MODERN RELIGIOUS AND SECULAR MOVEMENTS IN INDIA

Unit I: Introduction (Edited Chandra)

1. The Socio-Economic-Political and Religious conditions in India from the 18th century
onwards.

Around 1800, India was in a pitiable condition. Neither the earlier Hindu governments nor the
Muslim rulers who ruled from the 12th century succeeded in creating or maintaining peace. As
such, India had not known peace during 1200-1800 AD. Even under the best of Mughal rulers,
there were frequent fightings. There were no reform movements during that period.

Indian civilization and culture during the 18 th century was at its lowest. No important book was
known to be produced in any of the Indian languages. The lack of appreciation and patronage
given to indigenous arts led to the disappearance of many old works of art, due to ignorance and
carelessness. Some were taken away by foreigners. No creative work in any field was produced
during this period. In the societal life, during this period, social evils perpetrated in the name of
religion were rampant.

1 Political
Politically India was in a very pitiable plight at the dawn of the 19 th century. Mughals were
ruling India for the last six centuries. There were frequent fights, good deal of injustice, constant
war outbreaks of barbarity. India scarcely knew peace during this period. Mughal power
declined by the end of 18 th century leaving a political vacuum. The British supremacy began with
the battle of Plassey in 1757. British had no definite policy on political matters and did not think
of settled government at this juncture.
2 Religious
The religious condition of this period was very complex. There were multiple religious ideas.
People were confused. People did not know the proper way of salvation.

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 Hinduism:
Seventy-five percentages of Indians were Hindus. They were backward and subjugated by
Muslims. Idolatry with cruel and immoral rites were seen everywhere. The spiritual matter of the
community was under the control of corrupt Brahmin priests. D .R. Bali says, “Hinduism came
under the complete domination of the designing and corrupt priestly class. To maintain their
supremacy, the Brahmin priests were interested in keeping people ignorant, and fed them with
false hopes of a rewarding after life. They commercialized religion by introducing costly
ceremonies and offerings to the images of gods.” The Brahmins were deceiving the mass. They
made such caucus that people misunderstood Brahmin as the nucleus of every religious activity.
The common people were burdened by the Brahmin.
Islam: Muslims constituted 15% of the India population at that time. Muslims were very
orthodox, ignorant, and steadily deteriorating. Many were sad at the decline of Muslim moral life
and their empire. They were discontented and crushed but not so weak as Hindus. Muslims were
still in the government offices. Urdu was the official language. The Bulk of public education was
still Islamic in character. Persian and Urdu were studied. But the Muslin community was on the
decline.
3 Social
Beside religion, the inner life of Indian society was also decayed. There were many evil
practices at this time.
a) Caste system and Untouchability:
Rigid casteism was one of the major social evils of that time. Besides the high castes and the
low castes, there were large numbers of out-castes considered as untouchables. The so-called
high castes considered that they would be defiled if the shadows of the untouchables fell on
them. Highways were not open to the latter. There was neither inter-dining nor inter-
marriages between the high and low castes. Social ostracization and education of only the
privileged few kept a vast majority of the populace as slaves. Those who produced wealth
through hard labour were deprived of the fruits through cunning manipulation of religion by
the Brahmins.

An understanding of creation according to the teachings of Hinduism justified the hierarchical

society and the rigid casteism. One‘s loyalty was limited to one‘s caste. No one cared what
happened to people of other castes. Justice was in the hands of caste-councils who punished
those who broke the caste rules. There were no schools and only the three upper castes i.e.
Brahmins, Kshatriyas and Vaishyas were allowed to be educated in the Vedas, mostly at home.
Therefore, people lived in much ignorance.

b) Prohibition of foreign travel: It was considered a sin to cross the seas and to go and live in
foreign countries with peoples who have different cultures. If anyone did go, he/she lost
his/her standing in his/her caste unless he/she underwent purificatory rites upon returning to

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 India. This discouraged people from going abroad for studies and people lived in isolation
from the rest of the world.
c) Low status of women:
Hinduism has had a very low status for women. Manu, the greatest law-giver of Hinduism
prescribed that a woman should be under the control of her father before marriage, under her
husband in marriage and under the control of her son in old age. Thus a woman was allowed
no freedom at any stage of life. The higher castes (except the Brahmins) believed that after
the death of the husband, the wife‘s chastity and faithfulness is proved only by self-
immolation in the funeral pyre of the dead husband and thereby committing Sati. Such a
woman was regarded as satimata. Some Hindu communities encouraged this practice where
it altered inheritance patterns. Moreover, it was considered a curse to live as a widow in the
traditional joint family system.

a. Sati: Sati is an act of a widow entering into the funeral pyre of her dead husband
voluntarily or involuntarily, most often involuntarily. Those widows who refused to jump into
the funeral pyre were not allowed to re-marry and they had to spend rest of their life in much
sorrow and withdrawal. Gayatri Mantra is recited while the dead body is burned. Orthodox
Hindus who support Sati believes that:
 It is the simple media to reach God. According Angira, women who dies with her
husband is exalted in heaven.
 She will dwell in the region of joy for 35 million years.
 She expiates the sins of three races of father’s line, mother’s line and husband’s
line.
 After she is burned with her husband she shall meet him in heaven.
 If she does not burn herself with her husband she will loose the position in
transmigration and she will loose the chance of ‘moksha.’
 According Brahmapurana, if the husband dies in another place, the wife must place
sandals on her chest and burn herself.
 According to Rig-Veda, as long as husband lives, she can enjoy life. But when
husband dies she must commit suicide.
C :Child Marriage
Children were married at a very early age. Once they are married, they stay separate until they
reach certain maturity. If the husbands in such marriages die even before they come together,
the girl has to live a life of a widow for the rest of her life. There were many such child-
widows at that time.
Those widows who refused to follow this practice were not allowed to re-marry. It was
considered evil for a widow to re-marry whereas a widower could re-marry for any number of
times. Due to such customs, there were many child widows and youthful widows who had to live

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the rest of their lives in much sorrow and seclusion. In some communities, their heads had to be
shaved and ornaments removed. The kinds of clothes they were allowed to wear were the saffron
coloured sarees worn by Sanyasis. They became slaves in the household of their relatives. Young
girls were married off to old men even before they had attained puberty and when the husband
died, they were declared as widows and denied the possibility of remarriage.

d) Devadasi system:

This was a Hindu custom to dedicate girls to serve in temples. The term devadasi means
female servant of God. The girls were dedicated to sing and dance before the idols. But
corrupt priests and worshippers used them to satisfy their lust. Thus the devadasis became
―sacred‖ prostitutes.

e) Female infanticide: Among the high castes, dowry was the deciding factor in marriage.
Therefore, many parents considered it a liability to have girl-babies, for it was the girl‘s
father who had to pay the dowry to the boy‘s father. This extravagant expenditure led to the
cruel practice of letting girl babies to die. Female infanticide was common among the
economically poor.

f) Human/Animal sacrifice:

There was a belief that some of the gods and goddesses required human sacrifices and that, such
sacrifices are highly meritorious. For this purpose often children were kidnapped and slaughtered
and their blood was offered specially to the goddess Kali – in order to please her and to get
benefits from her. In spite of the teachings of Gautama Buddha and Mahavira against animal
sacrifice and Ahimsa (Non-violence), the practice of animal sacrifice continued during this
period although in a lesser degree.

2. Factors that contributed to the Renaissance in India

The term ―Renaissance‖ refers to the activity, spirit, or time of the great revival of art, literature,
and learning in Europe beginning in the 14th century and extending to the 17th century, marking
the transition from the medieval to the modern world. In general parlance, it means a new growth
of activity or interest in something, especially art, literature, or music. In India there were four
(4) main forces that entered from the West and these four forces were instrumental in bringing
about the Renaissance in India.

1. The East India Company:

The only interest of the East India Company was trade. They took raw materials from India at a
very cheap rate to England and sold manufactured goods to people of India and elsewhere at very
high prices. Thus India was converted into an exploitable market for the development of British

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industries. This resulted in cruel destruction of many of the cottage industries in India and robbed
India of precious natural resources. People suffered from discouragement and unemployment.

The Company realizing the importance of Hinduism for the stability of their trade believed that it
was necessary to patronize the religions of India. Hence they adopted three policies:

a) A large number of temples were brought under their management. They advanced money
for rebuilding and repairing these temples and they also paid the salaries of the temple officials.
Large sums of money were granted for sacrifices and festivals and for feeding of the Brahmin
priests. Under their supervision, cruel rites like Sati and hook-swinging (a ritualistic torture,
practiced among the Mandan Indians, in which a voluntary victim was suspended from hooks
attached to the flesh of the back. The hook-swinging ceremony is said to be sometimes
performed after the consent of the goddess has been obtained) were practiced. Government
officials were required to attend Hindu festivals in order to show their interest in celebrations. To
pay for all this, a pilgrim tax was imposed upon the people.

b) The company opposed Christian missionary work. They refused to allow any missionary
to settle in their territory. William Carey, the first British missionary to India was not allowed to
stay in British territories in India, hence he settled at Serampore, which was a Danish settlement.
Many missionaries were deported by the authorities. However, this policy of the company was
reversed in 1813 by an act of the British parliament.

c) The company refused to employ native Christians. Those who became Christians while in
the army were expelled in Bengal. Many English believed that it was unwise to interfere with the
religion and civilization of India. They thought that it was impossible to produce any lasting
influence on Hindu religion. Moreover, they believed that it would adversely affect their trade
and administration of the land. Therefore, many British people were not in favour of educating
the Indians.

However, even during this period there was a certain amount of collaboration between the
Company and Christian Missions. William Carey was engaged as part-time professor at College
of Fort William in Calcutta which was opened by Lord Wellesley, as he was the only one
qualified to teach Bengali and Sanskrit. The English also took advantage of the mission printing
press at Serampore and for the first time Indian languages were printed in their own script at
Serampore. The missionaries provided invaluable assistance to the Company in preparing the
ground through the Gospel.
2. The British Government: Since a stable government and sound financial arrangements were
necessary for profitable commerce, the Company had to undertake the administration of the
country. Thus, during the last decade of the 18th century, the Company was transformed into a
government. Through the leadership of men like Clive, Hastings and Cornwallis, the Bristish
were gradually awakened that India should be governed by them for the good of the people. Thus
traders were transformed into administrators living on a salary and strictly forbidden to make

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money by trading. By 1849, the last portion of India was added to the British Empire, at the
conclusion of the Second Sikh War.

The whole activity of the government during the period of 1828-1870 was one of reform which
can be summarized in three categories.

a) Bentinck felt that it was the duty of the government to prohibit grossly immoral customs
such as sati, strangling and robbery of travellers, female infanticide and human sacrifices, even
though they were associated with religion.

b) Recognition of human equality. It was decided that all should be equal before the law and
Indians were employed in government services irrespective of their religion.

c) The English language became the official language of India. All higher education was
through English medium. The government opened schools and colleges, medical colleges were
also introduced. Universities were established in Calcutta, Bombay and Madras. At the same
time, vernacular education was not neglected. The results produced in India through English
education were revolutionary. The new educational policy of the government created the
educated class in India.

In 1843, slavery was rendered illegal by the passing of an Act and this enabled many poor people
to acquire freedom from rich land owners. Lord Dalhousie prohibited obscenities in the streets,
which were very common during those days. Lord Rippon‘s government passed a local
selfgovernment bill with the purpose of educating the Indian people in self-government. In 1891,
the Age of Consent Act was passed which prohibited a husband from living with his child wife,
before she reached the age of 12.

From 1865 onwards, there was a new national spirit and in places like Maharashtra, Punjab and
Bengal, there were serious preparations for revolutionary action.

3. Christian Missions:

Protestant missionary work in India began with the Danish Mission which did a great work in
Tamil Nadu during the 18th century; but it was William Carey and his colleagues Marshman and
Ward, who first awakened the British, then the Americans and the Europeans towards their duty
to the non-Christian world.

They opened boarding schools and orphanages. They did some medical work, especially among
the lepers. They were eager to send out native missionaries to preach throughout the country and
a College was opened at Serampore to train them and the King of Denmark gave this college the
authority to confer degrees. Due to the good work done by Carey and his colleagues, in 1813 the
British parliament granted missionaries full freedom to settle and work in India. Soon after this
missionaries from Britain, America and Europe entered India in large numbers.

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Many schools and colleges for Western education were opened by a number of individual
Europeans in the large cities of India. In 1830, Alexander Duff, a Scottish missionary opened a
school in Calcutta for teaching English. Duff‘s work opened a new era in India. All the most
promising young men of Calcutta flocked to him. Ram Mohan Roy (founder of Brahmo Samaj)
was also one of Duff‘s pupils. Most of the leaders who were involved in starting modern
religious movements were those who had an English education.

Christian education of women was pushed forward and a great number of unmarried missionaries
arrived in India. From around 1854, work was done among the women shut up in zenanas.
Women medical missionaries also came to work with women. Orphanages and widows‘ homes
were opened. Famine relief was carried out to some extent during these years.

4. Orientalism:

The Orientalists were European scholars who made an objective study of Indian literature, art
and architecture. The rise of orientalism began with the British attempt to give better government
in India, but it did not impress itself on the Indian mind until later. Three men stand out as
pioneer orientalists during the period: Colebrook, H.H, Wilson and Tod.

Warren Hastings took steps which led Europeans becoming acquainted with Sanskrit and the
Hindu religion. Influenced by Hastings, Charles Wilkins translated and published in 1789,
Shakuntala, the masterpiece of Kalidasa, the greatest Sanskrit dramatist. Some English men also
began to study the peoples of India.

Though Oriental studies blossomed before 1879, the fruits were gathered only in the next 30
years. Some of the significant works of this period were: The Sacred Books of the East (Max
Mueller), Oriental Series (Trubner), The Harvard Oriental Series (Trubner), Light of Asia
(Edwin Arnold), The Song Celestial (Childers). Since 1870, Oriental studies have touched the
Indian mind very powerfully; Indian scholars trained in European methods began to render
excellent service by editing and translating the texts.

5. General Impact of the West:

These four forces that entered India from outside paved the way for the social and religious
awakening of India in the 19th and 20th centuries. They had a tremendous impact on the minds
and hearts of the Indian people.

 The Indians felt that the Westerners were energetic and active as compared to the Indians
who were lazy and lethargic.
 The Westerners were highly disciplined – they had organizational skills whereas Indians
were doing things in a haphazard way.

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  The Westerners had scientific outlook, while the Indian people were still using outdated
tools and they were superstitious.
 Simplicity of the Christian faith with the Bible as the guide-book was a revolutionary
factor. In contrast, Hinduism was a highly complex religion. The common people had
access and knowledge to the Puranas only with their gods and goddesses and this gave
rise to gross idolatry.
 The Western spirit of nationalism and belief in democratic principles taught that all are
equal before the law. Whereas, in India, due to the rigid caste system, people had only
communal loyalty. There was no spirit of nationalism.
 That there was equality of women in Western society. In India, women were considered
inferior to men and they were backward in many respects.
 Importance was given to education by the westerners. They opened schools and colleges
for the common people at a time when education was a privilege enjoyed only by the
upper castes.
 The Western use of the printing press was an effective medium of communication in
India where printing presses were non-existent.
 The military might and prowess of the British greatly influenced and impressed the
Indian mind. At that time India was not unified and many native states existed and loyalty
was divided

Reaction of Indian people to all that they saw of the West was one of admiration and for a time
the Indian people resorted to copying anything Western. However, this did not last long. People
began to use scientific knowledge to bring about reformation in order to get rid of social and
religious evils detrimental to human welfare. Reformers arose to purge society of evils.

Unit II: Socio-Religious Movements within Hinduism

1. Brahmo Samaj

Raja Ram Mohan Roy:

Early Life and Education: The founder of the Brahmo Samaj, Raja Rammohan Roy was born in
1772 in Calcutta, Bengal. He was a Brahmin whose father worked with the Muslim government
in Bengal. His parents were deeply religious Hindus. At the age of 12, Roy was sent to Patna,
Bihar, for higher education. Patna, at that time was a famous seat of Muslim learning. He learnt
both Arabic and Persian and was much influenced by the writings of Sufis (Muslim mystics).

Roy returned home at the age of 15 and found that he was having serious differences of opinion
with his father concerning idolatry. At 16, he wrote a tract against idolatry and had to pay the
price by living in exile for a period. He was called home by his father, but soon he left home and

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settled in Varanasi (Benares) and studied Sanskrit and some of the Hindu Scriptures. He also
carried on discussion with Hindus and Jains.
In 1796, Roy began the study of English and entered the service of the English East India
Company. He worked as a Revenue Officer for about 10 years. During this period Roy got
acquainted with the Serampore Missionaries. In order to understand the Bible, he studied both
Hebrew and Greek and was amazed at the moral standard taught by Christ. This resulted in his
writing the well known book entitled ―The Precepts of Jesus – the Guide to Peace and
Happiness‖. But Roy could not accept the Trinitarian view.

For a period, Roy helped the Serampore missionaries in their translation of the New Testament
into Bengali, but they could not continue for long due to differences of opinion. One of the
missionaries, Rev. W. Adam joined with Roy and they became Unitarians and opened a mission
in Calcutta, with their services in English. Shortly after this, the mission had to be given up since
Adam and Roy could not agree among themselves.

Roy studied very carefully the Upanishads and the Vedanta-sutra. In 1819, he published both in
Bengali and in English an abstract of the Vedanta-sutra and translations of four of the
Upanishads and two pamphlets in defense of Hindu theism. His position was that the Upanishads
teach pure theism.

Birth of Brahmo Samaj and main teachings:

In 1814, Roy started an organisation called Atmiya Sabha. Through this organisation he worked
against the evils in Hindu society. By 1819, Atmiya Sabha ceased to exist. In 1828, Brahmo
Sabha was organized; later its name was changed to Brahmo Samaj. Roy along with Dwarka
Nath Tagore began conducting services in a house in the vernacular (Bengali). It was a weekly
meeting open to all. There was neither organisation nor membership nor creed. They had
congregational worship like the Christians, which was unknown in Hinduism during those days.
The service was conducted on Saturday evenings. There were four parts to the service:

a) The chanting of selections from the Upanishads in Sanskrit, in a room where only
Brahmins entered.
b) Translation of these passages into Bengali.
c) A sermon in Bengali.
d) Singing of theistic songs composed by Roy.

Roy maintained his early beliefs that idolatry, polytheism and sacrifices should be avoided. Of all
the Hindu Scriptures, Roy considered only the Upanishads and the Vedanta-sutra as
authoritative. Roy advocated the workshop of one God and brotherhood of all men. The
Samajists respected all religions and their Scriptures. All were invited to worship in the same
place. During Roy‘s time there was no prayer in the worship service of the Brahmo Samaj. Roy

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also did not believe in the transmigration of souls, which showed the Christian and Islamic
influence upon him. Ethics taught by the Samaj is taken from the teachings of Christ.

Against social evils: Roy began protesting against Sati from 1818 onwards by writing
pamphlets and raising public opinion. He made a study of the Smriti text from Manu and other
Hindu law-givers and came to the conclusion that not all law-givers prescribed this cruel rite and
that those who favoured this practice said that it should be voluntary. Concerning polygamy
which was widely practiced during those days by Hindus, Roy pointed out that Hindu law-givers
like Yajnvalkya taught that it was contrary to Hindu law and that it was permitted only in case of
sickness.

Roy wrote two pamphlets on property rights. Roy quoted from the Smritis and their
commentaries to prove that he was not going against the best traditions of the Hindus. He
pleaded for women‘s right to inherit the property of their fathers and husbands. He advocated
these on humanitarian grounds. He was a reformer removing later additions from Hinduism.

Other teachings and works: Roy was neither a great theologian nor a philosopher. In fact, he
was not essentially a religious person. He was a social and religious reformer. Roy also spoke
against Christian missionaries who attacked Hinduism because they had only a negative
approach to Hinduism. To oppose this trend, he started an English magazine called Brahmanical
Magazine.

Roy supported the study of English language and Western sciences. He said that India can
prosper only through liberal education. Roy founded and edited a Bengali journal called Sermvad
Kaumadi for the emancipation of the press in 1821.

Roy went to England in 1831. There he spoke on administrative reforms needed in India. Roy
believed that the British rule in India was a divine dispensation and that there is much that India
can learn from the West. He advocated the settlement of international disputes through peaceful
means. Roy was in England from 1831 to 1833. He went to England at the instance of the Mogul
―Emperor‖ of Delhi, who was a pensioner of the East India Company. It was he who gave the
title of ―Raja‖ to Rammohan Roy.

While Roy was busy with work, he died at Bristol on September 27, 1833. He strictly observed
the caste system while staying at England which shows that he did not do anything to eradicate
the evil of caste.

Later history of the Brahmo Samaj: In 1866, Keshub Chandra Sen organised the more radical
"Brahmo Samaj of India" with overtones of Christianity. He campaigned for the education of
women and against child marriages. But he nonetheless arranged a marriage for his own
underage daughter. The Brahmo Samaj of India split after this act of underage marriage
generated a controversy and his pro-British utterances and leaning towards Christian rites

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generated more controversies. A third group, "Sadharan (ordinary) Brahmo Samaj", was formed
in 1878. It gradually reverted to the teaching of the Upanishads but continued the work of social
reform. The movement, always an elite group without significant popular following, lost force in
the 20th century.
Critical Appreciation: Roy believed that the Upanishads taught pure theism. However, the
teaching of the Upanishads is that Atman is Brahman the one and only reality. So, it is monism
and not theism that is emphasized in the Upanishads. However, Roy held on to his belief that the
Upanishads taught pure theism, so he was much too rigid and not flexible in his belief.

Roy appreciated the teachings of Christ and was much influenced by Christianity. However, he
could not accept the core belief of Christianity, i.e. the doctrine of Trinity. Therefore, he rejected
the divinity of Jesus.

Roy also rejected the transmigration of souls, even though it is taught in the Upanishads, which
he believed to be authoritative. This shows the influence of Islam and Christianity upon him.
However, he was not being consistent with his acceptance of the authority of the Upanishads.

Roy stood for a universal religion and the Brahmo Samaj welcomed all in their worship.
However, the chanting of selected passages from the Upanishads was done in Sanskrit which was
known to only a few. Moreover, this was done in a room where only Brahmins could enter.
Hence, the worship was rather exclusive, instead of being inclusive.

Roy fought against social evils like Sati, polygamy and fought for women rights. However, he
did not fully reject these social evils and believed them to be permissible on certain grounds.
While in England, he strictly followed the caste system. These show that he did nothing to
eradicate the evil of caste system and in fact it is clear that he wholly accepted it.

In spite of all these shortcomings, Roy was a great statesman, a great patriot and a great
champion of freedom and a lover of humanity. He pleaded for social and religious reform and
sought to reform Hinduism and to rid it of all later additions and return to the fundamentals.
Hence, as called by Rabindranath Tagore, he may be truly said to have ―inaugurated the modern
age in India.‖ So, he is rightly called ―the father of Indian Renaissance.‖ By removing social and
religious evils in India, Roy was preparing Indian people in political consciousness. Therefore,
he is called ―the Father of Indian nationalism.‖

The Brahmo Samaj in general may be criticised for borrowing Western forms of worship. A
question can be asked ―Why should Indian forms of worship be considered inferior?‖ However,
in the context of its birth this was necessary to disassociate it from Hinduism. At the same time
the Brahmo Samaj may be applauded for denouncing idolatry which is one of the weaknesses of
the Hindu religion which makes others to look down upon it.

