraulic knapsack
in common the need for insect control that sprayers in developing countries. A further
is easy to use, is safe and economically concern for a user is the calibration of the
viable (Fig. 4.13). spraying equipment and calculation of
application rates. If an insecticide is to be
4.7.1 Ease of use applied at the recommended dose then the
The extent to which insecticides have been user must know the rate at which the
used in the past tends to lend credence to insecticide is delivered by the sprayer

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Fig. 4.13. Abiotic factors governing the use of insecticides as a control option.

which in turn requires measures of vol- insecticide needed for the total area to be
ume, swath widths and walking speed to sprayed at the required dose, the number of
be made (Spencer and Dent, 1991). The sprayer loads and the quantity of the insec-
user then has to calculate the amount of ticide required for each load. Calculations

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Insecticides 103

such as this may seriously reduce the whereas if the walking speed is 1 m s21
chances of an appropriate dose being
applied (Dent and Spencer, 1993). 0.5 l min −1
In addition, simple errors in application 1 m × 60 m min −1
can also have a significant impact on
whether or not the required dose of insecti- = 0.0083 l m−2 × 10, 000
cide is actually applied. For instance, with = 83 l ha −1 (4.4)
knapsack sprayers an operator needs to Even when a farmer has correctly cali-
practise walking at a constant speed whilst brated the sprayer and determined the
pumping the hydraulic sprayer, the speed appropriate amount of insecticide to apply,
at which he walks will influence the cover- unless the environmental conditions are
age of the crop. For instance, with a swath suitable, an application should not be
width of 1 m and a flow rate of 0.5 l min21, made (Table 4.4). Conditions under which
then for a walking speed of 0.4 m s21 the insecticides can be applied are referred to
application rate will be: as ‘weather windows’, times when: it is not
0.5 l min −1 raining; crop leaves are not wet with dew;
the wind speed is appropriate; the plant is
l m × 24 m min −1
not under moisture stress; temperatures are
= 0.21 l m−2 × 10, 000 below a certain maximum and sunlight is
= 200 l ha −1 (4.3) not too intense (Smith, 1983). Hence,
despite their value as crop protection
agents insecticides, if applied correctly, are
not easy to use.

Table 4.4. Conditions under which pesticides 4.7.2 Safety

should not be applied (from Smith, 1983). Chemical insecticides are inherently toxic
substances but they are only a hazard to
When it is raining
man if used inappropriately. In developed
When leaf is wet with dew
When plant is dry; under moisture stress countries, where users are aware of the
Under windy conditions need for care and caution when dealing
When temperature is over 18°C with toxic substances, the hazard from pes-
When temperature is below 10°C ticides arises mainly from carelessness and
In intense sunlight negligence. There is no reason to expect
When mixed with non-compatible materials that procedures recommended for the safe
On open blossom handling of insecticides will be followed
To resistant pathogens or pests any more conscientiously than those from
To plants to be consumed within 14 days
other sources of hazard (Barnes, 1976).
To untested varieties
Provided users in a developed country are
To uncleared minor crops
When water supply is hard aware that they are dealing with a toxic
Without adding cationic or non-ionic wetter chemical, have a knowledge of the correct
Before reading instructions on can procedures and proper protective clothing
After material has been exposed to frost readily available, then they are totally
To rapid growing lush foliage responsible for their own safety. Accidents
If unable to convert pints per acre to litres per hectare occur because users become complacent.
If unable to calibrate sprayer The situation is totally different in
If unable to identify the target developing countries, however, where peo-
When ground is too wet to carry machine
ple may be unused to handling and using
When unsure of effectiveness of material
toxic chemicals. In some developing coun-
If you have no field experience
When customers are looking tries the use of pesticides may be a commu-
If unable to afford cost nity’s first contact with toxic chemicals
(Barnes, 1976), and they will view the

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104 Chapter 4

problems of hazard and toxicity from a in reality, this can often occur, thus expos-
totally different perspective. The safe use ing the spray operator to contamination.
of insecticides under these circumstances The greatest risk to the user comes from
can only be achieved through education dispensing and mixing the chemical con-
and training. The difficulty is exacerbated centrates with the dilutent in the spray
because non-users such as family members tank. A number of solutions have been
will inevitably come into contact with developed to reduce the operator exposure
insecticide deposits as they wash clothes, during mixing. Low level mixing units
prepare food or re-use discarded insecti- eliminate the need to climb on a tractor
cide containers. Even illness caused by mounted sprayer tank to pour insecticide
insecticide poisoning may not be diag- into the tank; closed chemical transfer sys-
nosed as such or associated with their use tems (CCTS) couples the pesticide con-
by an unsuspecting community doctor. tainer directly to the sprayer or mixing
The level of hazard associated with dif- unit, and injection systems mix water with
ferent insecticides varies markedly. The the pesticide concentrate as it is applied
World Health Organisation classifies chem- (Matthews, 1997a). The agrochemical com-
icals in terms of hazard according to acute panies have also agreed to standardize con-
oral and dermal toxicity data for solid and tainer apertures, which is promoting the
liquid formulations. Thus, good quality development of CCTS.
granular materials are less hazardous than Other problems with safety aspects
sprays of the same chemical (Matthews, of insecticide use concern packaging,
1992). The classification in four categories: labelling and disposal of insecticides and
Ia, Extremely Hazardous, e.g. phorate; Ib, containers. In developing countries adul-
Highly Hazardous, e.g. endosulfan; II, teration of insecticides can and does take
Moderately Hazardous, e.g. deltamethrin; place at repackaging and distribution cen-
and III, Slightly Hazardous, e.g. malathion, tres. In Manila’s rice bowl 70% of pesti-
provides a guide to the care that should be cide bottles at local retailers were found to
taken in dealing with the chemical and the contain chemicals adulterated to more
need for a type of protective clothing that than twice the acceptable standard of devi-
should be worn. ation (Goodell, 1984). Regulations govern-
For most insecticides it is advisable to ing the packaging of insecticides need to
wear rubber gloves, overalls, face mask and be closely controlled, but while monitor-
boots. However, in tropical conditions ing tests for adulteration remain expensive
heavy protective clothing becomes unbear- and difficult to carry out this is unlikely to
able with high temperatures and humidi- happen, and the dangers from use of such
ties. Often no protective clothing is worn insecticides remain. Labelling of packages
(Srivastava, 1974) either because it is not needs to be in the local vernacular, using
available or it is too expensive for farmers symbols and diagrams meaningful to the
to purchase. At least a light overall or nor- user. The label should include the brand
mal clothes should be worn. Many farmers name, details of the active ingredient and
normally walk barefoot, which could seri- materials used in the formulation,
ously increase their exposure to the insecti- intended use of the product, full direc-
cide; shoes or boots must be worn. A tions for correct and safe use and how to
handkerchief tied over the face can be used dispose of the container (Matthews and
as a face mask. All clothes used for insecti- Clayphon, 1973; Matthews, 1992).
cide application should be washed with The usual recommendation for the dis-
soap and detergent after completion of use posal of insecticides is to puncture the con-
of the insecticide (Matthews and Clayphon, tainer and to bury it, preferably in clay
1973). Operators should under no circum- soils at a depth of at least 1.5 m (Matthews
stances apply insecticides without clothes and Clayphon, 1973). In the tropics dis-
covering the legs, torso and arms. However, posal of containers in this way is unlikely

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Insecticides 105

to occur since the farmer is being asked to insecticide containers is something that
dig a pit 1.5 m deep to rid himself of a con- needs serious re-evaluation; perhaps the
tainer that has so many potential and valu- container needs to be changed to a type
able uses to him. The disposal of that has no intrinsic value after use.