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 2. Arya Samaj

The Arya Samaj is an Indian Hindu reform movement that promotes values and practices based
on the infallibility of the Vedas. The samaj was founded by Dayananda Saraswati, a sannyasi, on
7 April 1875.
Swami Dayanand Saraswati: Swami Dayananda Saraswati, the founder of the Arya Samaj, was
one of the makers of modern India. With an indigenous orientation, he wanted to bring a new
social, religious, economic and political order in India. Taking inspiration from Veda, he
criticized evil practices like idolatry, caste system, untouchability etc. as prevailed in the then
Indian society. Swami Dayananda Saraswati, known as Mulshankar in the childhood, was born in
1824 in a small town of Tankara belonging to Kathiawar of Gujarat in a conservative Brahmin
family. Taking early education from his family, he subsequently emerged as a great Vedic
scholar. He renunciated the worldly life and moved from one part of India to another in the
pursuit of wisdom and truth.

Finally, he met Swami Vrajanand at Mathura and became his disciple. After completing his
education, he went on with the mission of spreading true Hindu religion and culture all over
India. With this purpose he established the Arya Samaj at Bombay on 10th April, 1875. A
number of twenty eight rules were framed which were approved by the members present in the
meeting. As a writer of eminence, Dayananda wrote books like ‗Satyarth Prakash‘, Vedanga
Prakash, ‗Ratnamala‘ ‗Sankarvidhi‘, ‗Bharatinivarna‘ etc. He travelled throughout the country
to propagate his views and established branches of Arya Samaj at different places.

Principles of Arya Samaj:

1. Acceptance of the Vedas as the only source of truth.

2. Opposition to idol worship.
3. Opposition to the theory of God-incarnation and religious pilgrimages.
4. Recitation of the mantras of the Vedas and performance of ‗Havan‘ and ‗Yajna‘.
5. Faith in female education.
6. Opposition to child-marriage and polygamy.

Reforms: Swami Dayanada, through the Arya Samaj, tried to reform the Hindu society and
religion. On the basis of the above mentioned principles, the Arya Samaj emphasized on the
liberation of the Hindu society. Dayananda claimed that only Vedas were the repositories of true
knowledge and the only religion was the religion of the Vedas. The principles of economics,
politics, social sciences, humanities can be found in the Vedas. His clarion call ―Go Back to the
Vedas‖ created consciousness among the people. He rejected other scriptures and ‗Puranas‘. He
strongly opposed idol worship, ritualism, practice of animal-sacrifice, the concept of polytheism,
the idea of heaven and hell and fatalism.

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The Arya Samaj simplified Hinduism and made Hindus conscious of their glorious heritage and
superior value of Vedic knowledge. The Hindus should not look towards Christianity, Islam or
western culture for guidance.

Emphasizing on the superiority of Hinduism, the Arya Samaj could challenge the Islamic and
Christian propaganda against it. Dayananda started ―Shuddhi Movement‖ as a process of
converting the people of other religions to Hinduism and also to reconvert those who have
changed from Hinduism to other religions. This movement prevented low caste Hindus from
converting to Christianity or Islam. The Shuddhi Movement challenged the Christian
missionaries who tried to convert the uneducated, poor and depressed classes of the Hindus.

Social Reforms: With its opposition to various social evils, the Arya Samaj rendered valuable
services to Hindu society. He opposed the caste system and the superiority of the Brahmins in the
society. He also challenged the monopoly of the Brahmins to read the Vedas and supported the
right of every individual irrespective of caste, creed and colour to study the Vedas. Dayananda
also opposed the practice of untouchability.

He protested against injustice to women and worked for the education of the females. He
vehemently opposed child-marriages, polygamy, ―Purdah‖ and the practice of ―Sati‖ etc. Citing
the teachings of the Vedas, he proved that women should have equal rights with men. Inter-caste
marriages and interdining were practised by the members of the Arya Samaj.

The Arya Samaj established a number of educational institutions like Gurukuls, Kanya Gurukuls,
D.A.V. Schools and Colleges for the education of both males and females. These educational
institutions protected the Hindu religion and society and also promoted the growth of knowledge
and education in modern scientific line.

Evaluation: Though Arya Samaj had not actively participated in politics yet it indirectly helped
in the promotion of national consciousness. Dayananda was the first to advocate ―Swadeshi‖ to
discard foreign goods. By recognising Hindi as the national language, he promoted the growth of
an all-India national spirit.

He also used the term ‗Swaraj‘ to be established on the Vedic principles before any Indian
national leader thought of it. The Arya Samaj, thus became a fanatic supporter of Hinduism and
became an organ of militant Hinduism. Because of such militancy, subsequently the growth of
extremism within the fold of the All India National Congress became possible.

The Arya Samaj played a significant role in bringing the socio- religious changes in
preindependent India. Though Dayananda was criticized as a conservative and sectarian activist
who claimed the superiority of Hinduism over and above of all other religions, yet he was one of
the makers of modern India.

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 3. Ramakrishna Mission

Ramakrishna Mission is an Indian religious organization which forms the core of a worldwide
spiritual movement known as the Ramakrishna Movement or the Vedanta Movement. The
mission is a philanthropic, volunteer organisation founded by Ramakrishna's chief disciple
Swami Vivekananda on 1 May 1897. The mission conducts extensive work in health care,
disaster relief, rural management, tribal welfare, elementary and higher education and culture. It
uses the combined efforts of hundreds of ordered monks and thousands of householder disciples.
The mission bases its work on the principles of karma yoga.

The mission, which is headquartered near Kolkata at Belur Math in Howrah, West Bengal,
subscribes to the ancient Hindu philosophy of Vedanta. It is affiliated with the monastic
organisation Ramakrishna Math, with whom it shares members.

History: Ramakrishna Paramahansa (1836–1886), regarded as a 19th-century saint, was the

inspirator of the Ramakrishna Order of monks and is regarded as the spiritual founder of the
Ramakrishna Movement. Ramakrishna was a priest in the Dakshineswar Kali Temple and
attracted several monastic and householder disciples. Narendranath Dutta, who later became
Vivekananda was one of the chief monastic disciples. According to Vrajaprana, shortly before
his death in 1886 Ramakrishna gave the orangey cloths to his young disciples, who were
planning to become renunciates. Ramakrishna entrusted the care of these young boys to
Vivekananda. After Ramakrishna's death, the young disciples of Ramakrishna gathered and
practised spiritual disciplines. They took informal monastic vows on a night which to their
pleasant surprise turned out to be the Christmas Eve in 1886.

After the death of Ramakrishna in 1886, the monastic disciples formed the first Math
(monastery) at Baranagore. Later Vivekananda became a wandering monk and in 1893 he was a
delegate at the 1893 Parliament of the World's Religions. His speech there, beginning with
"Sisters and brothers of America" became famous and brought him widespread recognition.
Vivekananda went on lecture tours and held private discourses on Hinduism and spirituality. He
also founded the first Vedanta Society in the United States at New York. He returned to India in
1897 and founded the Ramakrishna Mission on 1 May 1897. Though he was a Hindu monk and
was hailed as the first Hindu missionary in modern times, he exhorted his followers to be true to
their faith but respect all religions of the world as his guru Ramakrishna had taught that all
religions are pathways to God. One such example is his exhortation that one can be born in a
church but he or she should not die in a church meaning that one should realise the spiritual
truths for themselves and not stop at blindly believing in doctrines taught to them. The same
year, famine relief was started at Sargachi by Swami Akhandananda, a direct disciple of
Ramakrishna. Swami Brahmananda, a direct disciple of Ramakrishna was appointed as the first
president of the Order. After the death of Vivekananda in 1902, Sarada Devi, the spiritual
counterpart of Ramakrishna, played an important role as the advisory head of a nascent monastic

14
organisation. Gayatri Spivak writes that Sarada Devi ―performed her role with tact and wisdom,
always remaining in the background‖.

The motto and principles: The aims and ideals of the Mission are purely spiritual and
humanitarian and has no connection with politics. Vivekananda proclaimed ―Renunciation and
service as the twofold national ideals of modern India and the work of the mission strives to
practice and preach these. The service activities are based on the message of ―Jiva is Shiva‖
from Ramakrishna and Vivekananda's message of ―Daridra Narayana‖ to indicate that service to
poor is service to God. The Principles of Upanishads and Yoga in Bhagavad Gita reinterpreted in
the light of Ramakrishna's Life and Teachings is the main source of inspiration for the Mission.
The service activities are rendered looking upon all as veritable manifestation of the Divine. The
Motto of the organisation is Atmano Mokshartham Jagad-hitaya Cha it means ―For one's own
salvation, and for the good of the world‖.

Religious activities: The mission is a non-sectarian organisation and ignores caste distinctions.
Ramakrishna ashrama's religious activities include satsang and arati. Satsang includes
communal prayers, songs, rituals, discourses, reading and meditation. Arati involves the
ceremonial waving of lights before the images of a deity of holy person and is performed twice
in a day. Ramakrishna ashramas observes major Hindu festivals, including Maha Shivarathri,
Rama Navami, Krishna Asthami and Durga Puja. They also give special place to the birthdays of
Ramakrishna, Sarada Devi, Swami Vivekananda and other monastic disciples of Ramakrishna.
The 1st of January is celebrated as Kalpataru day. The event commemorates the day on January 1,
1886, when his followers believe that Ramakrishna revealed himself to be an Avatar, or God
incarnate on earth. The event includes providing medical care, blankets and clothing to the poor.

The math and the mission are known for their religious tolerance and respect for other religions.
Among the earliest rules laid down by Swami Vivekananda for them was, "Due respect and
reverence should be paid to all religions, all preachers, and to the deities worshiped in all
religions." Acceptance and toleration of all religions is one of the ideals of Ramakrishna Math
and Mission. Along with the major Hindu festivals, Christmas Eve and Buddha's Birthday are
also devoutly observed. Cyril Veliath of Sophia University writes that the Ramakrishna Mission
monks are a relatively orthodox set of monks who are ―extremely well respected both in India
and abroad‖, and that they ―cannot be classified as just another sect or cult, such as the groups
led by the gurus‖. Veliath writes that ―of the Hindu groups I have worked with I have found the
Ramakrishna Mission to be the most tolerant and amenable to dialogue, and I believe that we
Christians couldn‘t do better, than to cooperate wholeheartedly in their efforts towards
interreligious harmony‖. Bob Robinson writes, ―Unlike more militant Hindu organisations, the
mission has consistently advocated and itself displayed a tolerant, friendly attitude towards
minority religious traditions and a sympathetic acquaintance with at least parts of the scriptures
of those faiths.‖

15
Evaluation: Vivekananda although considered a jnana yogin who renounced the world, was also
a karma yogin. His whole life was given to activities. He was committed to a philosophy of
action. He used to say, ―I Love action...let me live and die in action.‖ His vision was to make
the monks devote themselves to active life of service for the masses. Hence the Ramakrishna
mission was organized to carry out philanthropic, charitable, religious and educational
missionary activities. The regular activities of the Ramakrishna Mission are as follows: famine &
plague relief, orphanages, schools and colleges, hospitals, maths (monasteries), two magazines in
English, a monthly journal in Bengali.
Therefore, Vivekananda was also the first Indian to be called a socialist. The key note of his
attitudes towards the Indian National question was the uplift of the Indian masses. He called the
masses jana narayana (God in the form of the masses). His contribution was in nation building
activities. He said: ―the soil of India is my highest heaven, India‘s good is my good.‖

D.S. Sarma evaluates the socio-religious movements within Hinduism and says that, the
movements which preceded the Ramakrishna Mission were poor and inadequate representations
of the great historic religion of the Hindus. The Brahmo Samaj was mere eclecticism, more
Christian than Hindu in character, whereas the religion of the Arya Samaj was mere vedism,
which ignored all the later developments in Hinduism. On the other hand the Ramakrishna
Mission under Swami Vivekananda was doubtless not only a full, but also an authentic
manifestation of Hinduism. However, although he learnt much from the West and advocated
respect of all religions, Vivekananda was highly critical of Christian Missionary work in India.
Evidently, it was their negative approach that he condemned.

4. Narayana Guru Movement

Narayana Guru, also known as Sri Narayana Guru, (c. 1856 – 20 September 1928), was a social
reformer of India. He was born into a family of the Ezhava caste in an era when people from
such communities, which were regarded as Avarna, faced much injustice in the caste-ridden
society of Kerala. He led a reform movement in Kerala, rejected casteism, and promoted new
values of spiritual freedom and social equality.

Socio-Religious Condition of Kerela: At the time of his birth, Kerala was under the domination
of different castes, all of them pretending superiority over the other. Under the horrible caste
tyranny, the lower caste people suffered in every area of their life. Temples, streets and
educational institutions remained closed before them. They could not draw water from public
wells. Men and women belonging to lower castes were not allowed to wear clothes on the upper
part of the body. The very sight of these people and even their shadows were considered
polluting the upper castes. Those who failed to follow these inhuman practices were given brutal
punishment including death. Two sharp swords of untouchability and unapproachability hung
above the heads of the unfortunate masses. They shed their blood and sweat for their upper caste
masters but earned no reward, except suffering and death.

16
Seeing the disgraceful caste discrimination of the state, a young monk wandering the length and
breadth of the country called Kerala a ‗lunatic asylum‘. It was Swami Vivekananda. He said that
the suffering of the millions of the suppressed class of the state would see an end only through a
Guru, who had born in Kerala. His words came true and the saviour was Sri Narayana Guru.

Family and Early Life: There are many legends surrounding the life of Narayana Guru but few
certain facts until his rise to prominence in 1887. He was born probably in 1854, the son of an
Ezhava peasant, Madan Asan and his wife Kuttiyamma, in the village of Chempazhanthy near
Thiruvananthapuram. Most likely, he was educated at least in part by a Nair teacher from a
nearby village. He learned Sanskrit from a Sanskrit scholar named Raman Pillai Asan (Asan
means teacher) and became well versed in Sanskrit scriptures and Vedic philosophy. He was
deeply influenced by Vedanta and by ideas of social equality and social and religious reform. For
some time he worked as a teacher, teaching poor students and people called him ‗Nanu Asan‘.

After the death of his parents, his family members insisted for his marriage. Even though the
marriage ceremony took place with their pressure, he was not interested in a married life. His
worshipful biographers ignored this part of his life out of reverence for his later asceticism. He
had an acetic mind filled with spiritual urge. Decided to renounce the pleasures of the physical
world he left home and wandered through different regions of Kerala and Tamil Nadu like a
mendicant. During these days he met a person called Chattampi Swami, who introduced him to a
Yoga guru named Thycaud Ayyavu. Under him, he mastered yoga practices, including Hatha
Yoga and meditation.

According to tradition, he shifted to a cave in Marutvamalai near Kanyakumari and started living
a solitary life spending most of his time in meditation and self-discipline. It lasted for over eight
years and finally the inner world opened before him and he became an enlightened soul.

Obtaining a clear vision of unity of the downtrodden humanity around him, the Guru decided to
return to the world he had withdrawn. He settled for some time in the Jungles of Aruvippuram
and made it his abode of meditation. Soon, people recognized the solitary saint in the jungle and
started visiting him seeking spiritual tranquility.

The Narayana Guru Movement: Even as a child he had strong abhorrence toward the caste
distinctions and untouchability and he always protested against injustice. ―Ask not, say not and
think not caste‖ was his motto. He had deep sympathy towards the ill-treated people and he
decided to clean the vulgarity crept in the Hindu society.

Consecration of a Hindu temple was the exclusive right of Brahmins. Sree Narayana threw a
challenge on this domination. As the first revolutionary step, he himself consecrated a temple
dedicated to Lord Shiva in Aravipuram in 1888. When questioned by the Brahmins, he replied
that he had consecrated a Shiva belonging to his community. The irony of the message was very
clear – how could Shiva be owned by any particular community? It was a strong warning to the

17
upper castes and a bold proclamation that everyone irrespective of his caste or religion has the
right to realize God.

The Aravipuram Pratistha (Aravipuram Movement) was a historic event, because a member of a
lower caste, forbidden from entering the temple, had himself consecrated the Shiva image in a
temple. On the wall of the temple Sri Narayana Guru inscribed the words: ―Devoid of the
dividing walls of caste or race, or hatred of rival faith, we all live here in brotherhood.‖

In subsequent years he consecrated several temples in different parts of Kerala with revolutionary
changes. In one temple at Kalavancode in Sherthallai, instead of deities, he installed a mirror for
worship, revealing the truth that God is within oneself and one should find salvation by the
development of inner self. In another temple at Murikkumpuzha near
Trivandrum, in place of deity, there was a bright light which revealed the words ―Truth, Duty,
Kindness, Love‖. His temples were open to all Hindus and non-Hindus, without any
discrimination of caste or creed.

Around 1897, he composed Atmopadesa Satakam (one hundred verses of self-instruction) in

Malayalam, widely regarded as a literary and philosophical masterpiece.[citation needed] In
1904, he settled at Sivagiri to pursue his Sadhana (spiritual practice), choosing Amba as his
deity. He also opened a Sanskrit school in Varkala, where poor boys and orphans were taken
under his care and given education regardless of caste differences. Temples were built at various
places–Thrissur, Kannur, Anchuthengu, Tellicherry, Calicut, Mangalore-under his supervision. A
temple was built for Sharada Devi in 1912 at Sivagiri. In 1913, Narayana Guru founded the
Advaita Ashram at Aluva, dedicating it to the principle of Om Sahodaryam Sarvatra (universal
brotherhood).

Millions saw Sri Narayana Guru as a saint, seer, philosopher, poet and social reformer. Education
and organisation were amongst his many slogans for freedom and strength. He held that the
essehce of all religions is one and the same, and advocated the comparative study of all faiths.

Sri Narayana Guru articulated a doctrine aimed at improving the Ezhavas‘ social position. He
urged them to abandon the occupation of toddy-tapping and to abstain from liquor. He summed
up his message in a slogan: ―Drink not, serve not, brew not.‖ He condemned all forms of animal
sacrifice, the singing of obscene songs etc.

In the early vears of the 20th century, the Aravipuram movenent was given new vigour when two
new leaders, Dr Palpu and Kumaran Asan, joined Sri Narayana Guru, Dr Palpu was the first
Ezhva to receive education in Western medicine. Kumaran Asan was a well-known writer and
poet Thus invigorated, the movement began to condemn the caste system as the basis of Hindu
social structure. In 1903, Dr. Palpu established a social organization called ―Sree Narayana
Dharma Paripalana Yogam (SNDP Yogam) to spread the message of Guru against the caste

18
system in Kerala. The SNDP Yogam established several educational institutes and hospitals
throughout the state and it became a powerful platform to unite the oppressed people.

Death: The Palluruthy event in 1927 was the last anniversary of the S.N.D.P. Yogam which
Narayana Guru attended. This was also his last public function. He became seriously ill in
September 1928 and remained bedridden for some time. He died on 20 September 1928.

Efforts for inter-religious harmony: In 1921, in the All Kerala Fraternity conference held at
Aluva, he proclaimed his famous message ―One Caste, One Religion and One God to
Mankind‖, which was a clarion call to the humankind to unite, instead of breaking down in the
name of caste and religion.
A religious conference, named as the Parliament of Religions, was held at Aluva in 1924 with a
slogan ―Not to argue and win but to know and to make known‖. In that conference he conveyed
the universal message that the ultimate aim of all religions were same and there was no need for
the followers of different religions to indulge in mutual conflict. Both these events were
organised under his guidance. He also stressed the need for a Brahma Vidyalaya for a
comparative study of different religious faiths.

Sri Narayana’s meeting with Mahatma Gandhi and Rabindranath Tagore: In 1925 Sri
Narayana Guru supported the famous Vaikom Satyagraha movement, which demanded entry for
lower caste people in the Shiva temple at Vaikom and all temples in Kerala. Mahatma Gandhi
visited Kerala during this time to support the Vaikom Satyagraha and met the Guru at Sivagiri
Ashram and the two had interesting discussions on the issues of caste and untouchability.
Gandhiji expressed that it was a great privilege in his life to have the darshan of an esteemed
sage like Sri Narayana Guru.

The great Nobel Laureate Rabindranath Tagore met Guru in 1922. About his warm meeting with
Guru, Tagore later said: ―I have been touring different parts of the world. But I have never
come across one who is spiritually greater than Sri Narayana Guru‖.

Evaluation: Sri Narayana Guru used his Vedanta to demolish the foundation of Varnashrama
system. His activities were a war cry against all kinds of slavery and it was against a stagnant
society. The important messages of Narayana Guru were monotheism and equality of all
humankind. The Vedic schools he established were for all castes, particularly the most despised
Ezhavas. Unity of humankind, oneness of god and equality and justice were his prime teachings.
Within a period of less than 50 years, Narayana Guru transformed the Ezhava community from
dust into human beings who could stand on their own legs as self-respecting human beings.

S.N.D.P. Yogam, is not only for reform but also for structural change in the caste system,
modernization, rejection of the traditional occupation, accessibility to education, employment,
industry, commerce and spiritual life and alternative religion.

19
The Yogam took place against the Hindu upper caste system and for the protection of those who
were denied basic human rights. Basically the Yogam is initiated for the upliftment of the
untouchable community i.e, the Ezhavas, who had been practicing the socially degrading
traditional occupation of toddy tapping (Toddy is a potent and pungent Indian drink fermented
from palm sap, traditionally collected by tappers who scamper daily to treetops to retrieve
earthenware pots filled with sap tapped from the trees. In India, palm wine or toddy is served as
either neera or padaneer (a sweet, non-alcoholic beverage derived from fresh sap) or kallu (a
sour beverage made from fermented sap, but not as strong as wine).

The life of Sri Narayana Guru is not just the story of a saint; it is an epic of a crusade. The Guru
was aware that spirituality cannot be fed to starving millions. He believed that other than the
freedom from the curse of untouchability, the downtrodden classes needed education and wealth.
They needed opportunities to improve like others. His whole life was dedicated for the
betterment of the suppressed. He was an innate poet and a great scholar in Malayalam, Tamil and
Sanskrit and authored many beautiful and inspirational works in these languages. His words and
deeds ignited sparks of revolution that led to a remarkable cultural renaissance in the profligate
society of Kerala.

5. Ayyavazhi Muthukutty

Ayyavazhi: Ayyavazhi which means in ―Path of the Master‖ is a henotheistic belief that
originated in South India in the 19 th century. It is cited as an independent monistic religion by
several newspapers, government reports, journals, and academic researchers. Ayyavazhi shares
many ideas with Hinduism in its beliefs and practice, but differs considerably in its concepts of
good and evil and dharma. Though Ayyavazhi followers are spread across India, they are
primarily present in South India, especially concentrated in Tamil Nadu and Kerala. The exact
number of practitioners is unknown, since Ayyavazhis are reported as Hindus during censuses.

Ayya Vaikundar: Ayyavazhi is centered on the life and preachings of Ayya Vaikundar; its ideas
and philosophy are based on the holy texts Akilathirattu Ammanai and Arul Nool. Ayya
Vaikundar (c.1810–c.1851), also known as Incarnation of Lord Vishnu, was a 19th-century
social reformer and iconoclast who worked for the upliftment of downtrodden people in the
Kingdom of Travancore. He is central to the Hindu denomination of Ayyavazhi, as per Holy
Scripture. Akilattirattu Ammanai says that he was Lord Vishnu. In order to attain human form,
Vishnu used the body of previous (Krishna) avatar for the incarnation of Ayya Vaikundar, kept
in Parvatha Ucchi Malai (a mythical mountain believed to be in this region) after the completion
of the Krishna Avatar. In order to attain natural growth of the human body, Vishnu used the soul
of Sampooranathevan a deva also called Mudisoodum Perumal, he was granted moksha
(liberation from the cycle of death and birth, synonymous with heaven) before the Ayya
Vaikunda Avathar in the sea. The exact date of birth of Mudisoodum Perumal or Muthukutty is
unknown. It is mostly placed in either 1810 or 1809, while others follow the view of Akilam.

20
Early Life: He was born in 1809 to Ponnu Madan and Veyilal Amma at Poovandanthope in the
Kanyakumari District (part of Travancore then). They initially named the child Mudisoodum
Perumal, meaning "Lord with a crown". But the people complained to authorities about the name
and they forced the parents to change his name to Muthukutty. Muthukutty was a religious boy
who had special interest in Vishnu. The holy book Akilam mentions that he set a pedestal for
Lord Vishnu in his house. At age seventeen, Muthukutty started to live with Thirumalammal
from the nearby village of Puviyur and she lived with him only to serve him during his public
activities. Thirumalammal had been married, but left her former husband to marry Muthukutty.
According to quotes found in Akilam, they had a male child, who was sired by her first husband.
Muthukutty earned his living as a Palmyra palm climber and as an agricultural laborer.
Legend: Ayyavazhi scripture Akilam tells of a legend of a child who was born dead. Next,
immediately the soul of Sampooranathevan was installed into the body, kept in Parvatha Ucchi
Malai (a mythical mountain believed to be in this region) after the completion of the Krishna
Avatar. According to the legend, the parents found the child still for a time immediately after
birth, then the child began to behave normally. Thereafter, that boy grew up called Muthukutty in
human history and Sampooranathevan in Ayyavazhi mythology.

Ayyavazhi followers believe that Ayya Vaikundar transformed during an encounter with a deity.
In his twenty-fourth year, Muthukutty was struck by illness and suffered for a year. His mother
took her sick son to the temple at Thiruchendur, during a festival there. He went into the sea and
disappeared. The parents searched for his body for one day. According to legend, on the third
day, Lord Vishnu appeared on the sea-shore. On seeing him, Muthukutty's mother mistook him
for her son and tried to embrace him. He told her that he was no longer her son, but the son of
Supreme Lord Narayana. Then he started walking towards Detchanam. This place became a holy
place for the devotees of Ayyavazhi and they erected a temple there named Avatharappathi. This
event is celebrated during the festival of Ayya Vaikundar Avataram.

Ayya Vaikundar, who arose from the sea at Thiruchendur (per Akilathirattu Ammanai) on 20th
of the Tamil Month of Masi (March 4, 1831 CE, Friday) is considered a unique avatar by the
followers of Ayyavazhi. According to Akilam Ayya Vaikundar was not merely a human, not
merely Narayana and not merely the Ultimate Soul, but all three. He had the responsibility to
destroy the evil of Kali.

Tavam: Upon reaching Poovantanthoppe, (present-day Swamithope), he undertook a penance.

The penance consisted of three stages, each spanning two years. A tradition describes his
postures during the six-year tavam as follows: during the first two years, he stood inside a six
feet deep pit; during the next two years, he squatted on the ground; and during the last two years,
he sat on a raised platform. His appearance was filthy, "long and entangled plait of hair" and
frayed clothes. He spoke less and subsisted on frugal meals.

Supernatural abilities: Akilattirattu speaks of his incineration of evil spirits as an important

event in Ayya Vaikundar's incarnation. It took place when he was performing his penance, which
21
he had announced to be the means of destroying the kalimayai - the illusory evil force. He
gathered the people and caused some of them, both male and female, to be possessed of the evil
spirits (peyattam). The possessed ones danced in front of the crowd as if the evil spirits had come
upon them. Vaikundar, then, ordered these evil spirits to make an oath, in front of the people, to
surrender their powers and incinerate themselves. When he had finished his orders, the dancers
fell flat on the ground and burned.

Similarly, Vaikundar performed another action to ‗seize the esoteric evil powers‘. Akilam says
that he took away the powers of those who knew to perform witchcraft, sorcery and other
magical rituals. People living in the hills, called as Kanikkarar, were believed to be powerful
shamans, having powers to contain or to provoke the demons. Vaikundar, in a trance, made some
of them testify that they had surrendered their powers. People grew appreciative of Ayya's
actions. They began addressing him as Vaikuntacami. This implied an attribution of divinity to
Vaikundar. Vaikundar exhorted the people as follows:

There are no demons, no devils. No ill effects of magical practices, No disease, no pain and no
extortion of taxes, and, therefore, live courageously.

Five Citars: Ayya Vaikundar has five disciples (citars). It was through one of his disciples, Hari
Gopalan Citar, he wrote the holy book, called Akilam. According to holy scripture Akilattirattu
Ammanai the Pandavas of previous Dwapara Yukam was made to take birth in this Kali Yukam
as Citars of Vaikundar. They are Dharma Citar, Bhima Citar, Arjunan Citar, Nakulan Citar and
Sakatevan Citar.

Vaikundar as Pantaram: The fame of Vaikundar began to spread in the countries of

Travancore and Tirunelveli and he was gradually recognised as a religious person with
extraordinary powers. He was addressed as a Pantaram, a religious person hailing from and
serving the ordinary folk. Akilattirattu addresses him as Narayana Pantaram.

People came to listen to his teachings and instructions, to be cured by him of different diseases,
to witness, worship and serve a religious person. Vaikundar encouraged the people to come
together around a well to take a ritual bath, irrespective of caste. He encouraged them to dine
together in his presence.

He stressed that he had come to abolish Kali Yukam and to usher in an age of Dharma Yukam,
when the now-oppressed and suffering people would be liberated and rule the land under his
leadership. 'Uplift of the lowly is dharmam‘ was a constant refrain in his teachings. People were
encouraged to serve as catalysts for the destruction of Kali by transforming themselves to be
'people of Dharma Yukam' and to acquire a new character. The new character would come upon
them, he said, if they learned to live with self-respect, social dignity and fearlessness.
Underscoring the importance of self-respect and social dignity, he said, ‗if one lives with dignity
and self-respect, the kali would destroy itself‘. He said when people grew out of kalimayai,

22
Dharma Yukam would unfold and in that age, he would rule over the people as Dharma Raja, the
king of Dharma Yukam.

Arrest and imprisonment: Against the background of the growing popularity of Vaikundar and
the convergence of people around him in multitudes, a complaint was lodged against him with
the king of Travancore. The king arrested Vaikundar and tortured him. Ayya may have been
arrested on 11 November 1839, but the date is not mentioned in Akilam.

Post-imprisonment: After he returned from imprisonment, Vaikundar inspired a group of his

devotees to undertake a religious exercise called Thuvayal Thavasu. He also performed miracles.
He initiated festivities. The deities were made to 'come upon' some of the female devotees who
became their human media and a marriage ceremony was performed. Ceremonial processions
were held amidst singing, incantations and shouts of joy by the followers. Several rites and
rituals were instituted during these occasions.

Attaining Vaikundam: Later Vaikundar was invited by his devotees to their homes and treated
in a grand manner. By way of soliciting his blessings, his devotees carried him to different
places. During these occasions, he laid foundations in various places for small shrine-like
centres, called Nizhal Thangals.

Vaikundar died on 3 June 1851. According to Ayyavazhi followers, he is said to have attained
Vaikundam. However, this date is disputed, as Samuel Mateer mentions the year as 1848. As he
attained Vaikundam his body was interned in a tomb and, around that, a pati (temple) was later
built. His devotees continued to visit this site and performed the rituals as they used to do when
Vaikundar was bodily present. His life and works remain the foundation of the Ayyavazhi. The
head temple of the Ayyavazhi religion is the Swamithoppepathi and is located in the Village of
Swamithope.

Teachings and Impact: The majority of Ayyavazhi‘s key teachings can be found in the book
Akilattirattu Ammanai and other teachings are collated from various books written by unknown
authors, whose works feature in the Arul Nool. Like Dharma, the other teachings of Ayyavazhi
are twofold, sociological and mystical. The mystical teachings are devoted to revealing divine
knowledge, while social teachings are primarily concerned with eliminating inequality and
discrimination in society. The teachings encourage a positive relationship with God, as opposed
to one based on fear. Followers are encouraged to refer to God as Ayya, ―dear father‖, to
strengthen their intimacy and affection towards God.

Ayyavazhi clearly and explicitly condemns the caste based inequalities in its social teachings. It
heavily criticises the caste discrimination rather than the 'Caste system' itself. From its inception,
Ayyavazhi has also served as an engine of social reform, particularly in the area of Travancore,
which was previously noted for its unusually strong caste system. In this contest, the mingling of
castes in Ayyavazhi centers was a vital element in the transformation of society.

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Ayya Vaikundar was the first to succeed as a social reformer in launching political struggle,
social renaissance as well as religious reformation in the country. Vaikundar was the pioneer of
the social revolutionaries of Tamil Nadu and Kerala. Research scholars regard Vaikundar as a
teacher, healer and also a miracle worker. He was also said to be the forerunner of all social
reformers of India. Akilam displayed sympathy for the laboring classes, and opposed to the often
excessive taxes they were forced to pay. From the beginning the followers, fortified by the
teachings, have also taken a strong stand against political oppression. Ayyavazhi was in the
forefront of movements for Human Rights and Social Equality. Ayyavazhi also effected many
social changes in southern India, resulting in the emergence of a series of social and selfrespect
movements such as Upper cloth agitation, Temple entry agitation and other movements
including those of Narayana Guru, Chattampi Swamikal, Vallalar and Ayyankali.

Evaluation: In spite of preaching about equality and inclusiveness, the Ayyavazhi scriptures are
mixed up in their acceptance of inclusiveness and exclusiveness. The inclusive theory accepts the
views of different religions for a certain period of time, and from then onwards exclusively
rejects all of them in its narrative. Ayyavazhi accepts different god-heads of several religions,
like the concept of Allah and almost all the god-heads of Hinduism. It also says that the one and
the same God incarnates in different parts of the world at different time for rescuing the people
from sufferings. But due to the advent of Kaliyan and because of the cruel nature of his boons,
for the first time, the supreme power Ekam incarnates in the world as Vaikundar, and so all the
lesser god-heads and previous scriptures had lost their substances. So after the time of the
Vaikunda Avatar, Vaikundar was said to be the only worshippable God and hence, the theology
of Ayyavazhi was channeled towards exclusivism.

The manner in which Akilam treats the scriptures of different religions is complicated. For
instance, while there is no direct reference to the terms 'Christ' or 'Bible' anywhere in any of the
Ayyavazhi texts, there is an indirect reference in Akilam thirteen which is supposed to be an
implication that Christ was an incarnation of Narayana, but it was widely thought that it did not
recognise the Bible composition. It seems the view of Akilam on Bible is "it was created with the
intention of man and not that of God". In common, creation of religions and shaping
individualities for them are heavily criticised. The concepts 'God' and 'Religion' are kept poles
apart in Akilam, and it seems to maintain an ideology something like 'Accept God; Reject
religion'.

Ayyavazhi accepts various incarnations in Hinduism, but necessarily rejects the so-called ' Hindu
' scriptures. It initially accepts Vedas. Later since Kaliyan had bought the Vedas as boon they too
lost their substance by the advent of Kaliyan, and so had gone invalid. It also says that he
(Kaliyan) had performed several additions and had hidden some of their content. And hence God
incarnated as Vaikundar. So for the present age, Akilam is said to be the only 'Book of
Perfection‘. By this Ayyavazhi rejects all other scriptures and follows only its own. Akilam

24
highly condemns the creation of religions especially exclusivistic religious and theological ideas.
It shows them as the foremost Kali mayai (evil of Kali).

Muthukutty seemed to be someone who was mainly preoccupied with the establishment of a
worldly kingdom which he termed as Dharma Yukam, which would be a kingdom ruled by the
oppressed and the depressed people and where he would reign as the king, Dharma Raja of
Dharma Yukam. Although he was against the caste, it was not the system that he was so much
against, but the discrimination based on caste. It seemed that in some way he accepted the caste
system. But it is inevitable that if there is a system then there is bound to be discrimination.

6. Influential Thinkers: Mahatma Gandhi, Aurobindo Ghose and S. Radhakrishnan

1. Mahatma Gandhi and his Philosophy:

His Life
Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi was born at Porbunder in Kathiawad, Gujarat on 2 nd October
1869, as the son of a Modh Bania who had thrice been Prime Minister of local princely states. He
grew up in a religious home. Gandhi’s mother was a Vaishnavaite Bhaktini. When he was
thirteen Gandhi was married to Kasturbai of about his own age.
After his matriculation he sailed to England on 4 th September 1887 to study law. He was
made to take three oaths before permission was granted to go to England, that he will not touch
wine, women or meat during his stay there. He kept the vows he had made to his family. In
England he learned Latin, French and English, and passed the London matriculation. He was
called to the bar on 10th June 1891.
During his stay in England he read ‘Gita’ for the first time and it was Sir Edwin Arnold’s
translation and he was impressed by it. Other books that influenced him were the ‘New
Testament’ especially the sermon on the mount in it, ‘The height of Asia’ and ‘Hero and hero
worship’ which is about prophet Mohammed.
On his return to India in 1891, Gandhi began his career as a practicing lawyer in Bombay.
Then came a summons to Africa from a Muslim firm in need of legal advice. Gandhi accepted
and sailed to Durban in April 1893. Almost on the day he landed, he was flying out of a first
class railway compartment, because a European fellow traveler objected to the presence of a
‘coolie,’ for Indians were called coolie.
The anglicized ‘coolie’ barrister now began to change into the Mahatma. Gandhi’s religion
deepened. Protestant friends, trying to convert him, drove him to a more thorough study of his
own religion. Gandhi’s diet and dress were becoming progressively simpler. In 1912, he had
given up European clothes and was living on fresh and dried fruit alone. Already by 1906 he
had, with Kasturbai’s consent, taken a vow of perpetual celibacy.

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 At the same time the political leader was emerging. In 1894, Gandhi had organized the Natal
Congress to agitate for the rights of Indians serving as indentured servants in South Africa. He
was its secretary, edited its organ ‘Indian Opinion,’ championed its cases in the law courts.
During the Boer war of 1899 and again in the so-called Zulu rebellion of 1906, he led an
ambulance corps into the field, and won a war medal. Meanwhile, influenced by Tolstoy and
Thorean, he had been thinking out his technique of satyagraha, and in the years 1909-1914
conducted two brilliant non-violent campaigns against the famous ‘Black Act’ which brought
him two terms in prison, but eventually compelled the South African government to yield.
After being in South Africa for twenty years, Gandhi returned to India in 1914 and entered
the political arena under the tutelage of the moderate Gokhale. He opened the satyagraha ashram
on the banks of the Sabarmati river near Ahmedabad, in Gujarat, and went round to get himself
acquainted with the conditions of India. Gandhi’s prestige had risen immensely due to his
successful intervention on behalf of the indigo cultivators of Champaran and the mill workers of
Ahmedabad, found himself at the head of the growing national movement.
His leadership was new and strikingly effective. In a short time the “half naked fakir” had
changed the Congress from a body of anglicized, middle class lawyers agitating in the main for
better jobs, into a revolutionary mass movement. Gandhi led three main non-violent campaigns
(1) The Bardoli campaign 1921, (2) the Salt Tax Campaign 1931, and (3) The Quit India
movement, 1940.
Political independence was the least of the Gandhi’s aims. It was a complete social renewal
that he wanted, the Hindu-Muslim unity and the removal of untouchability. But while the masses
adored the Mahatma, they were slow to grasp his teaching. The aftermath of the partition saw
India burning with communal riots. More riots followed and the long, tragic procession of
refugees. In those dark days of a nation’s birth pangs, Gandhiji was at his greatest, striding
through the blood-bathed villages of Bengal and Bihar, pleading for peace, and resorting to his
ultimate weapon, a three-week fast, to shock his co-religionists into sanity. Peace was eventually
restored - but not before an immense price had been paid. A Hindu fanatic, enraged by
Gandhiji’s concessions to the Muslims, shot him dead on January 30th 1948.
His Teachings
Gandhiji belongs to the long line of religious reformers, who from the time of Ram Mohan
Roy, have striven to revive Hinduism by integrating the ethics of the New Testament with the
philosophy of the Upanishads. He did not, however, inherit his ideas from the nineteenth century
reformers, but arrived at them through an intensely personal odyssey, in which his boyhood,
Vaishnavism, Protestant contacts in England and Africa, the writings of Tolstoy and Ruskin all
had a part. What emerged was a new interpretation of Hinduism, whose distinctive features can
be summed up in the key Gandhian words: satya and ahimsa (Truth and non-violence). As

26
Gandhiji himself says “My religion is based on Truth and Non-Violence. Truth is my God, and
Non-violence is the means to reach Him.”

a) God: For Gandhi, God is a living presence as well as an inner voice. He says: ―There is
an indefinable mysterious power that pervades everything. I feel it, though I do not see it.‖
Gandhi called God ―Sat‖ which means Absolute Being, Reality or Truth. He says, ―Truth is
God‖. God is in us, around us. Further, perfect non-violence is necessary for us in our search for
God. Gandhi defines the Hindu creed as ―Search after truth through non-violent means‖.

b) Ahimsa (Non-violence): According to Gandhi, ahimsa is nothing but the law of love. It
is extended to the sub-human beings also. He applied it to national and international affairs.

c) Varnashramadharma: According to Gandhi, the modern caste system is a breach of

ahimsa. Varna is based on heredity, division of labour, equality, and spiritual economy. If people
follow their hereditary occupations, there will be no unemployment and unhealthy competitions.
There would be cooperation and harmony in society. All life is equal and one. There should be
no notion of superiority and inferiority. There would be time for all to make spiritual pursuits.
Gandhi believed that the caste system was a relic of Hinduism which hindered the growth of true
religion. Therefore for India as well as Hinduism to grow and develop, he believed that the caste
system must be done away with.

c) Swadeshi: It is making a sacrifice and using what is available in one‘s immediate

environment which would serve others. Gandhi applies the principle of swadeshi (indigenous)
not only to economics but also to education. In this context, it means the use of the mothertongue
as the medium of instruction in all stages. It would also mean introducing a basic craft in the
school. In politics it means the use of native institutions, for example, Panchayat Raj
(selfgovernment in the villages). In religion, it means that people should retain their ancestral
religion and cleanse it of corruption. He was against converting people from one religion to
another, since he felt that no religion is perfect. He taught that people should respect other
religions. He said that all religions are branches of the Tree of Truth.

d) Untouchability: Gandhi said that untouchability is a cancer. It is a breach of the doctrine

of ahimsa. It has brought an evil name to Hinduism. Referring to the racism in South Africa,
Gandhi said that when Hindus treat their own as untouchables, then they cannot complain if the
whites in South Africa treat them as untouchables. Gandhi‘s campaign against untouchability
was the greatest service that he rendered to Hinduism.

e) Caste System
According to Gandhiji, the modern caste system is a breach of ahimsa. Varna is based on
heredity, division of labour, equality, and spiritual economy. If people follow their hereditary
occupations, there will be no unemployment and unhealthy competitions. There would be
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cooperation and harmony in society. All life is equal and one. There should be no notion of
superiority and inferiority. He believes in the Varnasrama dharma in its strictly Vedic sense.
Varna in this sense will sanction certain restrictions on inter-dining and intermarriage, but never
untouchability, which is, “a heinous crime against humanity”.
f) Women: Gandhi denounced child marriages, enforced widowhood and devadasi system.
He instructed that daughters and sons should be treated as equals. Women are not inferior to
men. They should not suffer from any legal disability not suffered by men. Gandhi said that
women have more moral power than men.
g) Brahmacharya: Brahmacharya is complete control over all the senses. It is more than
control of animal passions. Thought-control is most important. Both the body and the mind have
to be brought under control. Brahmacharya is one of the means for search after Brahman.
Gandhi says that if a man or woman is able to fully overcome sexual desire, marriage is
unnecessary. Marriage is yielding to weakness. He thinks that conjugal love need not express
itself through lust. As a married man, Gandhi took the decision to practice Brahmacharya and he
continued in this state till his death. He encouraged unmarried girls to remain single for the sake
of service.

h) Ashram Vows
The members of the Sabarmati Ahsram which Gandhiji founded were expected to take a number
of vows. There are eleven vows. 1) Truth 2) Non-violence 3) Celibacy 4) Non-Stealing 5) Non-
Possession 6) Control of the palate 7) Fearlessness 8) Removal of Untouchability 9) Bread-
labour 10) Equality of religions and 11) Swadeshi.
i) Satyagraha: Satyagraha means holding on to truth. It is non-violent resistance to
injustice inflicted by those in authority. It takes spiritual strength to do this. The satyagrahi must
have the following qualifications:

i. He must believe that Truth will triumph in the end. ii. He must have faith in human nature.
He appeals to the highest in one‘s opponent through one‘s own suffering; also the sympathy of
the people at large is enlisted towards a just cause.
iii. He should have infinite patience. His suffering may continue for a long time; the struggle
may even end in his death. But he believes that the just cause he represents will triumph in the
end. iv. He should be willing to sacrifice. He may lose his property; his family may be reduced
to poverty.
v. He should not fear human authority. He must fear only
God.
vi. He must not take unfair advantage over his opponent. vii.
He must not deviate from Truth and righteousness.
viii. He should so conduct himself that his opponent would have confidence that his life is
safe in his hands.
ix. He should be charitable, polite and gentle towards his opponent.
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 x. He should be always willing to come to terms with the opponent even if it would result
in loss of prestige for him.

Gandhi says that satyagraha is simply an application of the Gita doctrine of Nishkamakarma or
Karma Yoga. It has two stages: non-violent non-cooperation and civil disobedience. In
nonviolent non-cooperation, one refuses to associate onself with the wrong. If the ruler is
wicked, the people should withdraw their cooperation from him and endeavour to turn him away
from his wickedness. The aim of non-cooperation is to paralyse the government. In non-
cooperation no law is broken. But in civil disobedience, the people refuse to obey the laws of the
evil state and finally refuse to pay taxes. This is open rebellion, but it is non-violent. The rebels
are willing to suffer whaterver punishment is inflicted on them for breaking the civil law. Non-
cooperation and civil disobedience are failed only after negotiations are failed. Satyagraha is not
undertaken lightly.
Gandhi forged the method of satyagraha first in South Africa. It worked there, and it became as
if it were a rehearsal for India. It worked in India and independence was won for India without an
armed struggle with the British.

h) Religion: As a Hindu, Gandhi did not believe in the orthodox view of God. He had no
faith in idol worship. Religion did not consist of worshipping god or reading a religious book.
Religious life meant identification with Humanity. He said, ―I reject any religious doctrine that
does not appeal to reason and is in conflict with morality.‖ He said that Hindus must become
better Hindus, and Muslims must become better Muslims as a result of understanding other
religions. In his opinion, politics and religion could not be separated because both have service of
humankind as their ideal.

i) Humanism: For Gandhi, to worship God is to serve the poor. The only way to find God
is to see him in his creation and serve all. His love for humanity was so great that he recognized
no limatations of race or country. Throughout his life, Gandhi worked to free Indians from
poverty. He promoted khadi because it would provide work for many. He denounced
industrialization because it would replace human labour and increase unemployment. He was a
Socialist and he hoped that state control of useful industries would benefit the common man
rather than encourage the profit motive of the rich capitalists.

j) Sarvodaya
The term ‘sarvodaya’ became a synonym for Gandhian ideology. This Sanskrit term is a
compound of ‘sarva’ (all) and ‘udaya’ (uplift). So literally, sarvodaya means “upliftment of all.”
For Gandhiji, sarvodaya meant the universal welfare of the entire humanity. It refers not
primarily to material objects but to the total personality of the individual and to the cultural
contents of a nation.
The Sarvodaya ideology incorporates all those fundamentals of Gandhism such as soul-force,
individual reform, self sacrifice, re-construction of India on the lines of ancient Indian village.