Case Study: Assessing and quantifying ease of use (ICRISAT, 1989)

The development of a twin spinning disc knapsack sprayer (ICRISAT, 1989)
included an assessment of its ease of use, its effectiveness compared with a con-
ventional knapsack sprayer and a comparison with a hand held single disc
sprayer of spray droplet distribution on the operator. The swath produced by the
twin disc sprayer was 3 m wide, required 15 l of water and about 1.5 man hours
to cover 1 ha. A knapsack sprayer needed more than 400 l of water and 200 man
hours to spray the same area. Although the twin spinning disc sprayer required
less water and less time than the conventional knapsack sprayer to spray 1 ha,
the level of control achieved for the leaf miner Aproaerema modicella, the thrips
Frankliniella schultzei and Scirtothrips dorsalis and the jassid Empoasca kerri
on groundnut were equivalent (Table 4.5).
Table 4.5. The number of insects per groundnut plant 36 hours after insecticide application using
two types of spraying equipment (from ICRISAT, 1989).

Post-rainy season Rainy season

Sprayer type Leaf miner Thrips Leaf miner Thrips Jassids

Conventional knapsack
sprayer 0.63 2.00 12.4 0.10 0.02
Twin spinning disc
sprayer 0.25 1.72 14.0 0.24 0.02
Control (no spray) 2.48 4.57 43.2 4.20 0.40

When the twin spinning disc sprayer was compared with the conventional
hand held single disc sprayer to assess the risk to the operator, there was no sig-
nificant difference in droplet deposition on the feet, legs and waist of the operator
(Table 4.6). However, because the twin spinning disc sprayer has double the work
rate, the operator exposure time would only be half that of the single spinning
disc sprayer, although the legs of the operator receive a relatively high proportion
of the spray droplets when using the twin spinning disc sprayer (Table 4.6). One
solution to this problem was to suspend a sheet of polythene from the sprayer to
reduce deposition on the operator’s legs.

Table 4.6. The deposit of spray (crops cm22) on the feet, legs and waist of an operator spraying
groundnut. The amount of chemical solution falling on to an operator spraying groundnut was
measured when the wind direction was at 30° or more across the operator’s direction of travel
and wind speed was less than 10 km h21 (from ICRISAT, 1989).

Drops cm22 FA (%)

Type of spinning
disc sprayer Feet Legs Waist Total Feet Legs Waist Total

Single 1.13 0.34 0.10 1.57 16.4 6.4 5.6 28.4

Twin 0.50 0.84 0.04 1.18 11.8 21.2 6.0 31.4
Mean 0.81 0.59 0.07 14.1 13.8 5.8

FA = area exposed to the chemical as a function of the area of sample paper used for measurement.

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4.7.3 Economic viability 8.3% of total income (Webster and Bowles,

Insecticides are without doubt an effective 1996); in field beans purchase of Pirimicarb
means of killing insects, quickly and on to control black bean aphid costs £12.50
demand. No other control method provides ha21 providing a yield benefit of 3.5% on a
users with an immediate and visibly effec- crop yielding 5 t ha21 (Parker and Biddle,
tive means of response to signs of impend- 1998). Pesticide application costs are esti-
ing pest outbreaks. This ability has meant mated to be around £10.00 ha21 (Anon,
that risk-averse farmers spray at the first 1993; Oakley et al., 1998) although the
signs of insect pests, whether the numbers operating costs of the application equip-
observed are indicative of a serious out- ment used will differ (Table 4.7).
break or not, and some may even spray In general, the use of pesticides is prof-
insecticides regardless of the possible need itable (e.g. Oakley et al., 1998) or their use is
as an insurance against a perceived risk. perceived to be profitable through reducing
Obviously, there is a cost associated with the risk of damage to a crop. Farmers may
application of an insecticide. The insecti- use pesticides to reduce the risk of pest
cide itself tends to be inexpensive relative attack without establishing whether or not
to the value of the crop; for instance in the control is justified economically. Such pro-
UK, in apples pesticide costs £747 ha21, phylactic approaches to control usually

Table 4.7. Operational costs with knapsack and hand-carried CDA sprayers I and II (actual costs of
equipment and labour will depend on local conditions; the cost of the chemical, which is also affected by
the choice of formulation, is not included) (from Matthews, 1992).

Manually Motorized
operated knapsack Hand-carried sprayer
knapsack mistblower I II

Initial capital cost (£) 60 350 45 45

Area sprayed annually (ha) 20 20 20 20
Tank capacity (litres) 15 10 1 1
Swath width (m) 1 3 1 3
Life in years 3 5 3 3
Hectares h21 spraying* 0.36 1.08 0.36 1.08
Overall ha h21 (% efficiency)* 0.18 (50) 0.65 (60) 0.31 (85) 0.97 (90)
Use (h annum21) 111 30.8 64.5 20.6
Annual cost of ownership (£) 20 70 15 15
Repairs and maintenance† (£) 6 35 4.5 4.5
15% interest on half capital (£) 4.5 26.3 3.4 3.4
Total cost of ownership (£) 30.5 131.3 22.9 22.9
Ownership cost per hour (£) 0.27 4.26 0.36 1.11
Ownership cost per hectare (£) 0.76 3.95 0.99 1.03
Labour costs per hectare†† (£) 1.38 0.39 0.80 0.25
Operating cost including batteries** (£ ha21) – 0.68 2.2 0.74
Labour costs to collect water*** (£ ha21) 1.38 0.92 0.13 0.04
Total operating costs per hectare (£) 3.52 5.94 4.12 2.06
* Assuming walking speed is m s21, actual efficiency will depend on how far water supply is from treated
area, application rate and other factors.
† 10% of capital cost.
†† Assumes labour in tropical country at £2 per 8 hour day.
** Assumes batteries cost 50p each and a set of 8 will operate for 5 h with a fast disc speed. Fuel for
mistblower at 44p l h21.
*** Water required for washing, even when special formulations are applied at ULV.
Battery consumption is less on some sprayers with a single disc and smaller motors. The ‘Electrodyn’ sprayer
uses only 4 batteries over 50+ hours, so the costs of batteries on a double row swath is 0.6 instead of 2.2.