29
During the days of the national struggle, Gandhiji visualized this ideology in his mind, this was
the only way to meet the challenges of the contemporary ideologies like communism and
capitalism.
The final goal in the Gandhian scheme of social evolution is the attainment of ‘Ram Rajya’ or
‘the kingdom of righteous rule.’ All of Gandhiji’s political, economic and social endeavors were
oriented towards this goal. This Gandhian ideology was the outcome of the influence of Gita, and
ideas of Ruskin and Tolstoy.
Gandhiji planned to translate his Sarvodaya ideology into the social and economic life of India
after independence but he himself became a victim of the violence he tried to overcome. The
Gandhians continued the sarvodaya plan which Gandhiji evolved during his lifetime. Sarvodaya
acquired the character of a movement only when Vinoba Bhave started the Bhoodan movement
as a counter-point to the communist activities in Telengana. Under Vinoba Bhave’s leadership,
sarvodaya has become a living ideology which has given new dimensions to Gandhism.
k) Gandhi’s Understanding of Christ and Christianity
Gandhiji’s first contact with the Gospel was not very positive to start with. He was influenced by
the Sermon on the Mount of Jesus. In spite of his rejection of the Gospel message in its essence,
Gandhiji was honest enough to say that it is Christianity to which he is indebted “for the religious
quest which (it) awakened in me”.
l) Christ
Gandhiji rejects the significance of Jesus’ historicality, for Jesus is only an illustration of the
principle of Christhood. He says, “I may say that I have never been interested in a historical
Jesus. I should not care if it was proved by someone that the man called Jesus never lived, and
that what was narrated in the Gospels was a fantasy of the writer’s imagination. For the Sermon
on the Mount would be still be true to me”.
Therefore, for Gandhiji, the cross of Jesus is only a symbol of the principle of Christhood, and at
best a concrete example of Christ’s selfless love for others. So Jesus was a martyr. But in the
ultimate analysis what is significant is the eternal principle of Christhood and the person
becomes irrelevant. Hence there is no uniqueness in Jesus not found in other’s souls. The birth,
life and death of such Christ’s are recurring events in the history of mankind. It is by following
what Jesus taught that we can attain to his height. It is clear that in all of this Gandhiji is strictly
following the primacy of principle over person.
m) Christianity
Having experienced the western Christianity adulterated with imperialism and materialism,
Gandhiji has a lot to say to remake Indian Christianity. He insisted that Indian Christianity must
disassociate itself from its western counterpart, because of the latter’s alliance with himsa and
mammon. Christians have misunderstood Christ’s command to “go ye into all the world” by

30
taking it to mean only proselytism. But what Christ actually set his disciples into the world for
was philanthropic work.
Evaluation: H.T. Mazumdar evaluated Gandhi and said, ―He was a patriot but his patriotism
was the same as humanity. He was a patriot because he was humanitarian.‖ ―Gandhi was a
nationalist in order to be a true internationalist.‖ According to Sarma, ―Gandhi‘s originality
consists in extending the ideal of non-violence from individuals to nations and inventing a
technique for its application.‖

Gandhi was the greatest karma yogin that India has ever produced. He had the spirit of
detachment. His philosophy was practical, his whole life, a sacrifice offered on the altar of
humanity. Therefore, one can truly say that Gandhi exemplified anasakti yoga, selfless action.
This is the name given to his commentary on the Bhagavad Gita.

However, Gandhi also has his share of critics. In fact, Gandhi had been enmeshed in
controversies ever since he plunged into the racial politics of Natal until he was assassinated
fifty-four years later. He had to contend with the suspicious eyes of the British, and also with
discontent within the Congress Party. He infuriated orthodox Hindus for denouncing caste
exclusiveness and untouchability and for advocating secular politics. He narrowly escaped a
bomb attack in Poona in 1934, but fell victim to the bullets of a Poona Brahmin who accused him
of betraying the Hindu cause fourteen years later. Curiously enough, for years protagonists of
Pakistan had branded Gandhi as the leading enemy of Islam.

In the book Gandhi Behind the Mask of Divinity written by an United States Army officer G. B.
Singh, the author challenges Gandhi‘s image as a saintly, benevolent, and pacifistic leader of
Indian independence, told through Gandhi's own writings and actions over the course of his life.
The book claims that Gandhi emulated racism from the Hindu ideology of caste towards the
blacks of South Africa and the Untouchables, instigated ethnic hatred against foreign
communities, and, to this end, was involved in covering up the killing of American engineer
William Francis Doherty.

Gandhi fought for the upliftment of the scheduled castes, the untouchables. He even coined the
term ―Harijans‖ to refer to them. However, ―Harijan‖, the name by which the Scheduled Castes
are popularly known, is resented by them. ―It is a dirty word; don't ever use that,‖ says B.P.
Maurya, a prominent leader of the Scheduled Castes.

The name was coined by Mahatma Gandhi when he launched his campaign for the upliftment of
the ―untouchables‖. When some of them protested to him against it, he justified it saying: ―So
long as untouchability is not completely removed, a name to distinguish (those suffering from it)
is required and an inoffensive name is any day better than one that stinks in the nostrils.‖

But Maurya thinks the name ―Harijan‖ stinks too. Though Gandhi said it meant ―Children of

31
God,‖ Maurya says it was a euphemism for the illegitimate children of the devadasis (temple
dancers). Other members of the Scheduled Castes say it originally referred to monkeys, the
children of Hanuman. Asks Maurya, ―If we alone are the Harijans, Children of God, what about
the rest? Are they Shaitan ke bachhe (children of satan)?‖

The disagreement over the use of "Harijan" to refer to Dalits goes back to the 1930s. In fact, on
January 22, 1938, Ambedkar walked out from Bombay Legislature protesting the use of word. It
is argued by many that, by using the word ―Harjan‖, Gandhi instead of dealing with the real
problem, which was the mindset of the upper castes, he chose to tinker with the identity of the
Dalits to make it more suitable for the upper castes. And in doing so, Gandhi wanted to make
sure that he did not ruffle the feathers of influential Hindus, for he needed their support for his
politics.

Further, all that ―renaming‖ of Dalits as Harijans did was side-step the issue. It only removed
―the offence to the ear‖ and did nothing more, as Gandhi was once told.

Gandhi is also criticized for another quaint view of his. Though he opposed untouchability, he
believed in Varnashrama Dharma from which untouchability springs. But unlike the more
orthodox Hindus, he did not think that this division of society into occupation-based castes
entailed untouchability. Equality could go with ―pure‖ Varnashrama Dharma, he believed.
Defending the dogma, Gandhi who often said he had voluntarily become a Harijan, said:
―Varna is not a man-made law to be imposed or relaxed at will. It is natural to man in his
regenerated state.‖

2. Aurobindo Ghose:

Early Life and Education: Aurobindo Ghose was born in 1872 as the third son of Dr. Krishna
Dhan Ghose near Calcutta. Dr. Ghose was a medical doctor trained in Scotland. When he
returned to India, he was an anglicized, denationalized Indian. Aurobindo‘s mother was an
epileptic and was unable to live with her children. Therefore, it is very doubtful that under these
circumstances, whether Aurobindo received any religious training at home. He had no chance to
learn his mother tongue Bengali during his childhood. They spoke English and Hindi at home.
When he was only 5 years of age, he was sent to attend the Loretto Convent School in
Darjeeling. He was there for 2 years.

When he was only 7 years of age, he was sent to England for education, along with two of his
older brothers. Their local guardian was Rev. William H. Drewette, pastor of a Congregational
Church in Manchester. As devout Christians, the Drewettes encouraged the boys to attend family
prayers, read the Bible and attend Christian meetings. Aurobindo got selected to do the studies
for the Indian Civil Service and won a scholarship which got him a seat in King‘s College,
Cambridge. While there, he won all the prizes for Greek and Latin verse, and passed in first
class.

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His father‘s letters and paper-cuttings from Bengali Newspapers, were the first lessons that
Aurobindo had on patriotism. They revealed the injustices practices by the British government in
India. Before he was hardly 15, he had decided that he must serve his country‘s cause. Aurobindo
passed his examinations for ICS, but he did not appear for the riding test, and thus purposely
managed to get rejected from ICS. His patriotism did not allow him to serve the British
government in India. At that time, Aurobindo was dissatisfied with the moderate view of the
Indian National Congress (INC).

For 14 years Aurobindo stayed in England without even once visiting his parents. After the
Drewettes left England, the Ghose boys were without guardian or close friends. These hardships
made Aurobindo a man of iron will. He returned to India at the age of 20, in 1893. Before he
came his father had passed away, and his mother could not recognize him.

When Aurobindo returned home, he joined the civil service of the native state of Baroda. In order
to orientate himself to Indian life, he began learning Bengali and Sanskrit. He concentrated on
the Bhagavadgita and the Upanishads and also learned Gujarati and Marathi. Aurobindo
published articles in the Indu Prakash journal criticizing the moderate policies of the INC. His
articles were entitled, ―New lamps for old‖. He wrote about those who had worked for the
reawakening of slumbering India and looked forward to the achievement of full independence
from British rule. Aurobindo got married in 1901, but he did not live with his wife very long, due
to his pre-occupation. He was in the Baroda State Service for 13 years.

Political Life and Career: Even before leaving Baroda, he had begun political activities.
Vacations were spent in Bengal, organizing a revolutionary party and he made several young
people take an oath with a sword in one hand and the Bhagavadgita in the other. The content of
the oath was ―to secure the freedom of Mother India at any cost and not to declare the secret of
the society to anyone outside.‖

He wrote a revolutionary booklet, Bhavani Mandir, which was proscribed by the British
Government. Another pamphlet under the caption, No Compromise was also published. He also
sent Madhav Rao Jadhav, a close friend, to England for military training which included the
manufacturing of bombs and revolvers. During the partition of Bengal in 1905, Aurobindo
directed the revolutionaries to utilize the situation. He also took part in the ―Swadeshi‖ and
other agitations.

In 1906, he left Baroda and accepted the Principalship of the national College of Calcutta and
there he greatly instilled the spirit of nationalism in the young people. He used to go out to the
districts in Bengal tp bring about political awakening in the people. He was not against violence
theoretically, if it were for the liberation of India. Through the journal Bande Mataram, he
consolidated the Nationalist party. He alongwith B.G. Tilak played an important role in the
Congress Session in Calcutta in 1906, where the fourfold programme of Swaraj, Swadeshi,

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boycott of foreign goods and national education were adopted. Aurobindo used to do public
speeches and wrote articles in the paper Yugantar also.

Aurobindo although innocent, along with many others were arrested in the Alipur bomb-case and
was kept in Alipur jail as an under-trial prisoner. Then he was acquitted. After his release in
1909, he started an English weekly called Karma Yogin. He believed that life is dharma, true
religion. In 1909, he was able to get all the nationalist resolutions passed in the Hooghly Political
Conference. He organised the Bengal Nationalist Association. But an abrupt end came to
Aurobindo‘s political career of four years.

Religious Life: From the year 1904 onwards, Aurobindo started practicing yoga for ―action‖.
By the time he left Baroda in 1906, he was already well advanced in yoga. It is said that
Aurobindo got his first glimpse of spirituality and the great message of India from Ramakrishna
Paramahansa and Swami Vivekananda. Aurobindo was very simple in his mode of living. He
was fully self-controlled.

Call to a spiritual life: Aurobindo passed through an extra-ordinary religious experience while
in Alipur jail (1908-09). The jail became an ―Ashrama‖ for him, for he practiced the yoga of the
Bhagavadgita there. Often he had the vision of Krishna. He saw nothing but Vasudeva all around
him. A voice spoke to him that he is being prepared to undertake different kinds of work after his
release from prison. He understood that his future mission was to be on the spiritual plane.

New Mission: In February 1910, Aurobindo left British India and went to Pondicherry in French
India. He stayed there till the end of his life in 1950. He opened the Aurobindo Ashram and
devoted himself for the rest of his life to the development of his ―integral‖ yoga, which was
characterized by its holistic approach and its aim of a fulfilled and spiritually transformed life on
earth. He contacted people through letters, books and interviews. He practiced yoga, had
disciples from other countries also. His aim was to bring about a spiritual evolution of
humankind.

Philosophy of Aurobindo:

Western and Christian Influence: It is clear from Aurobindo‘s writings that he was acquainted
with Bergson‘s Creative Evolution, Nietzsche‘s philosophy of the Superman and Plotinu‘s
Double Trinity. He has similarities with S. Alexander and Whitehead also.

As it has been mentioned, Aurobindo spent 2 years in a convent school in Darjeeling and
following that he was in England for 14 years. There were the most formative years of his life.
Aurobindo does not admit any Christian or biblical views. However, we find much similarity
between the New Testament concepts of ‗new life from above‘, ‗transformation of humanity
through Christ‘ and the ‗consummation of creation‘ and Aurobindo‘s philosophy.

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Life Divine: The evolutionary philosophy underlying Aurobindo‘s integral yoga is explored in
his main prose work, The Life Divine (1939). Rejecting the traditional Indian approach of
striving for moksha (liberation from the cycle of death and rebirth, or samsara) as a means of
reaching happier, transcendental planes of existence, Aurobindo held that terrestrial life itself, in
its higher evolutionary stages, is the real goal of creation.

Aurobindo argues that divine Brahman manifests as empirical reality through līlā, or divine play.
Instead of positing that the world we experience is an illusion (māyā), Aurobindo argues that
world can evolve and become a new world with new species, far above the human species just as
human species have evolved after the animal species.

Aurobindo believed that Darwinism merely describes a phenomenon of the evolution of matter
into life, but does not explain the reason behind it, while he finds life to be already present in
matter, because all of existence is a manifestation of Brahman. He argues that nature (which he
interpreted as divine) has evolved life out of matter and then mind out of life. All of existence, he
argues, is attempting to manifest to the level of the supermind - that evolution had a purpose. He
stated that he found the task of understanding the nature of reality arduous and difficult to justify
by immediate tangible results.

Social Action from Gita: Aurobindo gave much importance to ‗action‘. He taught that both
Krishna and Arjuna were men of action; hence, the Bhagavadgita is a gospel of works. The Gita
asks one to avoid the great mistake of renunciation of works observed by the quietistic and
ascetic philosophies, but to continue in works. The work requires both social and ethical
obligations. According to Aurobindo‘s teachings, there are 3 important matters with regard to
action.
a) Niskama Karma: Actions should be performed with no desire for the fruit of action.
Actions are the works of nature, which is the power of Purusottama; hence no person has the
right to claim the fruits for themselves. The one who works without any desire for fruits has
attained freedom of the Spirit. It is desire that has to be put away and not desirable action. There
should be neither attachment to pleasant work nor aversion to unpleasant work.

b) Svadharma: It is svadharma (one‘s own duty) which is determined by one‘s own

svabhava (nature) that should be performed. Each person fulfils different functions according to
the rule of his own circumstances, capacities and character. This is svadharma. There are four
kinds of svadharma known as four varnas. The work of each individual corresponds to his type
of nature (svabhava). Qualities and works cannot be separated.

Aurobindo is of the opinion that in all communities there is a psychological and economic need
for the four-fold function of humankind. These correspond to the 4 varnas in India. One can
acquire spiritual perfection, if one devotes him/herself to one‘s natural work. It needs to be
performed as a worship of the divine, dedicated to the Master of the universe.

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Lokasamgra (holding together of the people): The motive of action should be the maintenance
of the world. The liberated man must work for the welfare of others on behalf of the Divine. It is
more than social service. It is more than doing duty for duty‘s sake. It is participating in the
divine action as an instrument of the Divine. This cannot be done unless the mind arrives at
equality, universality and impersonality. One must have freedom from ego. Divine life is
possible through an experience of divine birth. From the divine nature proceeds divine works.
Aurobindo says: ―Act for the best good of all; act for the maintenance of the march of the
world, for the support or the leading of its people.‖

Evaluation: Aurobindo was an Indian nationalist but is best known for his philosophy on human
evolution and Integral Yoga. He is called the ‗most notable representative of the Neo-Vedantic
Spirit‖ by Romain Rolland, the author of Prophet of the New India. Sir Francis Young Husband
also considers his book, Life Divine as the ―greatest philosophical religious work which has
been produced in India for centuries.‖

However, Aurobindo‘s teachings on varna has to be questioned. What about people who have
evil svabhava (nature)? Would they follow criminal activities if one‘s svadharma is to be
determined by one‘s svabhava? Aurobindo in spite of lofty philosophical teachings still held on
to the bane of Indian society, i.e. the varna system. As long as the concepts of varna and caste
are still in usage, there will be neither national integration nor communal harmony. If we Indians
are to be united, then the Indian society must become a casteless society.

What Aurobindo gave to the world was an optimistic philosophy, although he taught and spoke
of ‗Supermind‘ and ‗Superman‘, he himself did not become one, and neither could he make any
one else a Superman. Even within the Ashram he founded there was no perfected beings. In fact,
the government had to take over the management of the Ashram due to internal quarrels.
Aurobindo was dreaming of an Utopia, which never became realtiy.

3. S. Radhakrishnan:

Life and work: Sarvapalli Radhakrishnan was born of Telegu Brahmin parents in Tiruttani,
Tiruvallur dist., Tamil Nadu, on 5 th Sept, 1888. He had his education in Voorhees College,
Vellore and Madras Christian College, Tambaram. He took his M.A. Degree in Philosophy in
1909. Radhakrishnan was married to Sivakamu, a distant cousin, at the age of 16. As per
tradition the marriage was arranged by the family. The couple had five daughters and a son,
Sarvepalli Gopal. Sarvepalli Gopal went on to a notable career as a historian. Sivakamu died in
1956. They were married for over 51 years. From 1909-1917, he taught in the Presidency
College, Madras. Then he was transferred to the Arts College, Rajahmundry. He was professor of
Philosophy in the University of Mysore from 1918-1921. He published 2 books during this time:
The Philosophy of Rabindranath Tagore and The Reign of Religion in Contemporary Philosophy.

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Radhkrishnan was Professor of Philosophy in Calcutta University from 1921-1914. During this
period he also occasionally taught in Oxford University. He was Professor of Comparative
Religion at Manchester College, Oxford; also Professor of Eastern Religions and Ethics at
Oxford. For some time, he was Vice-Chancellor of the Andhra University at Vizag.

In 1929 Radhakrishnan was invited to take the post vacated by Principal J. Estlin Carpenter at
Harris Manchester College. This gave him the opportunity to lecture to the students of the
University of Oxford on Comparative Religion. For his services to education he was knighted by
George V in the June 1931 Birthday Honours, and formally invested with his honour by the
Governor-General of India, the Earl of Willingdon, in April 1932. However, he ceased to use the
title after Indian independence, preferring instead his academic title of ‗Doctor‘.

In 1936 Radhakrishnan was named Spalding Professor of Eastern Religions and Ethics at the
University of Oxford, and was elected a Fellow of All Souls College. That same year, and again
in 1937, he was nominated for the Nobel Prize in Literature, although this nomination process, as
for all laureates, was not public at the time. Further nominations for the award would continue
steadily into the 1960s. In 1939 Pt. Madan Mohan Malaviya invited him to succeed him as the
Vice-Chancellor of Banaras Hindu University (BHU). He served as its Vice-Chancellor till
January 1948. From 1931-1939, Radhakrishnan served on the League of Nations Committee for
Intellectual Co-operation.

In 1941, he was requested to occupy the Sir Sayaji Rao Chair of Indian Culture and Civilization.
Thus he was both Professor and Vice-Chancellor of Benaras Hindu University. Therefore, he had
to give up his professorship at Calcutta University which he held for 20 years.
Radhakrishnan started his political career rather late in life, after his successful academic career.
His international authority preceded his political career. He was UNESCO Chairman from
19481949, Indian Ambassador to USSR from 1949-1952, Vice President of India from 1952-
1962 and President of India 1962-1967. He was also Chancellor of Delhi University from 1953-
1962. Radhakrishnan died on April 16th 1975, at Madras. Radhakrishnan did not have a
background in the Congress Party, nor was he active in the struggle against British rules. He was
the politician in shadow. His motivation lay in his pride of Hindu culture, and the defence of
Hinduism against ―uninformed Western criticism‖. As a student, he himself said, ―The
challenge of Christian critics impelled me to make a study of Hinduism and find out what is
living and what is dead in it. My pride as a Hindu, roused by the enterprise and eloquence of
Swami Vivekananda, was deeply hurt by the treatment accorded to Hinduism in missionary
institutions.‖

When he became the President of India, some of his students and friends requested him to allow
them to celebrate his birthday, on 5 September. He replied, ―Instead of celebrating my birthday,
it would be my proud privilege if September 5th is observed as Teachers' Day.‖ His birthday has
since been celebrated as Teachers' Day in India. Along with Ghanshyam Das Birla and some

37
other social workers in the pre-independence era, Radhakrishnan formed the Krishnarpan Charity
Trust.

Radhakrishnan’s Philosophy: Radhakrishnan tried to bridge eastern and western thought,

defending Hinduism against ―uninformed Western criticism‖, but also incorporating Western
philosophical and religious thought.

a) Advaita Vedanta: Radhakrishnan was one of the most prominent spokesmen of Neo-
Vedanta. His metaphysics was grounded in Advaita Vedanta, but he reinterpreted Advaita
Vedanta for a contemporary understanding. He acknowledged the reality and diversity of the
world of experience, which he saw as grounded in and supported by the absolute or Brahman.
Radhakrishnan also reinterpreted Shankara's notion of maya. According to Radhakrishnan, maya
is not a strict absolute idealism, but ―a subjective misperception of the world as ultimately real.‖

b) Intuition and religious experience: ―Intuition‖, or anubhava, synonymously called

―religious experience‖, has a central place in Radhakrishnan's philosophy as a source of
knowledge which is not mediated by conscious thought. His specific interest in experience can
be traced back to the works of William James (1842–1910), Francis Herbert Bradley (1846–
1924), Henri Bergson (1859–1941), and Friedrich von Hügel (1852–1925), and to Vivekananda,
who had a strong influence on Radhakrisnan's thought. According to Radhakrishnan, intuition is
of a selfcertifying character (svatassiddha), self-evidencing (svāsaṃvedya), and self-luminous
(svayamprakāsa). In his book An Idealist View of Life, he made a powerful case for the
importance of intuitive thinking as opposed to purely intellectual forms of thought. According to
Radhakrishnan, intuition plays a specific role in all kinds of experience. Radhakrishnan discerns
five sorts of experience:
• Cognitive Experience:  Sense Experience
• Discursive Reasoning
• Intuitive Apprehension
• Psychic Experience
• Aesthetic Experience
• Ethical Experience
• Religious Experience

c) Classification of religions: For Radhakrishnan, theology and creeds are intellectual

formulations, and symbols of religious experience or ―religious intuitions.‖ Radhakrishnan
qualified the variety of religions hierarchically according to their apprehension of ―religious
experience‖, giving Advaita Vedanta the highest place:

• The worshippers of the Absolute

• The worshippers of the personal God

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 • The worshippers of the incarnations like Rama, Kṛiṣhṇa, Buddha
• Those who worship ancestors, deities and sages
• The worshippers of the petty forces and spirits

Radhakrishnan saw Hinduism as a scientific religion based on facts, apprehended via intuition or
religious experience. According to Radhakrishnan, ―[i]f philosophy of religion is to become
scientific, it must become empirical and found itself on religious experience‖. He saw this
empiricism exemplified in the Vedas:

The truths of the ṛṣis are not evolved as the result of logical reasoning or systematic philosophy
but are the products of spiritual intuition, dṛṣti or vision. The ṛṣis are not so much the authors of
the truths recorded in the Vedas as the seers who were able to discern the eternal truths by raising
their life-spirit to the plane of universal spirit. They are the pioneer researchers in the realm of
the spirit who saw more in the world than their followers. Their utterances are not based on
transitory vision but on a continuous experience of resident life and power. When the Vedas are
regarded as the highest authority, all that is meant is that the most exacting of all authorities is
the authority of facts.