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Insecticides 107

involve spraying insecticides at set times or depicted in Fig. 4.14 (Norton, 1985). In
intervals during a cropping season, i.e. cal- years when the level of pest attack is very
endar spraying. In contrast to this insecti- low the farmer may benefit from not moni-
cides can be applied responsively, according toring or controlling the pest, but with mon-
to need in terms of the level of pest attack. itoring still providing a more profitable
This normally depends on the availability of option than prophylactic applications. As
an appropriate monitoring and forecasting the level of pest attack increases the benefits
system. It is generally considered preferable of monitoring and spraying outweigh those
for farmers to switch from prophylactic cal- of both no control and prophylactic control.
endar based applications to responsive need However, in situations where pest attack is
based applications, simply to improve tar- more frequent the need for the monitoring
geting and to reduce the environmental programme is reduced, and the costs exceed
impact of unnecessary insecticide applica- the benefits, making prophylactic control
tions (Dent, 1995). However, the extent to the most financially attractive option (Fig.
which farmers are willing to make this 4.14; Dent, 1995).
change is dependent on a number of factors.
The difficulties associated with a choice
between the two strategies, prophylactic 4.8 Insecticide Resistance
(calendar) spraying and responsive, moni-
toring and spraying programmes are illus- Insecticide resistance is the result of the
trated by the hypothetical net revenue lines selection of insect strains tolerant to doses of

Fig. 4.14. Hypothetical net revenue curves for a prophylactic and a responsive-spray strategy at different
levels of pest attack (after Norton, 1985; calendar spraying).

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108 Chapter 4

insecticide that would kill the majority of

the normal insect population (Cremlyn,
1978). These strains tend to be rare in the
normal population, but widespread use of an
insecticide can reduce the normal suscepti-
ble population thereby providing the resis-
tant individuals with a competitive
advantage. The resistant individuals multi-
ply in the absence of intraspecific competi-
tion, and over a number of generations
quickly become the dominant proportion of
the population. Hence, the insecticide is no
longer effective and the insects are said to be
resistant.
Resistance was recognized as a phenom-
enon as early as 1911 when citrus scales
treated with hydrogen cyanide acquired a
certain level of tolerance; however, resis-
tance only really became a concern in the
late 1940s with the use of the organochlorine
insecticides. The effects were noticed first
among pests of medical importance
(Busvine, 1976) where the insecticides were
being heavily used to control insect vectors
of human diseases. The incidence of resis-
tant species of medical importance increased
quickly from the late 1950s, and this was fol- Fig. 4.15. The increase in the number of insect
lowed by a concomitant increase in the species known to be resistant to at least one
insecticide (after Georghiou and Mellon, 1983).
numbers of resistant insects of agricultural
importance. The number of confirmed resis-
tant insect and mite species continued to sales (Thompson, 1997). Costs can include
rise (Fig. 4.15), to a level of 447 recorded by sales and technical service staff time,
1984 (Roush and McKenzie, 1987). replacement products, legal costs and crop
The increasing level of insect resistance yield replacements as well as loss of future
to chemical insecticides has been one of product sales and damage to the reputation
the driving forces for change in insect pest of the company. Thus, agrochemical pro-
management. The development of insect ducers have been increasing their commit-
resistance prompted the search for alterna- ment to confronting resistance problems
tive means of control both as a substitute to through, for instance, evaluating the risk of
chemical control and as a means of delay- cross resistance to new insecticides as part
ing the establishment of resistance. Faced of the product development programme.
with the unequivocal fact that no insecti- Such cross resistances may occur when a
cide is immune to resistance, far greater new product shares a target site or common
emphasis is being given to insecticide detoxification pathway with compounds
resistance management and to evaluating already in widespread use against the same
resistance risk prior to approval of new pest species. Resistance generally origi-
toxicants (Denholm et al., 1998). The eco- nates through structural alteration of genes
nomic costs of resistance to the agrochemi- encoding target-site proteins or detoxifying
cal industry can be very high. The cost of a enzymes, or through processes (e.g. gene
single non-performance complaint can amplification) affecting gene expression
negate the value of 10–1000 individual (Soderland and Bloomquist, 1990).

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Insecticides 109

Fig. 4.16. Four ranges of insecticide concentrations: (A) no mortality of any genotype and hence no
selection; (B) mortality of SS only (with R resistance dominant); (C) mortality of RS and SS (resistance
recessive); and (D) all genotypes killed and hence no selection (after Roush and McKenzie, 1987).

Insecticide resistance can be conferred Traditionally resistance studies have

on individuals by one or a number of identified only two phenotypes, resistant
genes, but major genes are responsible for (R) or susceptible (S), and simplifying
the 10–100-fold increases in resistance that assumptions have been made about inheri-
are often observed. The major gene inheri- tance of resistance (Daly and Trowell,
tance follows the classical Mendelian laws 1996). The process has been seen as one
providing individuals with definite geno- involving simple major gene inheritance
typic differentiation. Polygenic inheri- where in the absence of selection resis-
tance, involving cumulative resistance due tance genes would exist at very low fre-
to many small changes in minor genes, can quencies; the homozygous resistant genes
occur in the field but this type of resistance RR would be very rare compared with the
can be superfluous once a large increase in heterozygous RS (resistant/susceptible)
resistance is conferred on individuals by and the homozygous susceptible SS very
major genes. Polygenic resistance often common. The presence of the RS gene is
occurs in laboratory selection experiments maintained purely by a balance between
and has been responsible for some confu- mutation and selection. Once the insecti-
sion over mechanisms of inheritance of cide is applied the resistant individuals
resistance (Whitten and McKenzie, 1982). have a selective advantage and their genes
Such laboratory based studies of the inheri- rapidly spread through the population
tance of insecticide resistance therefore (Fig. 4.16; Roush and McKenzie, 1987). In
have little value, since they are not repre- reality, however, the evolution of resis-
sentative of field induced mechanisms of tance can involve more than one major
resistance. gene, the genetic basis of resistance can

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110 Chapter 4

change over time and the expression of toring tools will complement the range of
resistance can vary throughout the insect tactics available for the management of
life cycle. resistance.
Techniques for detecting insecticide There are relatively few resistance man-
resistance in insects have also advanced agement tactics that have been proposed
greatly in the last ten years. Traditionally that are sufficiently risk-free and intuitive
resistance was monitored in field popula- to stand a reasonable chance of success in
tions using bioassays of whole insects but the majority of circumstances. Foremost
there are many problems associated with among these are: (i) restricting the number
the use of such techniques (Brown and of applications over time and/or space; (ii)
Brogdon, 1987). More recently a range of creating or exploiting refugia; (iii) avoiding
biochemical and molecular methods have unnecessary persistence; (iv) alternating
become available such as enzyme elec- between chemicals; and (v) ensure targeting
trophoresis, enzyme assays and immuno- is against the most vulnerable stage(s) in
assays (Symondson and Hemingway, 1997) the pest life cycle (Denholm et al., 1998).
which have revolutionized the means by However, experience would suggest that the
which resistance can be detected and man- most difficult challenge in managing resis-
aged. It seems likely that DNA based detec- tance is not the identification of appropriate
tion systems will become available for field tactics but ensuring their adoption by grow-
detection in the near future. These moni- ers and pest control operatives.