From his writings collected as The Hindu View of Life, Upton Lectures, Delivered at Manchester
College, Oxford, 1926: ―Hinduism insists on our working steadily upwards in improving our
knowledge of God. The worshippers of the absolute are of the highest rank; second to them are
the worshippers of the personal God; then come the worshippers of the incarnations of Rama,
Krishna, Buddha; below them are those who worship deities, ancestors, and sages, and lowest of
all are the worshippers of petty forces and spirits. The deities of some men are in water (i.e.,
bathing places), those of the most advanced are in the heavens, those of the children (in religion)
are in the images of wood and stone, but the sage finds his God in his deeper self. The man of
action finds his God in fire, the man of feeling in the heart, and the feeble minded in the idol, but
the strong in spirit find God everywhere. The seers see the supreme in the self, and not the
images."

To Radhakrishnan, Advaita Vedanta was the best representative of Hinduism, as being grounded
in intuition, in contrast to the ―intellectually mediated interpretations‖ of other religions. He
objected against charges of ―quietism‖ and "world denial", instead stressing the need and ethic
of social service, giving a modern interpretation of classical terms as tat-tvam-asi. According to
Radhakrishnan, Vedanta offers the most direct intuitive experience and inner realisation, which
makes it the highest form of religion: The Vedanta is not a religion, but religion itself in its most
universal and deepest significance.

Radhakrishnan saw other religions, including what he himself understands as lower forms of
Hinduism, as interpretations of Advaita Vedanta, thereby Hinduizing all religions.

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Although Radhakrishnan was well-acquainted with western culture and philosophy, he was also
critical of them. He stated that Western philosophers, despite all claims to objectivity, were
influenced by theological influences of their own culture.

Suggestions for improvements in Hindu Social Life: Radhakrishnan made several suggestions
for the overall improvement in Hindu Social Life. Many of his suggestions were related to the
many practices such as:

i. Animal sacrifices, which he suggested should be given up.

ii. Abolition of Devadasi system. iii. Caste system: Removal of innumerable
castes and sub-castes, untouchability.
iv. Marriage Laws: Adult marriages and widow remarriages are sanctioned by the Vedas.
Divorce should be permitted only in exceptional cases. Monogamy should be established
by law.

Evaluation and Criticism: Radhakrishnan was one of India's best and most influential
twentieth-century scholars of comparative religion and philosophy. Radhakrishnan's defence of
the Hindu traditions has been highly influential, both in India and the western world. In India,
Radhakrishnan's ideas contributed to the formation of India as a nation-state. Radhakrishnan's
writings contributed to the hegemonic status of Vedanta as ―the essential worldview of
Hinduism‖. In the western world, Radhakrishnan's interpretations of the Hindu tradition, and his
emphasis on ―spiritual experience‖, made Hinduism more readily accessible for a western
audience, and contributed to the influence Hinduism has on modern spirituality.

However, Radhakrishnan‘s philosophy has been criticised because of it perrenialism. Perennial

philosophy also referred to as Perennialism and perennial wisdom, is a perspective in modern
spirituality that views each of the world's religious traditions as sharing a single, metaphysical
truth or origin from which all esoteric and exoteric knowledge and doctrine has grown. This is
also true for Radhakrishan, who was educated by missionaries and, like other neo-Vedantins
used the prevalent western understanding of India and its culture to present an alternative to the
western critique. According to Radhakrishnan, there is not only an underlying ―divine unity‖
from the seers of the Upanishads up to modern Hindus like Tagore and Gandhi, but also ―an
essential commonality between philosophical and religious traditions from widely disparate
cultures.‖

Furthermore, colonialism left a deep impact on the Indian people as a result, colonialist forms of
knowledge can also be found in the works of Radhakrishnan. His division between East and
West, the East being spiritual and mystical, and the West being rational and colonialist was an
effect of this post-colonialist thinking. This aspect of Radhakrishnan‘s philosophy has also been
criticized.

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Moreover, Radhakrishnan was also accused of Plagiarism by his student Jadunath Sinha who
accused him of copying from his doctoral thesis, ―Indian Psychology of Perception‖ published
in 1925 in his book ―Indian Philosophy‖ published in 1927. Jadunath Sinha filed a case in the
Calcutta High Court claiming damages for Rs 20000. Radhakrishnan filed counter case for
defamation of character demanding Rs 100000 from Sinha. However, with the issue was settled
out of court.

7. Bhakti Vedanta Prabhupada - ISKCON

Bhaktivedanta Prabhupada (1896-1977): According to tradition, over five hundred years ago,
Lord Sri Krishna appeared as Sri Chaitanya Mahaprabhu in Navadvipa, a village in West Bengal.
The purpose of His appearance was to inaugurate the Sankirtana Movement, the Yuga Dharma
for this age of Kali. He declared that the chanting of His holy names would spread beyond the
shores of India to every town and village in the world. He predicted that His commander-in-chief
would appear to accomplish this mission. Prabhupada appeared to fulfill this prophecy.

Early life and education: Born on 1 September 1896, the day after Janmastami ,one of the most
important Vaishnava holidays, in a humble house in the Tollygunge suburb of Calcutta in a
Bengali Suvarna Banik family, he was named Abhay Charan, ―one who is fearless, having
taken shelter at Lord Krishna's feet.‖ Since he was born on the day of Nandotsava (a traditional
festival in honour of Krishna‘s birth) he was also called Nandulal. His parents, Sriman Gour
Mohan De and Srimati Rajani De, were devout Vaishnavas (devotees of Vishnu). In accordance
with Bengali tradition, his mother had gone to the home of her parents for the delivery, and only
a few days later Abhay returned with parents to his home at 151 Harrison Road in Calcutta,
where he was brought up and educated. It is also said that, an astrologer prepared the horoscope
for the baby and revealed: When this child reaches the age of seventy, he will cross the ocean,
become a great teacher of religion and establish 108 Krishna temples.

He received a European-style education in the Scottish Church College, which was well reputed
among Bengalis; many well-to- do Vaishnava families sent their sons there. The professors, most
of whom were Europeans, were known as sober, moral men, and it is believed that the students
received a good education. The college was located in north Calcutta, near the De‘s family home
on Harrison Road. During his years in the college, Abhay Charan De was a member of the
English Society as well as that of the Sanskrit Society, and it has been suggested that his
education provided him a foundation for his future leadership. He graduated in 1920 with majors
in English, philosophy and economics. He rejected his diploma in response to Gandhi's
independence movement.

At 22 years of age he married Radharani Devi, who was then 11 years old, in a marriage
arranged by their parents. At 14, she gave birth to Abhay's first son.

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Religious Journey: In 1922, when he first met his spiritual master, Bhaktisiddhanta Sarasvati
Thakura, he was requested to spread the message of Chaitanya Mahaprabhu in the English
language. In 1933 he became a formally initiated disciple of Bhaktisiddhanta. In 1944, he started
the publication called Back to Godhead, for which he acted as writer, designer, publisher, editor,
copy editor and distributor. He personally designed the logo, with the motto: ―Godhead is
Light, Nescience is darkness”.

In 1947, the Gaudiya Vaishnava Society recognised his scholarship with the title Bhaktivedanta,
(bhakti-vedānta) meaning ―one who has realised that devotional service to the Supreme Lord is
the end of all knowledge‖ (with the words Bhakti, indicating devotion and Vedanta indicating
conclusive knowledge).

His later well-known name, Prabhupada, is a Sanskrit title, literally meaning ―he who has taken
the shelter of the lotus feet of the Lord‖ where prabhu denotes ―Lord‖, and pada means ―taking
shelter.‖ Also, ―at whose feet masters sit‖. This name was used as a respectful form of address
by his disciples from late 1967 early 1968 onwards.

From 1950 onwards, he lived at the medieval Radha-Damodar mandir in the holy town of
Vrindavan, where he began his commentary and translation work of the Bhagavata Purana. He
single-handedly published the first three volumes covering seventeen chapters of the first book of
Bhagavata Purana, filling three volumes of four hundred pages, each with a detailed
commentary.

Mission to the West: He then left India for the United States of America in 1965, obtaining free
passage on a freighter called the Jaladuta, with the aim and a hope of fulfilling his spiritual
master‘s instruction to spread the message of Caitanya Mahaprabhu around the world. In his
possession were a suitcase, an umbrella, a supply of dry cereal, about eight dollars worth of
Indian currency, and several boxes of his books. His journey was neither sponsored by any
religious organization, nor was he welcomed by any group of devotees.

It was in July 1966 that he brought ―global missionary Vaishnavism‖ to the Western world,
founding the International Society for Krishna Consciousness (ISKCON) in New York City. He
spent much of the last decade of his life setting up the institution. Since he was the Society's
leader, his personality and management were responsible for much of ISKCON‘s growth and the
reach of his mission.

When it was suggested to him at the time of founding the ISKCON in 1966 that a broader term
―God Consciousness‖ would be preferable to ―Krishna Consciousness‖ in the title, he rejected
this recommendation, suggesting that the name Krishna includes all other forms and concepts of
God.

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Prabhupada arrived in the US during the decade of discontent; there was widespread
dissatisfaction with America‘s war with Vietnam. The American youth created their
counterculture popularly known as hippie culture. They were trying to break away from the
status quo, searching for an alternative. Prabhupada presented this alternative.

Prabhupada brought the Hare Krishna Movement to the public eye by:

 chanting in the parks,

 distributing the Back to Godhead Magazine,
 conducting love feasts,
 Delivering lectures from the Bhagavad-gita and Srimad Bhagavatam in a rented
storefront.

Thus, he attracted many youngsters, who gradually became his disciples. In New York, he faced
great hardships and began his mission humbly by giving classes on the Bhagavad-gita in lofts on
the Bowery and leading kirtan (traditional devotional chants) in Tompkins Square Park. His
message of peace and goodwill resonated with many young people, some of whom came forward
to become serious students of the Krishna-bhakti tradition. With the help of these students,
Bhaktivedanta Swami rented a small storefront on New York‘s Lower East Side to use as a
temple. Srila Prabhupada trained his disciples in the tradition of Deity Worship, to help them
advance spiritually. Once ISKCON was more established in there, a small number of devotees
from the San Francisco temple were sent to London, England where they came into contact with
The Beatles. George Harrison took the greatest interest, spending a significant time speaking
with him and producing a record with members of the later London Radha Krsna [Link]
revive the Krishna conscious tradition, he envisioned God-centered self-sufficient farm
communities based on the principles of Simple Living, High Thinking. In 1972, he started a
gurukul in Dallas, Texas – an educational institution set up according to the traditional Vedic
model. He established more than 108 temples and instructed his disciples that no one should go
hungry within a 10 mile radius of an ISKCON temple.

Over the following years his continuing leadership role took him around the world some several
times setting up temples and communities on other continents. By the time of his death in
Vrindavan in 1977, ISKCON had become an internationally known expression of Vaishnavism.
With the desire to nourish the roots of Krishna consciousness in its home, Srila Prabhupada
returned to India several times, where he sparked a revival in the Vaishnava tradition. In India,
he opened dozens of temples, including large centers in the holy towns of Vrindavana and
Mayapura.

Within 12 years from his arrival in New York until his final days, some of his achievements
were:

 Circling the globe 14 times on lecture tours.

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  Founded the Bhaktivedanta Book Trust, which claims to be the largest publisher of
ancient and classical Vaishnava religious texts.
 Founded the religious colony New Vrindavan in West Virginia.
 Authored more than 80 books on Vedantic philosophy, religion, literature and culture.

Prabhupada and His Books: Of all his contributions, Srila Prabhupada considered his books to
be of utmost importance. These books present the timeless wisdom of Vedic scriptures in modern
English with startling clarity and a convincing, simple eloquence that proves the relevance of the
science of self-realization to our modern world and our own lives. These books have changed the
lives of millions.

The transcendental knowledge in his books forms the basis of the Hare Krishna Movement. Srila
Prabhupada encouraged the devotees to distribute this literature profusely. These books are
translated in most of the major languages and are widely distributed across the world. He
authored over 70 volumes on the Krishna tradition, which are highly respected by scholars for
their authority, depth, fidelity to the tradition, and clarity. Several of his works are used as
textbooks in numerous college courses. His writings have been translated into 76 languages. His
most prominent works include: Bhagavad-gita As It Is, the 30-volume Srimad-Bhagavatam, and
the 17-volume Sri Caitanya-caritamrita. In February 2014, ISKCON‘s news agency reported to
have reached a milestone of distributing over half a billion books authored by Bhaktivedanta
Swami Prabhupada, since 1965.

His teachings on other religions: Bhaktivedanta Swami considered Moses, Jesus, and
Mohamed to be empowered representatives of God, describing them within his writings as
pioneers of the same essential message of dedication to God with love and devotion. According
to Prabhupada, ―Actually, it doesn't matter – Krishna or Christ – the name is the same. The
main point is to follow the injunctions of the Vedic scriptures that recommend chanting the name
of God in this age.‖ Other typical expressions present a different perspective, where he would
point out that ―today I may be a Hindu, but tomorrow I may become a Christian or Muslim. In
this way faiths can be changed, but dharma‖ is a natural sequence, a natural occupation or a
connection and it cannot be changed, because it is permanent, according to him. While the
ISKCON theology of personal god is close to Christian theology, both personal and
monotheistic, being a preacher of bhakti and a missionary he sometimes would add, that
―already many Christians have tasted the nectar of divine love of the holy name and are dancing
with karatalas (hand-cymbals) and mridangas (drums).‖ According to Prabhupada, Krishna
Consciousness is not an arm-chair philosophy or a part-time religion; it is a way of life.

Criticism: Many of Prabhupada's teachings have garnered significant public controversy. Most
notably his teachings concerning the Indo-Aryan peoples of ancient India, which critics claim is
drawn along racial lines, has acquired public condemnation. In a speech in Melbourne on April

44
21, 1976, Prabhupada praised the concept of ―the Aryan‖ saying that it is ―the best form of
human life‖ and that the Aryans means ―those who are advanced.‖ He also said that the
Europeans and the Americans belonged to the Aryan family and that they have lost their Vedic
culture, but now it is being revived again.

His racial comments have also drawn a lot of flak. During a morning walk in Hyderabad on April
20, 1974, he publicly commented that in Central Park it is impossible to have a peaceful walk
because the Negroes they capture and rape the women. He also said that one‘s position can be
changed through Krishna consciousness. But one cannot change the colour of one‘s skin; white
remains white and black remain black.

8. Prajapati Brahmakumaris

The Brahma Kumaris (daughters of Brahma) is a relatively new religious movement that
originated in Hyderabad, Sindh during the 1930s. The movement was founded by Dada Lekhraj
Kripalani, who later took the name Brahma Baba. It is distinctly identified by the prominent role
that women play in the movement. The Brahma Kumaris were originally called Om Mandali,
because members would chant ―Om‖ together, before having discourse on spiritual matters in
the traditional satsang style. The original discourses were closely connected to the Bhagavad
Gita. In 2008, the movement claimed to have more than 825,000 regular students, with over
8,500 centres in 100 countries.

Brahma Baba: The Founder: Brahma Baba, born into a humble home as Lekhraj Kripalani in
the 1880s, was the son of a village schoolmaster. Lekhraj was brought up within the disciplines
of the Hindu tradition. After different jobs, he entered the jewellery business, later earning a
considerable fortune as a diamond trader. He was the father of five children and a leader within
his local community, known especially for his philanthropy. In 1936, around the time when most
people at his age start to plan their retirement, he actually entered into the most active and
fascinating phase of his life. After a series of deep spiritual experiences and visions, he felt an
extremely strong pull to give up his business and dedicate his time, energy and wealth to laying
the foundations of what later would become the Brahma Kumaris World Spiritual University.

History: Lekhraj reported what he said were a series of visions and other transcendental
experiences that commenced around 1935 and became the basis for the discourses. He said he
believed there was a greater power working through him and that many of those who attended
these gatherings were themselves having spiritual experiences. The majority of those who came
were women and children from the Bhaibund caste - a caste of wealthy merchants and business
people whose husbands and fathers were often overseas on business.

After about three years of meetings it became clear that Om Mandali was giving very special
importance to the role of women, and was not adhering to the caste system. The group had
named a 22-year-old woman, Radhe Pokardas Rajwani (then known as ―Om Radhe‖) as its

45
president, and her management committee was made up of eight other women. People from any
caste were allowed to attend meetings. The group also advocated that young women had the right
to elect not to marry and that married women had the right to choose a celibate life. In
traditionbound patriarchal India, these personal life decisions were the exclusive right of men.

A committee headed by a number of important male members of the Bhaibund community began
to form in opposition and became known as the ‗Anti-Om Mandali Committee‘. On 21 June
1938 this group picketed Om Mandali's premises preventing members from entering. This caused
considerable upheaval in the community. Women attending were verbally abused, there was an
attempt to burn the premises down and the police made several arrests. Many women and girls
were later victims of domestic violence in their homes. The picketing resulted in criminal
proceedings being taken against both groups, and on 16 August 1938 the local District
Magistrate ordered that Om Mandali be prevented from meeting. This ban was reversed on 21
November 1938 after an appeal to the Court of the Judicial Commissioner of Sind. In an unusual
move the judges directly criticised the District Magistrate for trying to punish the victims for the
disturbance caused by the perpetrators and for trying to apply the law according to his own
personal bias. Nevertheless, in an increasingly sour atmosphere, Om Mandali had decided to
leave Hyderabad and gradually relocated its activities to Karachi in the latter half of 1938.
Approximately 300 members moved.

On 31 March 1939 the government appointed a tribunal to inquire into the activities of Om
Mandali. When the Tribunal made its findings, Om Radhe responded by compiling a book titled
Is this Justice? criticising the tribunal, which did not have a constitutional basis and made its
findings without taking evidence from Om Mandali. In May 1939 the government used the
tribunal's findings to effectively reinstate the ban, declaring Om Mandali an ―unlawful
association‖ under section 16 of the Criminal Law Amendment Act 1908. Nevertheless, Om
Mandali continued to hold their Satsangs, and the government did not enforce it. Possibly
because of this the committee then hired someone to kill Om Baba, but the attempt was
unsuccessful.

In May 1950 Om Mandali moved to Mount Abu in Rajasthan India. From the beginning, the
organization's focus had been on education, not worship, and for this reason it renamed itself as
Brahma Kumaris World Spiritual University. In 1952, after a 14-year period of retreat, a more
structured form of teaching began to be offered to the public by way of a seven lesson course.
After an unpromising beginning when it almost ran out of funds, from the mid 1950s the Brahma
Kumaris began an international expansion programme. Since the 1970s it first spread to London
and then to the West. The most visible manifestations of the religion are its ―Spiritual
Museums‖ located in most major Indian cities.

In 1980 the Brahma Kumaris became affiliated to the United Nations Department of Public
Relations as a Non-Governmental Organisation. In 1983 the Brahma Kumaris achieved

46
consultative status with the Economic and Social Council at the United Nations. The Brahma
Kumaris now has a permanent office space in New York for their work with the United Nations.

The leadership and membership of the Brahma Kumari movement remains primarily female, for
example, in the UK only one-third of the 42 centres are run by males and 80% of the members
are women. As of February 2015, centres are mostly in followers' own homes with a tendency
toward middle or upper class membership. Estimates for its worldwide membership ranges from
35,000 in 1993 to 400,000 in 1998 to 450,000 in 2000, however, it is reported that many were
probably not completely committed to the group's worldview.

Beliefs: The movement has distinguished itself from its Hindu roots and sees itself as a vehicle
for spiritual teaching rather than as a religion.

Self: The Brahma Kumaris see humans as being made up of two parts; an external or visible
body (including extensions such as status and possessions) and a subtle energy of the soul whose
character structure is revealed through a person's external activity - but always this is created by
the inner soul -whether actions are done with love, peacefully, with happiness or humility is an
aspect of one's soul. The group teaches that the soul is an infinitesimal point of spiritual light
residing in the forehead of the body it occupies, and that all souls originally existed with God in a
―Soul World‖, a world of infinite light, peace and silence.

The Brahma Kumaris teach that Souls enter bodies to take birth in order to experience life and
give expression to their personality. Unlike other Eastern traditions, the Brahma Kumaris do not
believe that the human soul can transmigrate into other species.

Supreme Soul: The Brahma Kumaris use the term ―Supreme Soul‖ to refer to God. They see
God as incorporeal and eternal, and regard him as a point of living light like human souls, but
without a physical body, as he does not enter the cycle of birth, death and rebirth. God is seen as
the perfect and constant embodiment of all virtues, powers and values and that He is the
unconditionally loving Father of all souls, irrespective of their religion, gender, or culture.

The Brahma Kumaris believe God's purpose to be the spiritual re-awakening of humanity and the
removal of all sorrow, evil and negativity. They do not regard him as the creator of matter, as
they consider matter to be eternal.
Karma: The Brahma Kumaris believe that every action performed by a soul will create a return
accordingly, and that the destiny of the soul‘s next body depends on how it acts and behaves in
this life. Through meditation, by transforming thinking patterns and eventually actions, the
Brahma Kumaris believe that people can purify their "karmic account" and lead a better life in
the present and next birth.

New Golden Age: The present time[when?] is believed to bring great global transformation as
the world is transitioning from its present Iron Age to begin a new Golden age. The Brahma

47
Kumaris believe that modern civilization is unsustainable and that economic and environmental
pressures will ultimately boil over into civil and global conflict, coupled with natural calamities.
They believe that there will always be a human population on Earth and that cataclysmic events
form part of a natural and cathartic cyclic process.

When the organisation began, emphasis was placed on the physical destruction of the world as
seen in the cataclysmic visions of Dada Lekhraj. As the organisation developed, it witnessed
World War II, the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki and the Cold War, and the
destructive aspects of its teachings were reframed as a process transformation. The group had
also made many failed predictions of the violent destruction of the world, between 1987 and
2008, aspects which are now downplayed.

Practices

Meditation: The Brahma Kumaris teaches a form of meditation through which students are
encouraged to purify their minds. This may be done by sitting tranquilly, then making
affirmations regarding the eternal nature of the soul, the original purity of one's nature, and the
nature of God. The aim of the BK meditation is also to learn to hold meditative states while
being engaged in everyday life. For this reason meditation is usually taught and practiced with
open eyes.