Case Study: Pyrethroid resistance management against cotton

bollworms in Australia
The larvae of the cotton bollworm Helicoverpa armigera are major pests of crops
in Australia including cotton, grain legumes, coarse grains, oilseeds and many
vegetables. The species has 4–6 generations each year, depending on latitude,
and has a pupal diapause in winter (Zalucki et al., 1986). Pyrethroid resistance
was first detected in natural populations in 1983 after field failures with this
insecticide (Daly, 1993). At this time three mechanisms of resistance appeared to
be involved (Gunning et al., 1991):
1. A general mechanism of resistance that leads to reduced penetration through
the cuticle.
2. A metabolic component inhibited by piperonyl butoxide and so probably
associated with the mixed function oxidase (mfo’s).
3. Target site insensitivity.
Since then, studies have indicated that the majority of resistance is determined
by a single major gene associated with metabolism (Daly and Fisk, 1992); how-
ever, the frequency of the resistance phenotype has been shown to fluctuate
annually (Forrester et al., 1993). This pattern was shown to be due to the effect
of diapause, such that adults that had diapaused had lower estimates of
pyrethroid resistance than those adults that had not diapaused which had impli-
cations for when pyrethroid insecticides were applied to the summer generation
(Daly and Fisk, 1995). In addition, studies of the biology of the field larvae indi-
cated a variation in levels of resistance in different aged larvae such that insecti-
cides needed to target eggs and early larval stages.
A resistance management strategy based on general principles was first intro-
duced in late 1983 (Daly and McKenzie, 1986). The cropping year from spring to
autumn was divided into three stages, with the second stage lasting only 5–6

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Insecticides 111

weeks to correspond to a single generation of H. armigera. Each major group of

insecticide was used in either one or two stages but pyrethroids were limited to
the second stage only. This strategy of insecticide rotation proved highly success-
ful, for farmers who were able to keep using pyrethroids as a control option and
to the scientists who understood that the strategy moderated the resistance fre-
quency by restricting to one generation the period during which pyrethroid resis-
tant individuals were at a selective advantage relative to susceptible ones.

4.9 Ecotoxicology assess the ecotoxicological impact of the use

of chemicals (Edwards et al., 1998).
The short term benefits from the use of
insecticides are immense, with reductions 4.9.1 Non-target arthropods
in disease transmission by insect vectors Many non-target arthropods will come into
and in losses from field crops, stored prod- contact with insecticides when they are
ucts, orchard crops etc. As a result of these applied to control pest insects. With only
benefits insecticides have proved popular as 1% of the applied insecticide actually
a means of pest control, but there are also reaching its insect target (Graham-Bryce,
indirect costs associated with their use. The 1977) a large proportion of insecticide is
evaluation of these effects is dealt with in available in the environment to affect non-
the context of ecotoxicology, which is target species. Unfortunately parasitoids
‘the study of harmful effects of chemicals and predators of pests are often susceptible
upon ecosystems’ (Walker et al., 1996). to insecticides and hence can be severely
Ecotoxicology involves obtaining data for affected (Aveling, 1977, 1981; Jepson et al.,
risk assessment and environmental manage- 1975; Vickerman, 1988). Since natural ene-
ment, meeting the legal requirements for the mies are often responsible for regulating
development and release of new pesticides, pest population levels their destruction can
and developing principles to improve exacerbate the pest problem which leads to
knowledge of the behaviour and effects of further applications of insecticide. In some
chemicals (Forbes and Forbes, 1994). This is cases natural enemies that normally keep
achieved through study of the distribution minor pests in check are also affected and
of pesticides in the environment and their this can result in secondary pest outbreaks.
effects on living organisms at the individual, Hence, it is essential, where possible, to use
population and community levels. Since the only those insecticides that have a low toxi-
subject of ecotoxicology largely arose from city to natural enemies and to ensure that
toxicology and the need to regulate the they are applied in such a way that the like-
introduction of toxic chemicals into the lihood of natural enemy mortality is
environment, the use of cheap, reliable and reduced, e.g. decreasing plant runoff would
easy to perform tests on the toxicity of decrease the encounters of ground dwelling
chemicals to individuals has for many years natural enemies with the insecticide. The
dominated ecotoxicology. However, there is general sequence of tests to evaluate the
now a move towards evaluation of the likely impact of insecticides on non-target
impact of pesticides that relates more invertebrates should include laboratory,
closely to ‘real life’ situations. Although the semi-field and field studies (Fig. 4.17).
concept of the most sensitive species is still Laboratory tests on glass or sand and
used to relate the results of toxicity tests to extended laboratory tests on plant sub-
the real world there is now increasing strates are designed to screen out the harm-
emphasis on measurement of effects rather less insecticides (Brown, 1998). They are
than just death and the use of microcosms, arguably the most critical from a regulatory
mesocosms and macrocosms (small, point of view since they are routinely
medium and large multispecies systems) to applied to all chemicals and identify those

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112 Chapter 4

realism. Despite this, however, field studies

are often difficult to interpret and provide
little information on the mechanism of any
effects observed (e.g. Jepson, 1987).
Ultimately, well designed and carefully
conducted field studies will be the final
test of acceptability for new and existing
Fig. 4.17. A sequential procedure for testing the pesticides (Brown, 1998). In order for this
side-effects of pesticides on beneficial arthropods to occur there is a need for a series of com-
(after Hassan, 1986). prehensive field guidelines.
A number of guidelines for sequential
which require further testing. Semi-field testing schemes have been devised
studies expose the individual species out- (Hassan, 1989; Oomen, 1998); however, for
side but within cages or enclosures incor- non-target organisms other than honey
porating the crop, thereby providing more bees, the exact sequence of tests required,
realistic residue conditions. Field tests for the criteria for moving between them and
the side-effects on non-target arthropods the interpretation of data obtained at each
are designed to investigate potential effects stage, are still subject to much debate
on naturally occurring populations of (Denholm et al., 1998). Appropriate test
arthropods. Hence, while the laboratory procedures are incorporated into risk
test will always represent a worst case sce- assessment schemes (e.g. Table 4.8) which
nario, with artificial exposure of laboratory ultimately define the methodology for regu-
reared organisms, the field study offers latory risk management.

Table 4.8. The step-by-step development of the risk assessment scheme for honey bees (after Oomen, 1998).