Good Wishes and Pure Feelings: Flowing on from the BK belief that everyone is a spiritual
being, is the practice of Shubhawna (pure feelings) and Shubkamna (good wishes). For Brahma
Kumaris, all prejudices and ill-feelings are seen as arising from identifying the self and others
based on external labels like race, religion, gender, nationality, beauty (or lack of), etc. However,
when there is the practice of finding the intrinsic goodness in each one, the prejudice based on
those labels is replaced by the vision of one Spiritual Parent, one Human family, and universal
spiritual values such as respect, love, peace and happiness. A flagship slogan for the Brahma
Kumaris has been When we change, the world changes. It is for this reason that BKs consider
bringing about this kind of change within the self as an important form of ―world service‖.

Study (Murli): Brahma Kumaris' students study the murli. The Hindi word murli literally
translates to ―flute‖. It is an oral study, read to the class early each morning in most BK centres
on the world. The murlis are derived from mediumship and spirit possession.
There are two types of murli:

Sakar Murlis refer to the original orations that Brahma Kumaris believe to be the Supreme Soul
speaking through Brahma Baba.

Avyakt Murlis are spoken by BapDada. Brahma Kumaris believe BapDada is God and the soul
of their deceased founder. BapDada(God) is believed to speak to the Brahma Kumaris through a
senior Brahma Kumari medium, Dadi Gulzar.

48
Avyakt murlis are still being spoken at the Brahma Kumaris headquarters in India. Students must
complete the Brahma Kumaris foundation course and start by attending morning Murli class
before visiting the headquarters.

Lifestyle: Brahma Kumaris recommend a specific lifestyle in order achieve greater control over
physical senses. However many participate in a casual way electing to adopt whichever beliefs
and lifestyle disciplines in the following list they wish:

 Complete celibacy, in or out of marriage

 Sattvic vegetarianism, a strict lacto-vegetarian diet (excluding eggs, onions, garlic and/or
spicy food) cooked only by the self or other members of the Brahma Kumaris. 
Abstaining from alcohol, tobacco and non-prescription drugs.
 Daily early morning meditation at 4:00 to 4:45 am, called ‗Amrit Vela’.  Daily morning
class at approximately 6:30 am.
 Men and women traditionally sit on separate sides of the room at the centres during
classes.
 Brahma Kumaris can be identified by their frequent adoption of wearing white clothes, to
symbolise purity.
 Students often prefer to keep the company of yogis (soul conscious individuals) as
opposed to bhogis (those given over to worldly pleasures).

Activities:

United Nations: The Brahma Kumaris run an NGO called the Brahma Kumaris at the United
Nations, in general consultative status with the Economic and Social Council of the UN and
UNICEF. It is associated with the UN Department of Public Information and was granted
International Peace Messenger Initiative status by the UN for the Global Co-operation for a
Better World campaign. It also has permanent office space in New York City for their work at
the UN.

Education: The Brahma Kumaris conducted an Introduction to meditation which consists of 7

one-hour long sessions. These sessions include their open-eyed meditation technique and
philosophy. They also offer courses in ―positive thinking‖, ―self-management leadership‖
(SML) and ―living values.‖ They also have a number of voluntary outreach programs in prisons.
The SML course is closely related to their philosophy and is the backbone of their management
philosophy.

Renewable energy: The Brahma Kumaris have launched several environment initiatives. Their
work in solar energy and sustainable energy has included the 2007 development of the world‘s
largest solar cooker, and a solar thermal power plant in Talheti at the base of Mt. Abu. The

49
25acre site is projected to produce 22000 kwh of electricity daily. This project was completed
with financial help from the Indian and German governments.

Healthcare: Global Hospital and Research Centre (GHRC) was started Rajasthan India in 1991,
funded by the J. Wattammull Memorial Trust. GHRC provides free healthcare to one of the most
impoverished areas in India.

In 2004, the Brahma Kumaris established the G.V. Mody Rural Health Care Centre & Eye
Hospital, located at the base of Mount Abu.

Sustainable Yogic Agriculture: Sustainable Yogic Agriculture (SYA) is a program started in

Northern India in 2009. The program has been a collaboration between Sardarkrushinagar
Dantiwada Agricultural University in Gujarat India and the Brahma Kumaris Rural Development
wing. The program has now been publicly backed by the Indian Government. With the
governments support the program has been redesigned into Akhil Bharatiya Krushak
Sashakatikaran Abhijan (ABKSA), and was launched in December 2015. ABKSA extends the
initial scope of the SYA program to include teaching meditation and self-empowerment to the
farmers themselves. This is possibly a response to the problem of farmer suicides in India.
ABKSA now comprises three main elements:

1. A self empowerment program for Indian farmers;

2. Ongoing research on whether the use of meditation can improve crop yields;
3. Education on a blend of traditional and organic farming techniques.

Criticisms: The Brahma Kumaris have been accused of the practice of families ―dumping‖ their
daughters by requiring a payment from the families who wish to dedicate their daughters to work
and serve in the organisation. The payment, it is argued, is to cover the living expenses during
the trial period.

The Brahma Kumaris require the practice of celibacy in or out of marriage. Due to this
requirement, they have also been accused of breaking up marriages. When the organisation
started, empowering women to assert their right to remain celibate, particularly in marriage, this
became a prime factor in the controversy that arose in 1930s Sind, as it directly challenged the
dominance of men over women in patriarchal India.

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 Unit III: Socio-Religious Movements within other communities
1. Islam

a. Aligarh Movement

The movement of Muslim awakening associated with Syed Ahmad Khan and Muhammadan
Anglo Oriental College (M.A.O. College) came to be known as Aligarh Movement. The founder
Syed Ahmad Khan was born in 1817 in Delhi in an ancient noble family which had connections
with the government. He found a position in the British administration. Syed‘s contribution to the
Muslim community and the cause of progress covered four areas of reform.

Political Reforms: The Muslims thought India is Dar-ul-harh (house of war) since it has
become a non-Muslim state. But Syed insisted that India is Dar-ul-Islam (house of Islam) since
Muslims under the British rule were free to practice their religion. He was convinced that the
well-being of the Muslims in India lay in a new attitude towards the British and the scientific
influences of the West. He understood that the Bristish rule was valuable to India.

During the Sepoy Mutiny in 1857, Syed remained faithful to the British and saved the lives of
many Europeans. In 1866 Syed founded the ―British Indian Association‖ in order to focus
Indian opinions on political questions and represent them in the British parliament. He also
hoped that the English would understand Indian views and sympathize with Indian aspirations.
Syed won the confidence of the British government and became a member of the Viceroy‘s
Legislative Council and was knighted.

Educational Reforms: Syed knew that if the Muslims are to make any progress they should
absorb the education and science of the West and introduce social reforms among themselves. He
was the first Indian to start a scientific society which promoted the methods of reason, dialogue,
experimentation and testing of hypotheses. He boldly said, ―all religious learning in
Mohammedan libraries is of no avail.‖ He tried to convince his community about the need for
learning English and absorbing the culture of the West.

In order to further his educational and political plans, he visited England in 1869 and spent 17
months there, studying English life and politics, but giving the major part of his time to
education. He got himself acquainted with the English system of education and made a detailed
study of the working of schools and colleges. When he returned to India, he started a magazine in
Urdu called Tahzibul Akhlaq (reform of morals) which dealt with religious, social and
educational subjects. He fought against the Muslim prejudice with regard to Western science;
advocated social freedom; tried to rouse the Muslims to self confidence and vigorous activities.

In 1875, he opened a school in Aligarh which was raised to a college in 1877. It was called
Mohammedan Anglo-oriental College. There Syed reproduced what he saw in Oxford and

51
Cambridge universities in England. Both Islamic studies as well as Western sciences were taught
there. Several members of the staff were Europeans. It was a residential institution. M.A.O.
College became a centre of enlightenment and progressive thought. Though M.A.O. College was
founded primarily to educate Muslims and to get them out of their isolation and backwardness,
from the beginning the college was opened to all communities. The earliest teachers and
graduates were Hindus. Hindi and Sanskrit were also taught there.

Though Sir Syed was not well versant in English, he made English the medium of instruction in
the M.A.O. College, so that the students could grasp the scientific attitude of the West. In 1886,
Syed began the All India Mohammedan Educational Conference which aroused the Muslims to a
sense of their educational backwardness. It promoted Western learning among Muslims.

Religious Reforms: Syed began to spread modern ideas about religion within the Muslim
community. He did not think that Christians corrupted the Bible as many Muslims believe. He
told the Muslims not to consider the Christians as ―infidels‖ and ―enemies‖. He said that the
Quran and the Bible do not contradict each other when they were properly interpreted. He wrote
a commentary on the first 11 chapters of the book of Genesis.

Syed rejected the view held by some Muslims that Hindus are ―infidels‖. According to him, the
difference between those who affirmed faith in the Quran and others who did not was merely
verbal and not real. He stood for social accommodation and coordination between Muslims,
Hindus and Christians.

Sir Syed was an advocate of Hindu-Muslim unity and formed the Indian United Patriotic
Association. One of its objectives was to bring about Hindu Muslim unity. He believed in
national solidarity. He encouraged people to have social dealings, mutual affection, love and
sympathy between various religious communities. He said that Islam is the truly rationalistic
religion, since the founder did not claim any miraculous powers. He made much of reason and
said that ―Reason alone is a sufficient guide‖.

Syed spoke and wrote much in favour of natural religion, hence his followers were called
―Naturis‖, subsequently corrupted to ―Neeharis‖. Conservative Muslims insisted on blind
acceptance of all the traditions. Syed felt that there should be change in the attitude of the
Muslims towards religion.

Social Reforms: Syed challenged two ideas held by orthodox Muslims. The first was that
Purdah was a necessity for Muslim women while education was not. He worked as a champion
of the cause of women. This latter effort resulted in the opening of a separate college for women
in Aligarh. Secondly, he opposed the practice of polygamy among Muslims. He wrote in favour
of liberating women. He exhorted the Muslims to abandon medieval thinking and customs.

52
Impacts of Aligarh Movement: The Aligarh Movement was the drive for modern Muslim
education made a weighty and lasting contribution to the political emancipation of Indian
Muslims. Till the emergence of a Muslim elite with Western education from the M.A.O. College,
the British rulers were pursuing an anti-Muslim policy as they thought that the Muslims were a
threat to their power since they had seized power from the Muslim rulers, and also because the
Muslims had participated in the Sepoy Mutiny of 1857. The Aligarh Movement brought about a
shift in the government policy towards the Muslims.

The Aligarh Movement had its profound impact on the Indian society, particularly on the Muslim
society compared to the other powerful but less adaptable movements of 19th century. It
influenced a number of other contemporary movements to a great extent that it caused the
emergence of other socio-religious movements during 19th century. The impact of Aligarh
Movement was not confined to the Northern India only but its expansion could be seen on the
other regions of the Indian sub-continent during 20th century.

The Aligarh Movement introduced a new trend in Urdu literature. Sir Syed Ahmad Khan and his
association left the old style of writing in the Urdu language, which was rhetorical and academic,
and started a simple style which helped Muslims to understand the main purpose of the
movement.

The Aligarh Movement helped poets and writers to leave the romantic style of prose and poetry,
and suggested the adoption of a moral, cultural, historical and political attitude which influenced
the common life of the Indian Muslim. Urdu Defense Association is regarded as an offshoot of
the Aligarh Movement. Aligarh Muslim University is the creation of the movement.

Sir Syed was a great nationalist who advocated secular state and wanted separation of religion
and politics. Although he was a great nationalist, he preferred to stay away from active politics.
He did not advocate separatism. However, in 1906, the Muslim league the political party
responsible for the demand for Pakistan was born in one of the sessions of the Mohammedan
Educational Conference founded by Sir Syed. This was after his in death (in 1898). In 1920, the
M.A.O. College was raised to the status of a university known as Aligarh Muslim University.
Later it became the intellectual center for the demand for Pakistan. However, Sir Syed cannot be
held responsible for any of these later developments. Nevertheless, they are the impacts of the
Aligarh Movement.

b. Ahmadiyah Movement

Ahmadiyya is an Islamic religious movement founded in Punjab, British India, near the end of
the 19th century. The founder of Ahmadiyya movement was Mirza Ghulam Ahmed. This
movement was a reaction against the controversy the Chrsitian missionaries had against the
Muslim Maulvis in the 18th century, which exposed the weaknesses of Islam. This movement was
also a reaction against the bold policies of the Aligarh reformers.

53
1. The founder Mirza Ghulam Ahmed: Mirza Ghulam Ahmed was born in 1839 at
Qadian in Punjab. Around 1880, he was convinced that God had called him for a special mission.
In 1889, he announced that he was receiving divine revelations and that he had authority to
initiate disciples. So Mirza began teaching new doctrines. He professed to be the Imam Mahdi
(Guided Leader) as well as the promised Messiah. He claimed to be the world teacher for the
future whom Zoroastrians, Hindus and Buddhists were awaiting. He said he is the Mujaddid
(revivalist) sent by God to renew the faith of Islam during his time.

2. His teachings: Since Mirza claimed to be the messiah, he did not want people to believe
in the second coming of Christ, so he denied the death of Christ on the cross. He said that Christ
had only swooned on the cross and that later he revived and went on a mission to Kashmir,
where he died and was buried. He discovered a tomb in Srinagar which he claimed was the tomb
of Christ. By inventing this story, he removed the claim of Jesus Christ to be the messiah. He
further professed that in him Mohammed the prophet had made a ―second advent‖. He said he is
―an image of the holy prophet.‖

Mirza claimed that he was Krishna for the Hindus and Messiah for the Christians and Muslims.
He held that spiritually Krishna and the Messiah are the same person. He believed that the door
of inspiration is still open and that God is having communion with his good servants. He
considered himself superior to Jesus. On the one hand, Mirza rebuked the Mullas for keeping the
Muslims in superstitions while on the other, he could not tolerate the Muslim rationalists like
Syed Amir Ali and S. Khutda Bakhsh. He charged them with weakening the authority of the
Quran since they had agreed that Quran had pre-Islamic sources.

Mirza supported the conservatives with regard to social reforms. He did not want the abolition of
purdah. He defended polygamy and divorce. Nevertheless, the conservatives called him a heretic,
blasphemer, enemy of faith and an impostor. He was excommunicated and his followers were not
allowed the use of ordinary mosques.

Mirza died in 1908 and was succeeded by Hakim Nur-ud-din as Khalifa but he died in 1914 and
after his death, the son of Mirza, Mirza Bashiruddin was elected to the office of Khalifa. But
when Mirza Bashiruddin insisted that his father be considered as a prophet (Nabi), a schism
broke out. The educated men protested as they considered Mirza Ghulam Ahmed only as a
Mujaddid (revivalist). They broke away and formed another party with its head quarters at
Lahore. These two groups are known as The Qadianis (mirzais) and Ahmadis (members of the
Lahore group). The Qadianis consider themselves different from other Muslims, whereas
Ahmadis prefer to identify with other Muslims and withdraw themselves from the Qadianis.

3. Distinct teachings: Although the Five Pillars of Islam and the six articles of belief of Ahmadi
Muslims are identical to those of mainstream Sunni Muslims and central to Ahmadi belief,
distinct Ahmadiyya beliefs include the following:

54
a. Second Coming: Contrary to mainstream Islamic belief, Ahmadi Muslims believe that
Jesus was crucified and survived the four hours on the cross. He was later revived from a swoon
in the tomb. Ahmadis believe that Jesus died in Kashmir of old age whilst seeking the Lost
Tribes of Israel. Jesus' remains are believed to be entombed in Kashmir under the name Yuz
Asaf. In particular, it is believed that the biblical and the Islamic prophecies concerning the
second coming of Jesus were metaphorical in nature and not literal, and that Mirza Ghulam
Ahmad fulfilled in his person these prophecies and the second advent of Jesus. Ahmadi Muslims
also believe that the "Promised Messiah" and the "Imam Mahdi" are the same person, and that it
is through his teachings, influence and prayers and those of his followers that Islam will defeat
the Anti-Christ or Dajjal in a period similar to the period of time it took for nascent Christianity
to rise (see also: Ahmadiyya relationship with Christianity) and that the Dajjal's power will
slowly fade away, heralding the prophecised final victory of Islam and the age of peace.

b. Seal of Prophets: Although Ahmadi Muslims believe that the Quran is the final message
of God for mankind, they also believe that God continues to communicate with his chosen
individuals in the same way he is believed to have done in the past. All of God's attributes are
eternal. In particular, Ahmadi Muslims believes that Muhammad brought prophethood to
perfection and was the last law-bearing prophet and the apex of humankind's spiritual evolution.
New prophets can come, but they must be completely subordinate to Muhammad and will not be
able to exceed him in excellence nor alter his teaching or bring any new law or religion. They are
also thought of as reflections of Muhammad rather than independently made into Prophets, like
the Prophets of antiquity.

c. Jihad: According to Ahmadi Muslim belief, Jihad can be divided into three categories:
Jihad al-Akbar (Greater Jihad) is that against the self and refers to striving against one's low
desires such as anger, lust and hatred; Jihad al-Kabīr (Great Jihad) refers to the peaceful
propagation of
Islam, with special emphasis on spreading the true message of Islam by the pen; Jihad al-Asghar
(Smaller Jihad) is an armed struggle only to be resorted to in self-defence under situations of
extreme religious persecution whilst not being able to follow one's fundamental religious beliefs,
and even then only under the direct instruction of the Caliph. Ahmadi Muslims point out that as
per Islamic prophecy, Mirza Ghulam Ahmad rendered Jihad in its military form as inapplicable
in the present age as Islam, as a religion, is not being attacked militarily but through literature
and other media, and therefore the response should be likewise. They believe that the answer of
hate should be given by love.

Concerning terrorism, the fourth Caliph of the Community wrote in 1989:

As far as Islam is concerned, it categorically rejects and condemns every form of terrorism. It
does not provide any cover or justification for any act of violence, be it committed by an
individual, a group or a government.

55
d. Abrogation: Unlike Sunni Muslims but like Shia Muslims, Ahmadi Muslims believe that
no verse of the Quran abrogates or cancels another verse. All Quranic verses have equal validity,
in keeping with their emphasis on the "unsurpassable beauty and unquestionable validity of the
Qur'ān". The harmonization of apparently incompatible rulings is resolved through their juridical
deflation in Ahmadī fiqh, so that a ruling (considered to have applicability only to the specific
situation for which it was revealed), is effective not because it was revealed last, but because it is
most suited to the situation at hand.

e. Religion and science: Ahmadi Muslims believe that there cannot be a conflict between
the word of God and the work of God, and thus religion and science must work in harmony with
each other. With particular reference to this relationship, the second Caliph of the Ahmadiyya
Muslim Community states that in order to understand God's revelation, it is necessary to study
His work, and in order to realize the significance of His work, it is necessary to study His word.
According to the Nobel laureate, Abdus Salam, a devout Ahmadi Muslim, 750 verses of the
Quran (almost one eighth of the book) exhort believers to study Nature, to reflect, to make the
best use of reason in their search for the ultimate and to make the acquiring of knowledge and
scientific comprehension part of the community's life.

f. Other distinct beliefs include: That the history of religion is cyclic and is renewed every
seven millennia. The present cycle from the time of the Biblical Adam is split into seven epochs
or ages, parallel to the seven days of the week, with periods for light and darkness. Mirza
Ghulam Ahmad appeared as the promised Messiah at the sixth epoch heralding the seventh and
final age of mankind, as a day in the estimation of God is like a thousand years of man's
reckoning. According to Ghulam Ahmad, just as the sixth day of the week is reserved for
Jumu'ah (congregational prayers), likewise his age is destined for a global assembling of
mankind in which the world is to unite under one universal religion: Islam.

4. The Ahmadiyya Attitude towards Jesus Christ: Ghulam Ahmad taught two things
about Jesus that were to become fundamental to Ahmadiyya doctrine and which stand out from
traditional Muslim beliefs. On the one hand he taught that the second coming of the Son of Mary
was a spiritual descension and that it had been fulfilled in him. On the other he taught that Jesus
had not ascended to heaven but had survived the cross in a swoon and that he went away to
Kashmir in India where he died at the age of a hundred and twenty years and was buried in
Srinagar. (An ancient tomb of one ―Yus Asaf‖ in the city conveniently became the tomb of Jesus
and is so regarded by the Ahmadiyya to this day!). But the supreme claim of the Mirza was that
he was the promised Messiah.

He even went so far as to claim that he was just like Jesus Christ and that his character was in
every way a model replica of the Son of Mary's holy personality. As if this was not arrogant
enough he even went so far as to claim superiority to Jesus Christ! He also sought relentlessly to
dishonour Jesus and strip Islam of doctrines that seemed to draw it too close to Christianity. He

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denied the sinlessness, physical ascension and return of Jesus, thereby removing all the
remaining traces of his glory in Islam and reducing him to the level of common prophet hood.

5. Evaluation: Mirza Ghulam Ahmad had better logic than orthodox Muslims. He
considered that the Islamic doctrine of the ascension and return of Jesus went a long way towards
supporting the Christian belief that Jesus was the eternal Son of God seated at the right hand of
the Father and so sought relentlessly to prove that he had died and had been buried in India. He
was grimly determined to refashion the image and life of Jesus until he appeared to be no more
than a rather weak and unsuccessful prophet of Israel. Above all the Mirza sought to divide Islam
as far as he could from Christianity.

The orthodox Muslims accept the virgin birth of Jesus as well as his miraculous entry into
heaven, but they fail to understand that these experiences are superhuman and prove that Jesus is
divine. Mirza realized that if he is to grant that Jesus had a miraculous entry into the world and
miraculous exit from the world, he has to admit that he is divine. Therefore, Mirza denied both
the virgin birth as well as the ascension into heaven of Jesus.

c. Influential thinker: Sir Muhammad Iqbal

Background: Muhammad Iqbal (1876-1938) was a poet-philosopher, as well as an academic,

barrister and scholar in British India who is widely regarded as having inspired the Pakistan
Movement. He was born in 9 November 1877 in Sialkot within the Punjab Province of British
India (now in Pakistan). His grandparents were Kashmiri Pandits, Brahmins of the Sapru clan
from Kashmir who converted to Islam. The rise of political nationalism and its interaction with
(Muslim) religious nationalism, is exemplified in the life and thought of Iqbal. Political
implications of his thought made him a controversial figure during the Indian independence
movement. Iqbal is looked upon as the ―spiritual founder of Pakistan‖, since he inspired the
Muslims. In 1923, he was knighted by King George V, granting him the title ―Sir‖. While
studying law and philosophy in England, Iqbal became a member of the London branch of the
All-India Muslim League. Later, during the League's December 1930 session, he delivered his
most famous presidential speech known as the Allahabad Address in which he pushed for the
creation of a Muslim state in northwest India. The Pakistan government officially named him
―National Poet of Pakistan‖. His birthday ―Iqbal Day‖, is a public holiday in Pakistan.

Higher education in Europe: Iqbal was influenced by the teachings of Sir Thomas Arnold, his
philosophy teacher at Government college Lahore. Arnold's teachings determined Iqbal to pursue
higher education in the West, and in 1905, he travelled to England for that purpose. Iqbal
qualified for a scholarship from Trinity College, University of Cambridge and obtained Bachelor
of Arts in 1906, and in the same year he was called to the bar as a barrister from Lincoln's Inn. In
1907, Iqbal moved to Germany to pursue his doctoral studies, and earned a Doctor of Philosophy
degree from the Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich in 1908. Working under the guidance
of Friedrich Hommel, Iqbal's doctoral thesis entitled The Development of Metaphysics in Persia

57
was published. During Iqbal's stay in Heidelberg in 1907 his German professor Emma Wegenast
taught him about Goethe's Faust, Heine and Nietzsche. During his study in Europe, Iqbal began
to write poetry in Persian.