Step Development procedure Honey bees

1 Define objective and target Protection of bees from killing by pesticide use
2 Define acceptability of effects, i.e. define Statistically insignificant mortality in exposed
risk classes bee hives is acceptable
3 Select or develop laboratory testing methods Dose-response tests LD50
(Smart and Stevenson, 1982)
4 Collect laboratory test results and collect field Publications, registration data, experiments,
information incidents
5 Compare and analyse laboratory and field data
6 Apply acceptability criterion to field information Discern known harmless (o) and harmful
(+) uses
7 Correlate criterion to laboratory data Find typical hazard ratio of safe cases
8 Set trigger value for laboratory data with Hazard ratio < 50
safety margin
9 Develop sequential decision making scheme, EPPO/CoE Scheme 10 (1993)
using laboratory information in first tier lab–cage–field
10 Test, improve and validate scheme EPPO/CoE exercise (Aldridge and Hart, 1993)
11 Use scheme and classify risks EU countries widely used
12 Apply risk management by regulating uses High: use not allowed where exposure
with high risks expected
13 Examples of risk management No spraying during crop flowering

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Insecticides 113

4.9.2 Other organisms lack of clarity in label instructions (Barnett

The most publicized and hence well and Fletcher, 1998).
known example of the negative impact of The pyrethroid insecticides are known
insecticides on higher organisms has been to have an impact on fish when entering
that of the population decline in raptorial freshwater rivers and lakes. Pimental et al.
birds due to DDT. The mechanism of (1993) quote a USEPA estimate that
decline was the reduced reproductive suc- between 6 and 14 million fish were killed
cess due to eggshell thinning which was annually between 1977 and 1987 by pesti-
first discovered in the UK in 1967 cides in the USA. With organophosphates,
(Ratcliffe, 1967). It was found that thinning however, the hazard is greatly reduced
in excess of 18% was associated with pop- since this group of insecticides is much
ulation decline (Peakall, 1993). The link less toxic to fish (Kips, 1985). Carbamate
between egg shell thinning and DDT was insecticides are highly toxic to earthworms
made in the early 1970s and was shown to and some organophosphates have also
be widespread on a global basis. With the reduced earthworm numbers (Edwards,
decline in use of DDT and other 1987). Reducing earthworm numbers can
organochlorine insecticides in the early influence soil structure and composition
1970s the extent of the problem was which can have knock-on effects for break-
reduced and many populations have recov- down of organic matter and drainage.
ered even though residues still persist
(Edwards, 1987). 4.9.3 Fate of insecticides in air, soil
Birds are also at risk from insecticides and water
other than the organochlorines. Carbamate The fate of insecticides depends on their
and organophosphate insecticides have physiochemical properties and the medium
been recorded as causing mortality to birds to which they are applied and ultimately
and other vertebrates via a number of dif- adsorbed.
ferent sources (Table 4.9; Hunter, 1995). The presence of insecticides in air can
In recent years, the rigorous approval be caused by: spray drift and volatization
process for pesticides has meant that prob- from the treated surface; the extent of drift
lems following the proper use of pesticides is dependent on: droplet size and wind
are rare (Barnett and Fletcher, 1998; speed; and volatization is dependent on:
Fletcher and Grave, 1992). The majority of time after treatment, the surface on which
poisoning incidents continue to be the the insecticide settles, the temperature,
intentional illegal use of pesticides. Often humidity and wind speed and the vapour
the negligent use of a pesticide is acciden- pressure of the active ingredient. Generally
tal and in some incidences it may reveal a it may be expected that the ecological risks

Table 4.9. Vertebrate incidents involving carbamate and organophosphate insectides (UK Data 1990–94)
excluding abuse (from Hunter, 1995).

Source Animals affected

Granular applications Blackbird, sparrow, pheasants, gulls

Secondary poisoning Buzzard
Seed treatments Corvids, duck, dog, geese, pigeons
Improper disposal Gulls, dog, cattle
Poor storage Dog
Veterinary medicines Buzzard, corvid, parrot, poultry, dog

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114 Chapter 4

associated with insecticides in the atmos- cide is applied; the organic content is the
phere are probably very small when single most important factor influencing
viewed in the context of atmospheric pol- persistence. Agricultural soil contains bac-
lution in general (Kips, 1985) and certainly teria, fungi, actinomycetes, algae and pro-
the impacts are negligible compared with tozoa and the total and relative numbers
that from direct agricultural applications. are influenced by type of soil, seasonal
For most compounds aerial deposition in changes, tillage, crop type, fertilization lev-
remote, natural or semi-natural ecosystems els and aeration (Kips, 1985). The amount
also results in negligible environmental of soil moisture and rainfall is also impor-
exposure, although for some highly tant.
volatile, persistent compounds there 3. The microbial population of the treated
appears to be the potential for prolonged soil, depth of cultivation of the insecticide,
exposure, albeit at low concentrations mean temperature of soil (increased tem-
(Dubus et al., 1998). peratures increase degradation).
The sources of insecticides in aquatic 4. The mineral content and acidity of the
systems can be quite diverse, from the soil, clay soils retaining insecticides longer
chemicals being applied directly to control than sandy soils.
various pests, from runoff from treated 5. The amount of plant cover and formu-
agricultural land, from the atmosphere dur- lation of insecticide and its concentration.
ing precipitation, leaks, spillages and
Pesticide persistence in the soil is also influ-
improper use of pesticides. Drinking water
enced by the phenomenon of enhanced
supplies in the EU should contain no more
biodegradation following repeated applica-
than 0.1 µg l21 of a single pesticide and 0.5
tion at the same site. Biodegradation, i.e.
µg l21 total pesticides while in the USA
primarily decomposition by micro-organ-
and Canada maximum limits for pesticides
isms, is by far the most important mecha-
are based on toxicological assessments
nism preventing the accumulation of some
(Carter and Heather, 1995). Pesticides are
insecticides in the environment (Römbke
present in water which is treated to pro-
and Moltman, 1996). Biodegradation has
duce drinking water at concentrations
been shown to be responsible for the fail-
above regulatory limits and conventional
ure of a number of soil insecticides (e.g.
water treatment processes have a limited
Suscon Blue).
capacity for pesticide removal (Croll,
1995). Soluble insecticides tend to be 4.9.4 Insecticide residues
washed through aquatic systems and cause Traces of insecticide in a final product that
little harm but less soluble chemicals can is to be used as a foodstuff are generally
bind to suspended particles and accumu- considered to be unwanted contaminants.
late in sediments and become a source of Published information would suggest that
possible future contamination of water between 60 and 80% of food samples
(Edwards, 1973, 1987). taken do not contain detectable residues
Edwards (1987) placed the various fac- and only 1–2% of samples contain any
tors that influence the persistence of insec- residues in excess of maximum recom-
ticides in soil in the following order of mended levels (MRLs; Smith, 1995). When
importance: residues are detected they can usually be
explained by:
1. The chemical structure of the insecti-
cide; the less volatile an insecticide the 1. Insecticide used on the growing crop
longer it persists. Granules persist longer for control of insects.
than emulsions which persist longer than 2. Insecticides used postharvest for the
miscible liquids. Wettable powders and preservation of food during storage.
dusts have a very low persistence. 3. The carryover of residues from past use
2. The type of soil to which the insecti- of organochlorines.