Final years and death: In 1933, after returning from a trip to Spain and Afghanistan, Iqbal
suffered from a mysterious throat illness. He spent his final years helping Chaudhry Niaz Ali
Khan to establish the Dar ul Islam Trust Institute at Jamalpur estate near Pathankot. Iqbal ceased
practising law in 1934 and was granted a pension by the Nawab of Bhopal. In his final years, he
frequently visited the Dargah of famous Sufi Ali Hujwiri in Lahore for spiritual guidance. After
suffering for months from his illness, Iqbal died in Lahore on 21 April 1938.

His writings: Iqbal‘s thoughts are found in his books in Urdu, Persian and English: Bang-eDara
(Caravan Bells); Asar-e-khudi (Secrets of the self); The Development of Metaphysics in Persia;
The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam. The latter made the greatest impact, and is a
collection of his six lectures delivered in India and England in 1928-1929.

Iqbal and the West: Iqbal was particularly influenced by Nietzsche and Bergson. Nietzsche‘s
concept of the Superman was a source of his poetic inspiration. Although Iqbal was influenced
by the West, he was not an uncritical admirer of the West. Though Iqbal glorifies self-assertion,
he is opposed to undisciplined individualism, which according to him is an attribute of modern
Western capitalism. Hence he is opposed to nationalism. He finds the answer to the bane of
nationalism in Pan-Islamism or the religion of Islam.

Iqbal and Re-interpretation of Islam: Iqbal draws his inspiration from Islam, from
Sufispirituality of quietism. Also, he favors the Mutazilas who are the rationalists of Islam.
Though Iqbal respected traditions, he felt the need for re-interpretation of Islam. He said that in
Islam prophethood is abolished by itself. This gives Muslims a new approach to the problems of
today. Human beings can guide their own evolution. Human must overcome the world; absorb
the qualities of God, and save humankind. Human is the vice-regent of god on the earth. Their
role is not one of submission but one of supremacy. Human has freedom of will and choice. God
works through human beings. God is immanent, facing humankind‘s problems within
humankind. The principal effect of Iqbal‘s writing was to arouse Islamic self-consciousness and
pride in the educated Muslims.

Universal Poet: In the beginning, Iqbal‘s poems were vibrating with national passions, but as he
became older, they began to have a more universal colour. It is true that his poems were full of
Islamic spirit. He thought that the world‘s salvation is possible only in coming closer to Quranic
teachings. Iqbal was a poet of the world. His nation was not only India, but the whole world. He
was liberal and broad-minded.

Pan-Islamism: Iqbal was an ardent champion of the Pan-Islamic movement. He devoted his life
mostly to Islamic unity and solidarity. He visualized a world-wide, universal Muslim

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brotherhood. He said that Islam is neither a nationalism nor an internationalism, but a
commonwealth of nations transcending all barriers of territorial nationalism, colour, creed and
race. According to him, territorial nationalism is the root of all social evils. Muslims living in
various parts of the world should be tied together by the common bond of religion – one prophet
and one God.
Iqbal the Reformer: Iqbal wanted to reform the whole world. He believed that this reformation
is possible by accepting Quranic teachings. He wanted complete equality and fraternity for all.

Ideal Man: According to Iqbal, it is not possible to become an ideal man until one follows the
teachings of the Quran. Iqbal‘s Ideal Man is superior to Nietzsche‘s Superman. Iqbal‘s Ideal Man
bows with all humility and reverence to one God the creator and benefactor. Iqbal does not
believe in destruction. His Ideal Man is ego-centric and self-respecting, adventurous, energetic
and courageous, yet very humble following the commandments of one supreme power. He
believes in actions and not in contemplation.

Iqbal for blending Activism with Humanism: Democracy as a system of Government based
upon majority rule was repulsive to him. According to him, true democracy should rest upon the
broad principles of toleration. In a democratic set-up, there should be guarantees for minority
opinion, since at times only the minority opinion may be right. He respected human personality.
He wanted to replace the oriental spirit of listlessness and self-negation by the dynamic activism
characteristic of the West. He was prepared to take useful ideas and institutions from any system.

Patron of the Journal Tolu-e-Islam: Iqbal was also the first patron of Tolu-e-Islam, a
historical, political, religious and cultural journal of the Muslims of British India. In 1935,
according to his instructions, Syed Nazeer Niazi initiated and edited the journal, named after the
famous poem of Iqbal, Tulu’i Islam. Niazi also dedicated the first edition of this journal to Iqbal.
For a long time, Iqbal wanted a journal to propagate his ideas and the aims and objectives of the
All India Muslim League. The journal played an important role in the Pakistan movement.

Political career: As Iqbal was interested in the national affairs since his youth and he had got
considerable recognition after his return in 1908 from England by Punjabi elite, he was closely
associated with Mian Muhammad Shafi. So when All-India Muslim League was expanded to
provincial level, Iqbal was made one of the three first joint secretaries of Punjab Muslim League.
In November 1926, with the encouragement of friends and supporters, Iqbal contested the
election for a seat in the Punjab Legislative Assembly from the Muslim district of Lahore, and
defeated his opponent by a margin of 3,177 votes. He supported the constitutional proposals
presented by Jinnah with the aim of guaranteeing Muslim political rights and influence in a
coalition with the Congress, and worked with the Aga Khan and other Muslim leaders to mend
the factional divisions and achieve unity in the Muslim League.

Iqbal, Jinnah and concept of Pakistan: Ideologically separated from Congress Muslim leaders,
Iqbal had also been disillusioned with the politicians of the Muslim League owing to the

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factional conflict that plagued the League in the 1920s. Discontent with factional leaders like
Muhammad Shafi and Fazl-ur-Rahman, Iqbal came to believe that only Jinnah was a political
leader capable of preserving unity and fulfilling the League's objectives of Muslim political
empowerment. Building a strong, personal correspondence with Jinnah, Iqbal was an influential
force in convincing Jinnah to end his self-imposed exile in London, return to India and take
charge of the League. Iqbal firmly believed that Jinnah was the only leader capable of drawing
Indian Muslims to the League and maintaining party unity before the British and the Congress.

While Iqbal espoused the idea of Muslim-majority provinces in 1930, Jinnah would continue to
hold talks with the Congress through the decade and only officially embraced the goal of
Pakistan in 1940. Some historians postulate that Jinnah always remained hopeful for an
agreement with the Congress and never fully desired the partition of India. Iqbal's close
correspondence with Jinnah is speculated by some historians as having been responsible for
Jinnah's embrace of the idea of Pakistan. Iqbal elucidated to Jinnah his vision of a separate
Muslim state in a letter sent on 21 June 1937.

Evaluation: In Muhammad Iqbal‘s philosophy and teachings, a clear formulation of the moral
imperative for which he called is nowhere to be found. Moreover, in his call for social and moral
reconstruction, he neither provides a basis on which others might later build. Moreover, although
he deplored nationalism, he was the one who first sounded the open call for partition and the
creation of Pakistan. In other words, in spite of his universalism, he was, first and foremost, a
muslim who worked for Islam.

However, next to the Quran, the poems of Iqbal have influenced the Muslim intellectuals of his
time and kindled in them the value of Islam. He had a deep feeling for the unity of the Islamic
world and a concern for the future of Indian Muslims. This was instrumental in strengthening the
separatistic elements in Indian politics of the day and it ultimately led to the partition of India. 2.
Sikhism

a. Singh Sabha Movement

The Singh Sabha Movement (Punjabi: ―Society of the Singhs‖) was a 19th-century movement
within Sikhism that began as a defense against the proselytizing activities of Christians and
Hindus. Its chief aims were the revival of the teachings of the Sikh Gurus (spiritual leaders), the
production of religious literature in Punjabi, and a campaign against illiteracy.

After the annexation of the Khalsa Raj (the independent Sikh kingdom in the Punjab founded by
Ranjit Singh in 1799) by the British in 1849, Christian missionaries increased their activities in
central Punjab. Dalip Singh, the last Sikh ruler, converted to Christianity in 1853, and Harnam
Singh, a Sikh aristocrat from Kapurthala, followed soon thereafter. Christian missionary activity
was thus quickly perceived as a threat to local religious traditions, but it was not the only
challenge facing the Sikhs. The lower rung of the British administration in the Punjab included

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English-speaking Bengalis, who were largely Brahmo Samajis (members of a Hindu reform
movement). They actively established their branches in several Punjab cities in the 1860s.
Punjabi Muslims concerned with saving their heritage formed the first Anjuman-i-Islamia (an
association created to improve religious, educational, and social conditions in the Muslim
community) in Lahore in 1869.
In response to these developments, Sikhs initiated the Singh Sabha movement, which sought to
revive Sikh doctrine in its pristine purity. The first unit, formed in Amritsar in 1873, was
followed by a more radical branch in Lahore that, among other things, stressed that Sikhs were
not Hindus. By the end of the 19th century, the number of Singh Sabhas exceeded 100.

Factors that prompted the Singh Sabha Movement: Within a few years after the death of the
last Guru, Guru Gobind Singh in 1708, Hindu ceremonies and rituals came back into Sikh
Gurudwaras – for e.g. wearing of caste marks, Hindu customs at birth, weddings and funerals.
Even the practice of Sati came back. The Mughal emperors continued to persecute the Sikhs, and
the latter sought refuge in the remote hills and deserts, and their Gurudwaras were under the
control of Brahmin priests who lived a luxurious life and neglected their religious duties.
Extravagant ceremonies replaced the simple form of the Sikh service. These priests had also
converted properties attached to the Gurudwaras into their private properties. The Sikhs were
going through an identity crisis. Many Sikhs had already gone back to Hinduism. The initiatory
ceremony for adults was rarely performed.

The Singh Sabha Movement was also a reaction against Christian missionary work. Christian
missionaries were active in Ludhiana, Lahore and Amritsar. Educational institutions were opened
by Christian missionaries in various places. The challenge of Western science, Christian ethics
and humanitarian values resulted in self-examination and some Sikhs were converted to
Christianity. In 1853, Maharaja Duleep Singh (the last Sikh ruler of the Punjab) accepted the
Christian faith and made liberal donations for Christian charity and for the maintenance of
Christian schools. The Sikh ruler of Kapurthala invited Ludhiana Christian mission to set up a
station in his capital and released funds for its maintenance.

A few years later, a nephew of the Kapurthala ruler, Kanwar Harnam Singh became a Christian.
The Gospel was preached in the neighbourhood of the Golden Temple at Amritsar. In 1873, four
Sikh students of the Amritsar Christian Mission School (Aya Singh, Attar Singh, Sadhu Singh
and Sashtokh Singh) proclaimed their intention of following the Christian faith. This shocked the
whole Sikh community. After this a series of lectures was given in Amritsar by Sharde Ram
Phillauri on the life of Guru Nanak. The British Govt. engaged Phillauri to write a history of the
Sikhs. Without delay a meeting was convened in Amritsar by some prominent Sikhs and an
association called the Sri Guru Singh Sabha was born on 1st Oct, 1873.

Aims and Objectives of the Singh Sabha Movement: The Singh Sabha undertook to:

1. Restore Sikhism to its original purity.

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 2. Edit and publish historical and religious books for the Sikhs.
3. Propagate current knowledge through Punjabi medium by starting magazines and
newspapers in Punjabi language.
4. Reform and bring back into the Sikh-fold the apostates.
5. Evoke interest of highly placed English men in the educational programme of the Sikhs.
The Impacts of the Singh Sabha Movement: The Singh Sabha brought about a regeneration of
Sikh society. It gained quick support of various sections of the community and was joined by
many Sikh scholars and leaders. The Sabha rejected un-Sikh customs and social evils, but also
encouraged Western education. Thus, both the revivalist impulse and progressive concern were
the chief characteristics of the movement. Singh Sabhas began to spring up in many places in
Punjab. In order to co-ordinate these various Sabhas, a joint board called the General Sabha was
formed. This was later replaced by the Khalsa Diwan set up in Amritsar in 1883 and it became
the officiating centre for all the Singh Sabhas. Due to differences between the Amritsar and
Lahore Sanghs, a separate Khalsa Diwan was established at Lahore in 1886. There was a need
for a central organization to unite the different sections. A large gathering of the Sikhs at
Amritsar on April 12th, 1900, unanimously voted for the establishment of a Khalsa Diwan
Supreme.

Along with the revivalist impulse, the Sikhs were looking to the future as well. They had a desire
for western style education. They wanted to have their share of government employments. They
wanted to make intellectual progress permanently; hence schools and colleges were opened for
their children‘s education. Until the coming of the British, the educational system in the Punjab
had been essentially religion based.

Inspired by the preaching of the Singh Sabha, Sikh youth began to assemble for religious
discussion. In 1891 they formed the Khalsa Vidyarthi Sabha (Sikh Students Club) which
however was not appreciated by the Golden Temple Management. In 1908, Sikh Eductation
Conference was founded. The chief objectives were:

1. Spread Western education among the Sikhs

2. Promote the study of Sikh literature.
3. Improve Sikh educational institutions
4. Open new educational institutions
5. Further the cause of female education among the Sikhs and
6. Promote technical and agricultural education.

Evaluation: The Singh Sabha Movement was an attempt to get rid of the adulterations and
additions that had spoilt Sikhism in the previous period. It was an attempt to go back to the
original purity of the faith. It was a movement among the masses. Through the Singh Sabha
Movement, the Sikhs gained their identity. What was against the teachings of the gurus was
rejected and Sikh precept and practice was restored. Legal sanction was secured from the British
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Govt legislation for rites and customs that were consistent with Sikh doctrines and tradition.
Reformations of Sikh shrines took place.

Singh Sabha Movement had a very deep impact upon the Sikh community which, as a result,
reoriented its outlook and spirit. It was a turning point in Sikh history. It made Sikhism a living
religion once again. It has shaped the attitude and aspirations of the Sikhs ever since. It was a
great regenerating force that rescued the Sikhs from the degenerating practices of Hinduism and
brought them to an awareness of the excellence of their religion. It opened for them the doors to
progress.

b. Gurudwara Reform Movement

The Gurdwara Reform Movement (Gurdwara Sudhar Lehr) is the Legislation passed by the
Punjab Legislative Council which marked the culmination of the struggle of the Sikh people
from 1920-1925 to wrest control of their places of worship from the mahants or priests into
whose hands they had passed during the eighteenth century when the Khalsa were driven from
their homes to seek safety in remote hills and deserts.

When they later established their sway in Punjab, the Sikhs rebuilt their shrines endowing them
with large jagirs and estates. The management, however, remained with the priests, belonging
mainly to the Udasi sect, who, after the advent of the British in 1849, began to consider the
shrines and lands attached to them as their personal properties and to appropriating the income
accruing from them to their private use. Some of them alienated or sold Gurudwara properties at
will. They had introduced ceremonies which were anathema to orthodox Sikhs. Besides, there
were complaints of immorality and even criminal behaviour lodged against the worst of them.
All these factors gave rise to what is known as the Gurudwara Reform movement during which
the Sikhs peaceful protests were met with violence and death and ended with them courting
arrest on a large scale to gain the world's attention. Before it was all over many would fall as
martyrs with some being literally blown apart while they were strapped to cannon barrels.

Initial agitations: The term Akali derives from the word Akal ("timeless" or "immortal") used in
the Sikh scriptures. By the early 20th century, a number of Sikh gurdwaras in British India were
under the control of the Udasi mahants (clergymen) or managers appointed by the Governors.
The main aim of the Akali movement was to have the Sikh gurdwaras released from the control
of the traditional clergy, which had become powerful and ritualized.

The Akali movement was started in 1920 by the Singh Sabha's political wing (later known as
Akali Dal). The jathas (volunteer groups) led by Kartar Singh Jhabbar played a major role in the
movement. The first shrine chosen for reform was the Babe di Ber gurdwara in Sialkot. It was
under the control of the widow of the mahant Harnam Singh. She initially resisted the takeover
of the gurdwara by the Akalis, as it was her only source of income, but relented after she was

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offered a pension. The control of the gurdwara was then transferred to an elected committee
headed by Baba Kharak Singh.

The next major target of the Akalis was the Harmandir Sahib (Golden Temple), the holiest shrine
of the Sikhs. The priest of the Golden Temple had refused to allow low-caste Hindu converts to
offer prayers in the shrine.[6] Kartar Singh Jhabbar walked to the Akal Takht in the temple
premises, urging the Sikhs to give up the caste-based restrictions and reform the gurdwaras. On
28 June 1920, the Golden Temple came under the control of an elected committee called
Shiromani Gurdwara Parbandhak Committee (SGPC).

Next, the Akalis headed to Hasan Abdal, where Gurdwara Panja Sahib was under the control of
Mahant Mitha Singh. Singh allowed sale of cigarettes inside the gurdwara, and was disliked by
the Sikhs. The Akalis led by Karatar Singh Jhabbar took control of the gurdwara on 20
November 1920. However, the local Hindus, who also frequented the gurdwara for worship,
opposed this takeover. Around 5-6 thousand of them surrounded the gurdwara on the night of the
Akali takeover, but were dispersed by the police. The next day, around 200-300 Hindu women
squatted at the Gurdwara. Nevertheless, the gurdwara was later successfully brought under the
authority of the SGPC.

The Akalis then took control of the Gurdwara Sacha Sauda at Chuhar Kana (in present-day
Pakistan). They then turned their attention to the Gurdwara Sri Tarn Taran Sahib, whose
clergymen were accused of allowing dancing girls, smoking and drinking inside the shrine's
premises. The clergymen were also accused of spreading the teachings of Arya Samaj, a Hindu
reform movement some of whose leaders had criticized Sikhism. The Akalis, led by Kartar
Singh, arrived at the gurdwara, performed ardas (Sikh prayer) and declared that the gurdwara
was now under their control. The clergymen attacked the Akalis with crude bombs and bricks
while the latter were sleeping.[8] Next day, the Sikhs from the surrounding villages took control
of the Gurdwara. Following this, the Akalis led by Kartar Singh then took control of five more
gurdwaras, including the Gurdwara Guru ka Bagh near Amritsar.

A section of Akalis rejected the peaceful methods adopted by SGPC, and formed the breakaway
Babbar Akali movement to seize the control of the gurdwaras using violent methods.

Nankana massacre: In 1921, the Akalis turned their focus to the gurdwara at Nankana Sahib,
the birthplace of the first Sikh Guru Nanak. The gurdwara was under the control of a mahant
called Narain Das, who was accused of allowing immoral activities in the temple premises. One
of the clergymen at the gurdwara had allegedly raped the 13-year-old daughter of a Hindu
devotee from Sindh. When the Akalis tried to take over the gurdwara on 20 February 1921, the
Pashtun guards of the Mahant attacked them, killing 130 people in what came to be known as the
Nankana massacre. Two days later, Mahatma Gandhi and the Governor of the Punjab province
visited the site, accompanied by a number of Sikh and Hindu leaders. Gandhi sympathized with
the Sikhs and said that the Mahant had ―out-Dyered Dyer.‖ The British Government, finding

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itself under immense political pressure, agreed to transfer the control of the gurdwara to the
Akalis on 3 March 1921. Narain Das and 26 of his henchmen were arrested.

Gurdwara Bill: Amid the ongoing agitations, the SGPC urged the British Government to release
the protestors and legalize its control of the gurdwaras. On 1 May 1921, the influential Sikh
leaders passed a resolution for launching a passive resistance movement. The next day, a
SikhHindu conference was organized during the Punjab Congress Provincial Congress at
Rawalpindi.
The Jagat Guru Shankaracharya urged the Hindus to join the Sikhs in the struggle for taking
control of the gurdwaras from mahants with personal interests. On 11 May, a number of Akali
jathas were asked to proceed to designated gurdwaras to take over their control.

The Government meanwhile launched a "Gurdwara Bill" to facilitate the settlement of the
gurdwara disputes. The Bill provided setting up a Board of Commissioners for the management
of the gurdwaras. However, the SGPC objected to the Government's right to appoint the Board
members, and the bill was postponed. In On 17 November 1922, the "Sikh Gurdwaras and
Shrines Bill" was introduced in the Punjab Legislative Assembly. All the Sikh and the Hindu
members opposed the bill, but it was passed by 41 votes to 31 votes.

Jaitu and Bhai Pheru agitations: In 1923, the Akalis decided to take over the Gurdwara
Gangsar at Jaitu (or Jaito) in the Nabha State. The erstwhile Maharaja (ruler) of Nabha
Ripudaman Singh had been sympathetic to the Akali and the Indian nationalist cause, but was
deposed by the British Government. When the SGPC launched an agitation, its leaders and
members were arrested on the charge of sedition. Subsequently, several marches were organized
in support of the agitation. The protestors were arrested, beaten and shot at by the police at
various instances.

The Indian National Congress declared its support for the Akali agitation in at the special
Congress Session in Delhi. The Akalis were then joined by several non-Sikhs, including
Jawaharlal Nehru (later the first Prime Minister of India) and Kasturiranga Santhanam. Nehru
and others were arrested during one such march. Finally, the Government of Punjab relented and
agreed to transfer the control of the gurdwara to the Akalis.

While the Jaitu agitation was on, the Akalis also sought the control of the gurdwara at Bhai
Pheru. The gurdwara was controlled by Udasi mahants including Pala Ram, the brother of Narain
Das (who was responsible for the Nankana massacre). The mahant agreed to transfer the control
of the gurdwara to SGPC, after being offered a pension. However, in August 1923, when the
Akalis decided to eject the Udasi tenants housed in the gurdwara premises, they faced
considerable resistance. On 4 December 1923, a group of Akalis damaged a mahant's residence
attached to the shrine. The police arrested 11 Akalis following a complaint. In December, the
Government recognized the SGPC as the manager of the gurdwara, but also ordered the Akalis to
follow the legal process for ejecting the Udasi mahants out of the premises. On 1 January 1924,

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an Akali jatha forcibly took the possession of the property occupied by Pala Ram. Around 34
Akalis were arrested by the police for this action on the next day. In subsequent days, a number
of Akali jathas staged demonstrations at the site. A total of 5,251 persons were arrested for the
demonstrations, and 3,092 of these were sent to the prison.

Sikh Gurdwara Bill: The British Government considered the Akali movement to be a greater
threat than Mahatma Gandhi's civil disobedience movement. A 1921 memorandum signed by D.
Petrie, the Assistant Director of CID, Punjab states:
Gandhi's propaganda makes its appeal mainly to the urban classes, which lack both the
stamina and physical courage to oppose successfully even small bodies of police; the
Akali campaign is essentially a rural movement, and its followers are men of fine
physique with a national history of which the martial characteristics have been purposely
kept alive both by Government and by the Sikhs themselves.

In 1925, after further demands and protests from SGPC, a new "Sikh Gurdwara Bill" was
introduced in the Punjab Legislative Assembly. It came into force on 1 November 1925, and
awarded the control of all the historical shrines to SGPC. A tribunal was set up to judge the
disputes, and all the Akali prisoners were released.