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Insecticides 115

4. The current use or abuse of organo- dependent on an economic threshold value

chlorine insecticides. or the time when the most vulnerable stage
of the insect life cycle is apparent and sus-
ceptible to control. The most judicial use of
4.10 Rational Insecticide Use insecticides against crop pests can be made
if pest numbers can be monitored and the
Since the prolific growth of use of insecti- insecticide applied as the numbers reach
cides in the 1950s their utilization has an economically damaging level (Chapters
been modified as a result of pressure 2 and 3). However, there are still many
exerted by various stakeholders: the agro- insect pests for which monitoring systems
chemical companies, the regulatory author- have not been devised and economic
ities, users and the general public (Haskell, thresholds are not available. In these cases
1987). At present there is a great deal of either a scheduled spray regime can be
research effort devoted to the optimization adopted, starting at the period when dam-
of insecticide use in order to reduce envi- age is thought likely to occur (usually a
ronmental contamination while maximiz- specific crop growth stage) or experiments
ing their effectiveness against the target can be carried out to determine the most
insect. This has led to the consideration of appropriate time to apply the insecticide
rational insecticide use, the physiological (Hull and Starner, 1983; Richter and Fuxa,
and ecological selectivity of insecticides, 1984).
where physiological selectivity is charac- The choice between whether a sched-
terized by differential toxicity between taxa uled spraying or a specific growth stage
for a given insecticide and ecological selec- application is undertaken will usually
tivity refers to the modification of opera- depend on the pest population dynamics
tional procedures in order to reduce or whether control is required for a pest
environmental contamination and unnec- complex. Where a pest complex is
essary destruction of non-target organisms. involved or where overlapping multiple
generations occur, the periods during an
4.10.1 Timing of insecticide application outbreak when it would be most appropri-
The timing of insecticide application pri- ate for application are less easily defined.
marily depends on the availability of suit- Hence, spraying on a scheduled basis can
able weather windows, the time at which sometimes be the only option until a
the pest can be best controlled and when greater understanding of the pest popula-
least damage will be caused to the environ- tion dynamics can be obtained. Where dis-
ment, especially to non-target organisms. crete, single species and single generation,
For instance, insecticides should not be outbreaks occur and a monitoring tech-
applied when the wind speed is above 2.5 nique has not been devised, the above
m s21 (Matthews, 1981) since this will approach for defining the crop growth
cause excessive insecticide drift and result period appropriate for maximizing yield
in the unnecessary contamination of adja- should be used.
cent areas. Spraying should not proceed if The time of day or the particular period
the wind is blowing towards grazing live- during a season may make beneficial
stock or regularly used pastures, and insects more susceptible to insecticides.
should always start near the downwind Bees are particularly prone to insecticide
edge of the field and proceed upwind so contamination during flowering periods in
that the operator continually moves into crops and during the middle of the day,
unsprayed areas (Matthews and Clayphon, hence applications should not be made at
1973). these times. The behaviour and population
The timing of insecticide application development of natural enemies should
should coincide with the most appropriate also be taken into account. If natural ene-
time to control the pest. This may be mies account for high pest mortality during

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116 Chapter 4

certain stages of the pest life cycle, insecti- effect on beneficial insects, research needs
cides should not be applied at these times, to be conducted on optimizing insecticide
since it could be wasteful of the insecticide application in relation to maximizing the
and reduce build-up of natural enemies. potential effects of beneficials.
Since insecticides can have a devastating

Case Study: Pre-flowering and post-flowering insecticide applications

to control Aphis fabae on field beans (Bardner et al., 1978)

The application of a demeton-S-methyl spray and a granular application of phor-

ate were tested for their effectiveness against the black bean aphid, A. fabae, on
pre-flowering and post-flowering field beans. The granules were compared with
the spray formulation in order to determine whether the granules, which are less
harmful to bees, provide adequate control of the aphid. The pre- and post-flower-
ing periods were also chosen since there is less bee activity in the crop at these
stages. The spray was applied at 0.25 kg a.i. in 370–562 l of water per hectare
and 10% phorate granules at 11.2 kg ha21 to randomized plots replicated five or
six times and repeated over six consecutive years. The value of the treatments
was considered in terms of the size of the aphid infestation, the yield and the
economic viability.
In general, the early treatments significantly decreased the number of aphids
compared with the untreated plots, while early spray and granule applications
appeared equally effective. The early spray and granule applications were better
than the late treatments for controlling the aphids and plots sprayed both early
and late had the greatest reduction in aphid numbers (Table 4.10).

Table 4.10. The effects of insecticide treatment on aphid infestations (Aphis fabae) on field beans.
The values in the table are the means of all weekly counts between the end of the primary
migration in June and the decline in numbers in late July or early August. The counts are
expressed as infestation categories on a logarithmic scale: 0 = no aphids, 1 = 1–10, 2 = 11–100
etc. (from Bardner et al., 1978)

Aphid infestation

Treatment 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973

Sprayed early 0.08 0.41 0.16 0.05 0.41 0.23

Sprayed late 0.39 0.74 0.49 0.08 0.53 0.41
Sprayed early and late 0.06 0.23 0.06 0.04 0.27 0.18
Early granules – 0.45 0.12 0.05 0.37 0.23
Late granules – – 0.14 0.07 0.73 0.48
Untreated 0.76 1.09 1.60 0.04 0.78 0.60
SE of differences ±0.188 ±0.109 ±0.072 ±0.188 ±0.225 ±0.237

There were significant increases in yield in treated plots in all years except
1971 and 1972, although there were large fluctuations within treatments. This
was probably caused by variability in aphid abundance and the inherent variabil-
ity in bean yields. The largest yield increases were the result of early granule
application while the combined early and late spray treatment and the early
spray treatments were often as good. Lower yield increases relative to untreated
plots occurred with both late spray and granule application (Table 4.11).

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Insecticides 117

Table 4.11. The effects of insecticide treatments on the yield of field beans (t ha21).

Yield of field beans

Treatment 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973

Sprayed early 2.13 2.79 1.48 2.16 3.11 4.21

Sprayed late 1.99 2.79 1.38 2.30 2.97 3.90
Sprayed early and late 2.23 3.00 1.39 2.26 3.15 4.27
Early granules – 2.76 1.60 2.42 3.19 4.38
Late granules – – 1.48 1.94 2.90 3.65
Untreated 1.67 2.56 1.07 2.15 3.16 3.70
SE of differences ±0.188 ±0.109 ±0.072 ±0.188 ±0.225 ±0.237

An economic analysis of these experimental results shows that two sprays

were more effective than a single early spray but the extra spray decreased the
overall profit (Table 4.12). The application of early granules was the most prof-
itable treatment (£32 t21) even though the application of a spray costs less than
granules.

Table 4.12. The value of mean increase in yield of field beans with insecticide treatments.

Mean Value of increase Value of increase, less cost of

yield increase at £130 t21, less treatment, if treatments applied
Treatment (t ha21) cost of treatment (£) only in 1968, 1970 and 1973 (£)

Sprayed early +0.26 23.32 24.55

Sprayed late +0.17 11.41 12.63
Sprayed early and late +0.33 21.73 20.72
Early granules +0.34 32.01 26.48
Late granules 20.03 15.90 5.60

These results show that pre-flowering treatments were the most effective and
pre-flowering granular applications provided the greatest profit while minimiz-
ing the risk to foraging bees.

A great deal of research effort is now readily via the pathway used by natural
directed towards the screening of insecti- enemies. Insect herbivores and omnivores
cides for their selectivity so that chemicals rely heavily on oxidative detoxification
which are less toxic to natural enemies can pathways in developing resistance to
be recommended for use. The physiologi- insecticides (Georghiou and Saito, 1983)
cal selectivity of an insecticide depends on whereas entomophagous arthropods
either a decreased sensitivity in the natural appear to use esterase and transferase
enemy at the target site or an enhanced activity to detoxify insecticides. Thus, the
rate of detoxification compared with the design of insecticides that are primarily
pest insect. If the natural enemies have dif- detoxified non-oxidatively or activated
ferent detoxification pathways from the oxidatively should produce chemicals that
pest, then this could be exploited by using are favourably selective for natural ene-
insecticides that can be detoxified more mies (Mullin and Croft, 1985).

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118 Chapter 4

There is a great need for research in this doses, if a persistent insecticide is used.
subject area to ascertain the biological, Mobile natural enemies may avoid an
physiological and biochemical differences insecticide application or move into a pre-
between pests and natural enemies, so that viously treated area, or if present during
screening for physiological selective insec- an application they may survive as a resis-
ticides can proceed at a greater pace. tant stage or within sheltered refuges.
However, if an insecticide is persistent the
4.10.2 Dosage and persistence chances of contamination of natural ene-
The insecticide dose applied should be suf- mies by insecticide residues are greatly
ficient, but no greater than the level enhanced. Since persistent insecticides are
required, to provide satisfactory control. more likely to contribute to insecticide
The insecticide manufacturer will set the resistance and have a greater effect on nat-
dosage level to an amount that ensures an ural enemy populations, the advantages of
acceptable level of control, produces persistence in terms of improved pest con-
acceptable levels of residue and maximizes trol are short lived.
the return per unit of formulated insecti-
cide. Insecticide doses reduced from recom- 4.10.3 Selective placement
mended rates have been shown to provide Few insecticide application procedures
adequate levels of control (Hull and Beers, distribute the insecticide efficiently. With
1985). There are a number of advantages in less than 1% reaching the intended insect
reducing the dosage level of an insecticide target a large amount of the applied insecti-
that, both directly and indirectly, benefit cide is wasted. It is vitally important that
the user. The direct benefit would be the the target for the insecticide be precisely
lower costs due to the reduced level of defined, and with an understanding of
chemicals required, while the indirect ben- insect biology and behaviour the properties
efits would be the extra control exerted by of the insecticide deposit at different appli-
natural enemies that may obviate the need cation and dosage rates can be optimized
for further applications, and a slowing in (Section 4.5). Selective placement for a par-
the rate of development of insecticide resis- ticular target can reduce the amount of
tance if pest populations are only reduced insecticide applied so that only those sur-
rather than decimated. faces most likely to mediate transfer of a
The benefits from natural enemies deposit to the insect are treated.
might be diminished, even with lower

Case Study: Spray deposition in crop canopy and the deposition of

insecticide on non-target insects (Cilgi et al., 1988)
The two main cereal aphid pests in the UK, Sitobion avenae and Metopolophium
dirhodum, prefer to feed on the ears or the upper leaves of wheat, respectively
(Vickerman and Wratten, 1979), hence insecticide applied against these species
would be most effectively targeted if confined to these plant parts. Cilgi et al.
(1988) sought to determine the distribution of spray within the crop canopy and
then to ascertain whether natural enemies at different positions in the crop were
susceptible to direct contact spraying.
The pattern of spray deposition within a mature cereal crop was determined
by applying Fluorescene, a fluorescent tracer (0.05% w/v + 0.7% wetting agent),
to the crop using conventional spraying equipment and a suitable application
rate. After application samples of 25 ears, 25 flag leaves and 25 first leaves were
taken together with 25 sections of flag leaves that had been placed across 10 cm2
glazed tiles at ground level. The leaf samples were individually placed in vials

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Insecticides 119

Table 4.13. Deposition levels (µl cm22) of fluorescent tracer applied at a rate of 200 l ha21 to
winter wheat. Values sharing the same letter are not significantly different (P > 0.05; from Cilgi et
al., 1988).
Crop stratum Mean deposition rate SE

Ear 0.360 0.029 a

Flag leaf 0.495 0.053 b
First leaf 0.298 0.021 a
Ground level 0.336 0.017 a

containing 10 ml of phosphate buffer for 8 hours. The amount of tracer released

into the buffer was then determined by comparison with a standard calibration
curve obtained from a known amount of original spray solution in known vol-
ume of buffer measured in a fluorescent spectrophotometer. The data were then
converted to volume of tracer per cm2 from area measurements of the foliage and
ear samples. The major difference occurred between deposition on the flag leaf
and other sprayed surfaces (Table 4.13) with a large amount of spray reaching
ground level.
To determine whether beneficial insects were exposed to direct contact with
insecticides, dead individuals of four species were placed at various positions
within the plant canopy. Each insect was pinned to a 1.0 3 7.5 cm piece of
glazed photographic paper. The tracer deposition on each insect was determined
as above with the amount landing per unit insect area, calculated from estimates
of the mean ground area coverage of each species.
Insects on the undersides of leaves and at ground level had lower deposition
than those insects on the upper surface of leaves and the ears (Table 4.14) hence
there will be a different level of risk to beneficial insects in different strata of the
crop. The aphid specific predators and parasitoids that inhabit the upper levels
of the crop are most at risk, while the mostly nocturnal, ground dwelling
polyphagous beneficials are at least risk. Data of this type linked with laboratory
LD50 toxicity data can provide important insights into the probable levels of mor-
tality to beneficial insects caused by insecticide application (Section 4.9.1).

Table 4.14. Deposition levels (µl cm22) of fluorescent tracer on insect species placed at different
positions in the canopy of winter wheat. Values sharing the same letter are not significantly
different (P > 0.05; from Cilgi et al., 1988).

Mean deposition
Crop position Insect rate SE

Ear Coccinella septempunctata 1.827 0.208 a

Flag leaf (dorsal side) Coccinella septempunctata 0.901 0.169 bc
Ground Pterostichus melanarius 0.412 0.066 cde
First leaf (dorsal side) Coccinella septempunctata 0.309 0.116 de
Ground Harpalus rufipes 0.288 0.070 e
Ground Hebria brevicollis 0.267 0.082 e
Flag leaf (ventral side) Coccinella septempunctata 0.044 0.044 e

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4.11 Discussion any problems with insecticide use such as

the development of resistance and environ-
Chemical insecticides have provided the mental contamination with persistent
principal means of insect pest control since organochlorines have always led to the
1945 with the advent of DDT and gamma- production of new insecticides as replace-
HCH. The status which they have achieved ments and improvements, so users have
provides ample evidence of their value and had few reasons for changing their practice
the confidence placed in their effectiveness or seeking alternative methods of control.
by the user, but one might question why Insecticide companies are, however, now
insecticides are still used in such large finding it more costly to develop new
quantities given the well publicized draw- insecticides.
backs associated with their use, such as In 1956, 198,00 compounds had to be
insecticide resistance, destruction of bene- screened to produce a new pesticide prod-
ficial insects and environmental contami- uct whereas in 1972 10,000 were needed
nation. There is of course no simple (Johnson and Blair, 1972). The newer
answer but among other things insecticides insecticides such as the synthetic
do provide users with a means of making pyrethroids are more sophisticated than
an immediate response to an impending the earlier insecticides such as DDT,
pest outbreak, and because of their fast rate requiring many more synthetic steps in the
of kill they also present the user with tangi- production process, hence production
ble evidence of their effectiveness. costs are greater. The costs of research and
Insecticides are also relatively cheap, development of a new insecticide from dis-
compared with the potential loss if not covery to marketing are estimated at
applied, and, at the start of the insecticide between £10 and 15 million (Haskell, 1987)
revolution, they were much cheaper, e.g. the recovery of which must be made over
dieldrin and DDT, than the more complex 10–15 years. With the rapid development
insecticides developed more recently, e.g. of resistance to many insecticides that
the synthetic pyrethroids. Insecticides were occurs through widespread use there is a
initially, and to a large extent remain, broad growing interest within agrochemical com-
spectrum in activity and as a means of con- panies in prolonging the life of their insec-
trol they can be used against a diverse range ticides. If resistance to the insecticides
of pests in extremely varied conditions and develops at too fast a rate (especially if
environments, e.g. field crops, stored prod- cross resistance occurs) an insecticide may
ucts, medical and veterinary pests. No other become unusable before a satisfactory
single control method offers this versatility return on investment can be made.
and common assurance of success. As far as Agrochemical companies are thus inter-
farmers or other users are concerned insect ested in ways in which the life of their
pests remain a potential, if not a real, threat insecticide products can be prolonged,
to their livelihood. after all, commercial companies have to be
Insecticides provide an adequate means concerned with making a profit. Insecticide
of controlling pests of their livestock and companies also have to take into account
crops. A farmer may be aware of the prob- the concerns of users, special interest/
lems that insecticides can cause but many lobby groups and the general public. The
of these concerns appear long term and powerful influence of such groups on the
unrelated to the immediate need to reduce development and use of insecticides over
the uncertainty associated with pest con- the past 40 years should not be underesti-
trol. Individual farmers may feel they have mated. As an example of the influence of
little to benefit from changing their prac- special interest groups, Haskell (1987)
tices while neighbours continue in tradi- identified the ‘bird lobby’ who have effec-
tional style, an example of Hardin’s (1962) tively nullified progress towards efficient
‘Tragedy of the Commons’. Also, to date, and practical control measures against

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Insecticides 121

birds, one of the most damaging groups of the more readily identifiable goal of pest
pests in world agriculture. Other groups eradication. The former requiring a greater
and the pressure of media and public opin- understanding of the agroecosystem and
ion have gradually influenced the course of pest ecology before implementation is pos-
development of the insecticide industry sible in contrast to the quick fix philosophy
over 40 years, some of it indirectly through possible with insecticide use. However, in
changes in legislation from government Europe and the USA the environmental
and some directly by the need to improve costs associated with insecticide use are
their public image. now being considered to be too high and
The image of the agrochemical industry there is a general movement in public
as the ‘bad boys’ of agriculture came into opinion towards environmentally safe
being after the publication of Silent Spring means of pest control and crop production.
by Rachel Carson in 1962, heralding the The public and environmental pressure
‘Era of Doubt’ for insecticide and pesticide groups can and do support alternatives
use (Metcalf, 1980). The agrochemical to the use of chemical insecticides.
industry then, and still today, do their case Organically produced fruit, vegetables and
little justice by presenting too optimistic a meat are gaining in popularity but this will
picture of their conduct and interests. only cater for the higher priced markets.
However, in general such agrochemical Most people are concerned about what
companies have reacted positively to criti- they consider to be excessive and unneces-
cism and pressure and have contributed to sary use of insecticides; they are not inter-
a rationalization of insecticide use through ested in barring them altogether because
a cautious contribution to the objectiveness costs of produce could then be too high.
of insect pest management. Geissbuhler IPM offers the possibility of a rational and
(1981) considers the agrochemical industry reduced use of insecticides which suits the
has contributed in five ways: public demands for change.
The extra hazard that insecticides pose
1. By increasing the biological activity of
in developing countries, due to differences
protection agents against the target organ-
in the perception of toxic substances, the
ism, which has led to a continual reduction
level of education and the availability of
in application rates.
trained extension staff for advice, is very
2. By improved selectivity of recently
real and cannot be emphasized enough.
produced compounds.
One of the major problems is that the com-
3. With the development of new products
plexity of insecticide use makes it unlikely
there has been a reduction in properties
that they will be used properly. If insecti-
detrimental to the environment, e.g. a
cides are not used correctly then the haz-
decrease in persistent chemicals.
ard they pose to the user and anyone else
4. Safety evaluation and risk assessments
involved with their application or dealing
have been extended.
with or consuming treated material will be
5. Improved application procedures have
markedly increased. The safe disposal of
aided the targeting and efficiency of insec-
unused chemicals and insecticide contain-
ticides.
ers remains a largely unsolved problem.
It has of course been in the self-interest of While it is extreme for responsible policy
the agrochemical industry to make these makers to refer to the agrochemical indus-
changes, but their development in this way try as exporters of death (Hessayon, 1983)
aids progress towards a more rational use when discussing trade of chemical insecti-
of insecticides within the context of IPM. cides with developing countries, the
The concept of rational insecticide use chemical companies must be aware, or
within IPM has taken a long time to should be made aware, of the extent of the
develop, mainly because of the apparent hazard insecticides pose in these coun-
complexity of pest management relative to tries. Ultimately though it must be the

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Chapter.4 10/7/00 11:37 am Page 122

122 Chapter 4

responsibility of the governments of approach must begin now. It is better not

importing countries to decide what consti- to start the treadmill than to try to stop it
tutes a hazard in relation to their own peo- once it has started moving.
ple, culture and society and to legislate The development of strategies for the
accordingly. One of the reasons that chem- rational use of insecticides within the
ical insecticides are readily accepted in framework of IPM requires a great deal of
developing countries relates to their gov- research. There is a tendency within IPM
ernments’ short term overriding require- research to emphasize the alternative non-
ment to improve and secure food insecticide methods of control rather than
production. When countries struggle to concentrate on insecticides, perhaps
produce sufficient food to meet their because they represent the old approach,
needs, environmental concerns about and there is always a tendency for every-
chemical insecticides on the problems of one to jump on the latest bandwagon.
insecticide resistance seem almost irrele- There is at present a great need for inde-
vant. The short term requirements for pendent work to identify reduced dosage
increased crop production tend to out- levels that provide adequate control for
weigh the need for a longer term rational optimizing application rates, droplet size
policy on insecticide use and insecticide and density and improving targeting, as
companies are not going to ignore a major well as studies on the influence of insecti-
marketing and sales opportunity. Unless cides on beneficial insects and the timing
developing countries devise alternative of application. There is also a great need
strategies for the development of agricul- for continued research into the develop-
ture to those used in developed countries ment of suitable packaging and disposal
then the misuse of chemical insecticides, procedures as well as refining application
mimicking that in Europe and the USA, is equipment and techniques, all of which
almost inevitable. IPM, with its rational will rationalize the use of insecticides so
insecticide use philosophy, offers an alter- that they are used in a more generally
native but the development of such an acceptable way.

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