By this time, an estimated 30,000 people had been arrested by the British Government; over 400
had been killed and another 2,000 had been injured during the movement. The movement fueled
the anti-British Government feeling among the Sikhs. It also led to an anti-Hindu sentiment
among a section of Sikhs, who identified the pro-Udasi mahants such as Narain Das and their
supporters with the Hindu community.

c. Nirankari Movement Radha Saomi Satsang

Nirankari Movement: During the reign of Maharaja Ranjit Singh, the Hindus of western
Punjab and Derajat came under the influence of Sikhism. A few accepted the pahul and joined
the Khalsa fraternity; most others continued to describe themselves as Hindus but gave up the
worship of Hindu gods and the recitation of the Vedas, instead reading the Granth and joining
Sikh congregations at the Gurudwaras. Among these Hindus there grew a custom of bringing up
at least one son as a keshadhari Sikh. This half-Hindu, half-Sikh community belonged to the
Khatri, Arora or Bania castes. They continued to marry within their castes regardless of the
change in their religious beliefs.

Dyal Das, a bullion merchant of Peshawar, belonged to this Hindu-Sikh community. He

condemned idol worship and making obeisance to ―holy‖ men; he disapproved of going on
pilgrimages and performing Brahmanical ritual. The positive aspect of his teaching was that God
was formless – nirankar (hence the futility of worshipping idols or ―saints‖); consequently he
described himself as a nirankari and coined the phrase: dhan nirankar, deh dhari sab khwar
(Praise be to the Formless Creator; Worship of mortals is of no avail).

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Dyal Das soon acquired the status of a guru and gathered around him disciples who, like him,
described themselves as Nirankaris. They ran into opposition first from Hindu Brahmins and
after Dyal Das moved from Peshawar to Rawalpindi, from the Bedi descendants of Guru Nanak,
who had a large following in the district. The Nirankaris were ostracised by both the Hindus and
the Sikhs and had to build their own places of worship. The biggest was raised on the banks of
the stream Layee 4 miles outside Rawalpindi. When Dyal Das died, his sandals became an object
of veneration. They were placed on an altar alongside the Granth, and the temple on the Layee
was named after him as Dayalsar. It became the headquarters of the Nirankari sect.
Dyal Das was succeeded by the eldest of his 3 sons, Darbara Singh. Darbara Singh built new
centres (biras) for the Nirankaris and began the practice of issuing encyclicals (hukumnamas) for
the instruction of his followers. His chief contribution was to standardise ritual connected with
births, marriages and deaths. These rituals were a departure from the Hindu tradition inasmuchas
they were based on the Granth and not on the Hindu sacred texts.

Darbara Singh was succeeded by his youngest brother, Rattan Chand, and Rattan Chand by his
son Gurdit Singh. The present head of the Nirankaris is Gurdit Singh‘s son, Hara Singh.

Various estimates of the members of the sect have been made. The Nirankaris themselves claim a
following of nearly 1,00,000 comprised mainly of non-Jat Sikhs and Hindus of the Arora Zargar
(goldsmith) and Kshatriya castes. Until 1947, their influence was restricted to Sikh and
Hindu communities of North West Frontier Province and Kashmir. After the partition of India,
Dayalsar was abandoned, and the centre was shifted first to Amritsar and then to Chandigarh, the
new capital of East Punjab.

The differences between orthodox Sikhism and the Nirankaris are limited to the latter‘s worship
of gurus other than the ten recognised by the Sikhs. Nirankaris style Dyal Das and his successors
with honorifics such as sri satguru (the true guru) and sri hazur sahib (his holy eminence). They
also disapprove of the militant Khalsa.

The Nirankaris are fast losing their separate identity and may, within a few decades, merge back
into the Hindu or Sikh parent body. The importance of the movement lies largely in the fact that
it initiated ceremonial rites which inculcated among the Sikhs a sense of separateness and thus
checked the process of their absorption into Hinduism.

Radha Saomi Satsang: The founder of the Radha Saomi sect was a Hindu banker, Shiv Dyal of
Agra. Shiv Dyal was greatly influenced by the teachings of the Adi Granth, and he propounded a
doctrine which contained elements of both Hinduism and Sikhism. He described God as the
union between radha (symbolising the soul) and Saomi, the Master; hence himself as a
worshipper of Radha Saomi. Shiv Dyal attracted a following of Hindus and Sikhs and became
the first guru of the sect. On his death, the Radha Saomi split into two; the main centre was at
Agra, a branch started by a Sikh disciple, Jaimal Singh, was on the bank of the river Beas, not
very far from Amritsar.

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The Beas Radha Saomis soon became independent of the Agra centre and had a succession of
gurus-all Sikhs- of their own. On Jaimal Singh‘s death, one of his disciples, Sawan Singh
Grewal, an engineer, became the head of the Punjab Radha Saomis. Sawan Singh enlarged the
Beas centre and named it Dera Baba Jaimal Singh. During Sawan Singh‘s tenure, the number of
Beas Radha Saomis increased rapidly. Besides Sikhs, who formed the nucleus, they included
Hindus, Muslims, Parsis and Christians.
Sawan Singh was succeeded by Jagat Singh, a retired professor of agriculture. After a short term
of 3 years, Jagat Singh nominated Charan Singh Grewal (a grandson of Sawan Singh) as his
successor. Under Charan Singh‘s leadership, who was educated with great charismatic charm,
the Beas Radha Saomis have grown into a community of substantial proportions.

The Beas Radha Saomis have some basic differences with orthodox Sikhism. They believe in a
living guru, who initiates the disciples, who thereupon become guru bhais or guru bahins
(brothers/sisters-in-faith) and greet each other with the words ‘radha saomi’. Radha Saomi
temples do not have the Granth Sahib but only a raised platform where the guru sits to deliver a
discourse. They have no kirtan because they believe that music diverts people‘s minds from the
meaning of the hymns to the simple enjoyment of sound. And, although the Radha Saomi gurus
of Beas as well as their Sikh adherents remain kesadhari, they do not believe in pahul (baptism)
nor in the militant vows of the Khalsa.

Although the Radha Saomis owe much to Sikhism and their gurus‘ discourses are largely drawn
from the Adi Granth, it would be wrong to describe them as a sub-sect of Sikhism. The only
justification for treating them along with other Sikh religious movements is their close
resemblance to the sahajdharis who nominally accept the teachings of all the 10 gurus and keep
up the fiction that in due course they will be baptised as the Khalsa. The Radha Saomis only
accept the teachings of the first 5 gurus contained in the Adi Granth and reject the rest. The
Radha Saomis present a new version of sahajdhari Sikhism. Their faith has considerable
attraction for the religiously inclined educated classes, for the Hindu-oriented Sikh and the
SikhOriented Hindu.

3. Buddhism

Ambedkar and the Neo-Buddhist Movement/Sri Lanka

Life of Ambedkar: Ambedkar was born on 14th April 1893 in the Mahar caste, one of the largest
outcasts in Maharashtra. Ambedkar suffered much being a Mahar, even in school. He could not
even take part in games with other boys because they belonged to higher castes. Ambedkar
passed his matriculation from Elphinstone H/S in 1907 and was given a copy of Kelusakar‘s
book, Life of Gauthama Buddha. It was a great challenge to him to see what Gauthama did. The
same year he also read Narasu‘s book Essence of Buddhism. These books greatly influenced
Ambedkar and he became a Buddhist (at heart) when he was only a boy of 16.

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With the help of Sayaji Rao, Maharaja of Baroda, Ambedkar was able to take his degree from
Columbia University, study economics in England and also qualify himself as a barrister. When
he returned, in spite of his education, people still had their old attitude as he was an untouchable,
so much so that the peon in the office would throw files to him. It was difficult to find a place to
stay, so he finally left Baroda and went to Bombay to work as a barrister. His fellow advocates
would not allow him in their company.
Ambedkar made a study of Hinduism and concluded that the social philosophy of Hinduism is
based on inequality. Thus began the new religious quest of Ambedkar.

History of his conversion:

Yeola Conference in 1935: On October 13, 1935, leaders of the scheduled castes convened a
conference in Yeola, Nasik. In this conference, Ambedkar declared his firm resolve that he will
not die a Hindu. A resolution was passed: ―The depressed classes should leave the Hindu-fold
and join some other religion that gives social and religious equality to them. Choose any religion
that gives you equality of status and of treatment.‖ The religion to replace Hinduism was not
specified. Following this, leaders of various religions appealed to Ambedkar to consider their
religions.

Poona Conference in 1936: On January 12, 1936, the Poona Conference was convened to
consider the Yeola decision. In this the Chairman even raised the idea that the only way for the
Depressed Classes is to leave Hinduism not necessarily by converting to another religion, but by
possibly starting a new religion or by reviving the ancient religion of the Adi-Dravidas. The
question of choosing a religion was entirely left to Ambedkar.

A massive Mahar conference was held on May 30 and 31, 1936 in Bombay to assess the impact
of the declaration on the Mahar masses. In this Ambedkar delivered an elaborate and
wellprepared speech in Marathi saying that the struggle between the Hindus and the
Untouchables is a permanent and eternal phenomenon and that those who want to live a life of
self-respect and equality, should think over this.

Nagpur Conference in 1956: It took 20 years for Ambedkar to decide which religion he should
accept. Ambedkar finally came to the conclusion that Buddhism was the only solution to the
problem of untouchability. On October 14, 1956, Ambedkar took Diksa (initiation) and became a
Buddhist in a public ceremony. On this day, 3,08,000 people embraced Buddhism along with
Ambedkar and his family, his wife Savita Bai and son Yeshwant Rao.

On the day of his conversion, Ambedkar founded the Bharatiya Buddha Mahasabha (Buddhist
Society of India) with the aim of propagating the Buddhist religion among the untouchables. On
the day following his conversion, Ambedkar made a speech and concluded it with the following
words: ―This conversion has given me enormous satisfaction and pleasure unimaginable. I feel

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as if I have been liberated from hell.‖ Within 2 years after the conversion of Ambedkar,
NeoBuddhist population increased to 18 to 20 millions.

On December 6, 1956, only 7 weeks after his conversion, Ambedkar died. Thus his
determination that he would not die as a Hindu, was fulfilled.

Why Ambedkar chose Buddhism?: Ambedkar chose to follow the Hinayana form of
Buddhism. He preferred Buddhism because of the following reasons:
a) According to Ambedkar, Buddhism gives 3 principles in combination which no other
religion has. These are Prajna (understanding against superstition and supernaturalism),
Karuna (love) and Samatva (equality).
b) Ambedkar also felt that the attitude of the Buddhists towards women was a great advance
on the ancient Hindu attitude towards women, which deteriorated even more with Manu.
c) Buddhism was understood to be continuous with ancient Indian culture.
d) The fundamental principle of Buddhism is equality. According to Ambedkar, Buddhism
is the only religion that does not recognize caste and offer full scope for progress. It gives
hope to the downtrodden.
e) Buddhism is based on reason. There is an element of flexibility inherent in it which is not
found in any other religion. Buddhism has a rational way to eradicate suffering.

Main Characteristics of the Neo-Buddhists

Faith in Ambedkar: For many, the first incentive to adopt Buddhism comes from faith in
Ambedkar. As Ambedkar told them to do so, many people converted to Buddhists. The
conversions continue because of this deep faith in Ambedkar. Few people consider him a god. A
complex mixture of myth and homage has grown up around Ambedkar after his death. His
picture is venerated as the second Buddha and some say prayers in front of it. In some of the
pictures, Gautama Buddha is seen only at the background. Buddha, Jesus, Mohammed and
Ambedkar are put in a special class. Ambedkar is considered the modern Manu who has
destroyed the old Manu and Manu-dharma.

Buddhism as a Religion of Human Liberation: Neo-Buddhist concept of Buddhism is primarily

that of a religion of liberation of the oppressed in society. Ambedkarite Buddhists opined that the
Buddha ushered a new era of liberty, equality and fraternity. Because Buddha established a new
society based on equality, low- caste people also embraced Buddhism. There is compassion for
the human individual. Buddhism opposes the graded social inequalities. It is humanistic,
secularistic – in the sense that it deals with those problems which are essentially related to human
here on earth, democratic and scientific.

Human Dignity: Conversion to Buddhism was a revolt against the indignities the untouchables
suffered as members of the Hindu Community. The aim of conversion is not economic but

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psychological. Now, they do not feel they are untouchables. They are accepted by others. It is an
assertion of human dignity.

Spontaneity: Buddhism does not promise any educational facilities, economic advancement,
protection or concession from the state. Economically the neo-Buddhists or the Ambedkarite
Buddhists are still very low, and there is no protection or concession for them from the Central
Government.

Social and Economic Change: The Ambedkarites were partly motivated by a desire for social
change. Immediately after formal conversion, most of the customs and many facets of the
occupations were rejected. The change was quite clear in the marriage practices. Prior to their
conversion, their marriages had been celebrated at relatively great expense, with music, feasting,
propitiation of various Hindu deities, drinking, etc. After conversion, a marriage was celebrated
in a new style. The bride wore a simple white sari. The ceremony was performed by a single
priest. The Buddhist marriage ceremonies are considerably shorter, cheaper and more dignified.

There are other changes also. They got rid of all sorts of superstitions. They saved money since
they have given up all Hindu ceremonies. They have only one simple feast each month on the
day of the full moon.

Many of the converts refused to carry out their traditional despised occupations. Majority of the
upper caste people were bitter about this change. Some of those who had become Buddhists
stopped performing the traditional, upper-caste-Imposed duties of the untouchables.

While major social and economic changes are taking place, the Neo-Buddhists realize that their
conversion has not changed their status in the eyes of the rest of society.

New Myths: In the Hindu mythology the Mahars were depicted as really depraved in origin. For
instance, they were originally night rovers (nishachar) whom Brahma turned into men lest they
should eat his whole creation; they were descendants of the son of the cow who would eat his
mother after she died; they were descendants of a babe created by Parvati, who had taken to
eating dead cow (remember the holiness of the cow) and been cursed, outcasted and banned from
the village. But after becoming Buddhists they consider themselves to be the descendants of the
original great lords of the land. These ancestors had been the original Buddhists. So the
Buddhists were merely coming into their own true place and heritage after long oppression.

Sacred Books: Ambedkar wrote a book called The Buddha and His Dhamma which is the Neo-
Buddhist Bible. This book is constructed as a ―gospel.‖ It is an inspiring religious biography.
This book is written in such a way that there are units suitable for dalit Buddhist reflection and
weekly congregational worship. Ambedkar‘s social concern and anti-communist views are
reflected on many pages. The social concern gives the book a contemporary orientation. It is so

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written that the mass convert will have in Buddha one of the most worthy human examples of
noble character to follow.

Ambedkar‘s Buddhist canon is a posthumous work. It has 599 pages and is divided into eight
books. It is written in English. He has taken what seemed to him the most relevant parts of the
several Buddhist traditions, edited them, sometimes added material of his own and arranged them
in order. Ambedkar attacked Hindu gods and also the Hindu practice of deification. But it is this
status of deity that is attributed to Ambedkar by his followers, which is basis of their acceptance
of his canon.

Evaluation: Despite the considerable achievement, Ambedkar‘s movement has not lived up to
its expectations. This might be due to the suspension of the conversion movement in its early
days. However, after his death, Ambedkar continued to be revered, especially by the untouchable
communities. This reverence has evolved over the years in to a kind of hero worship of the sort
that Ambedkar himself hated. But though devoted to him as their hero, these poor and generally
uneducated peasants typically have little knowledge of the Buddhist teachings he championed as
they received little further instruction in the teaching and practice of Buddhism. The neoBuddhist
movement started by Ambedkar has liberated many of the untouchables from the oppression of
the caste Hindus and revived Buddhist religion which was already swallowed and digested by
Hinduism.

Ambedkar‘s interpretation of Buddhism in his book has met with harsh criticism from some
traditional Buddhists who say that it is very different from the original text making it almost
unrecognizable. Others have criticized Ambedkar saying that he was baited by Hindu Revivalists
into turning to a religion that had already been swallowed and digested by Hinduism. Rajshekar
Shetty says that in spite of his rejection of the caste-system, priesthood, karma, Vedic scriptures,
and other oppressive features of Hinduism, Ambedkar still loved Hinduism. ―He was a prisoner
of Hinduism.‖

Unit IV: Guru Movements

1. General Characteristics of the Modern Guru Movements

The word guru, a noun, connotes ―teacher‖ in Sanskrit, but in Indian traditions it has contextual
meanings with significance beyond what teacher means in English. The guru is more than
someone who teaches specific type of knowledge, and includes in its scope someone who is also
a ―counselor, a sort of parent of mind and soul, who helps mold values and experiential
knowledge as much as specific knowledge, an exemplar in life, an inspirational source and who
reveals the meaning of life.‖ For centuries, the Vedas, the smritis, the Manusmriti, the Ramayana
and the Mahabharata, have been regarded as sources of reference with regard to religious duties,
social customs and Hindu laws. Their injunctions have regulated the lives of millions of people
in successive ages.

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It is believed that the direct descendents of Brahma were sages and rishis who are credited with
the creation of the Vedas. They have been instrumental in the transmission of knowledge from
one generation to the other and can be termed as the classical gurus. One theory as to the origin
of the word Guru suggests that, the Sanskrit word Gu means darkness or ignorance and Ru
denotes the remover of that darkness. Therefore one who removes the darkness of ignorance is a
‗guru‘.

Adi Shankaracharya said, ―If a person, despite possessing a handsome, disease-free body, fame,
a mountain of wealth and the knowledge of the Vedas and other scriptures has not surrendered
himself at the feet of a guru, then he has achieved nothing, nothing, nothing.‖
Thus, a guru has been revered from the days the first Veda was composed. The Vedas, the
principal scriptures of Hinduism, which constitute a body of knowledge are said to be eternal,
were revealed to the great rishis who had purified their minds through meditation. Therefore, the
word ‗guru‘ implies a person who imparts temporal knowledge (apara vidya) and is accordingly
offered respect. The Skanda Purana says, ‘Gurur Brahma, Gurur Visnu, Gurur Devo
Maheshwara, Gurusakshat Parabrahma, Tasmaye Shri Guruve Namaha’ which can be translated
as ―The Guru is Brahma, Vishnu and Mahadeva (Shiva). The Guru is indeed the very Brahman.
I revere that mighty guru.‖

General Characteristics of the Modern Guru Movements: It would be impossible to

enumerate all the characteristics prevalent in the Guru Movement. Therefore, the general
characteristics may be enumerated as follows:

a) Identification of the Guru with the deity: The guru is considered to be the living
embodiment of the spiritual truth professed by the sect and thus is identified with the deity. The
devotee is instructed to offer mind, body, and property to the guru. The tradition of willing
service and obedience to the guru is still observed. The guru is frequently treated with the same
respect paid the deity during worship, and the guru‘s birthday is celebrated by his/her followers
as a festival day.

b) Universal Approach: Even though there may be localized gurus, whose teachings and
influence may be for a particular community or locality, one important characteristic of the
modern guru movement is the universal approach of almost every spiritual guru. Their messages
are meant for humanity as a whole, cutting across geographical boundaries and religious
constraints. They have a following in almost every country.

c) No discrimination: The Gurus exhibit no discrimination on grounds of caste, creed, sex

or religion. People of every caste are welcomed, followers of every religion are also welcome
and devotees of both sex, male and female abound. More importantly, even among the gurus,
there can be seen female gurus.

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d) Revolt as well as continuity from classical Hinduism: The Guru movement exhibits a
revolt from classical Hinduism as caste system; elaborate rites and rituals etc are condemned and
cast off by many of the gurus. At the same time, continuity with classical Hinduism can still be
seen in the modern guru movement such as the ashrama system, guru and shishya relationship
etc.

e) Social concern: The gurus and their respective movements exhibit a deep concern for the
society and the problems faced by society. As a result, many of the guru movements are involved
in the upliftment of the society through the establishment of schools, colleges, hospitals, relief
works in times of natural calamities, etc.

3. Special study of the following Gurus

A) SATYA SAI BABA

Satya Sai Baba is a god-man who comes under the Sai tradition of Gurus. The first of this
tradition was Shirdi Sai Baba. Satya Sai’s earlier name was Satya Narayan. He was born in
1926 in Puttaparthi in Andhra Pradesh. When he was a child he got interest in composing
bhajans and plays. He was also a good actor. At the age of ten he organized a bhajan group. He
composed his bhajans in praise of Shirdi Sai Baba.
When he was fourteen years old one day a big black scorpion stung him. The next morning
he fell unconscious. His behavior was completely changed when he came back to his
consciousness. He continued to behave strangely for the next two and a half-month. Then one
day he called his family members and distributed them sugar candy and flower out of nothing.
Then he declared that ‘I am Sai Baba, I am of the Bharatdvaja Gotra. I have come to free you
from all your troubles.” A few months later again he declared, “I am no longer your Satya, I do
not consider myself related to your family. I am Sai Baba and I have my own work. I cannot stay
any longer with you. Maya has left me; I am going to do my work. My work is waiting for me, I
am going to fulfill my mission.”
Thus he left his family and friends and home at the age of fourteen. Satya Sai Baba
established his ashram at Puttaparthy in Andhra Pradesh. Today Satya Sai Baba has thousands of
devotees in India and abroad. He is worshipped as a god-man.
His Teachings
He believed himself to be an incarnation of Shirdi Sai Baba. He said that this avatar is for
Bhakta Rakshana (protection of devotees). Thus we see that Sai Baba considered himself as the
representative of God. He claimed, “I am ‘Shiva Shakti,’ Shiva Shakti has incarnated in me.”
He also said, ‘I do not only perform the sacrifice but also receive it.” He used to say that give me
yourself completely and I will liberate you.

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 He is a vedantic philosophy follower. He believed in the nirguna and saguna aspect of
Brahman. According to him, Brahman in its essential nature is nirguna. But for those who are
immature Brahman use to take saguna form. This world is maya. But in maya also there is
saguna Brahman.
The Nature Of Man: According to Sai Baba the real nature of human being is divine. He
says, “you are not this body, this body cannot be you. You are not ‘tatva’ but ‘atma.’ You are
formless and changeless. Your real nature is ‘ananda’ (bliss). You are fundamentally Brahman.”
Nature Of Sin: According to him sin is ignorance. Man considers himself as body. This
understanding comes because of his ignorance. Therefore, he does not know his spiritual life. By
giving importance to body, man fall into all kinds of sin.
Salvation: According to Satya Sai Baba, when a person knows his divine self then he is no
more in any ignorance. This realization is called full union with Brahman and it is moksha
(salvation).
His Mission He says his mission is fourfold. They are:
 Veda Poshana – Propagation of the knowledge of Vedas.
 Vidhvat Poshana - To help and support Vedic scholarship.
 Bhakta Rakshana –Protection of devotees.
 Dharma Rakshana – Protection of the Righteousness

B) MAHARISHI MAHESH YOGI AND TRANSCENDENTAL MEDITATION

His Life
Mahesh Yogi comes from M.P. Mahesh Yogi did his early education in Allahabad. He
completed his B. Sc. degree from Allahabad University. While he was studying in Allahabad he
used to visit the Sankaracharya of Badrinath Brahmanand Saraswati who use to be at Allahabad
during winter. After his education in Allahabad he did not have much interest in doing any job.
He got a job but had ho interest. Although he was a science student, he started learning, Sanskrit
language and Indian scriptures. The he received initiation under a guru.
Before his death, Mahesh’s guru commissioned Mahesh and asked him to go to all English
speaking countries and teach the people in those countries the simple yoga techniques. After
receiving this commission he went to the Himalayas. He stayed there for two years. During this
time he learned the simple yoga. His yoga technique is called Transcendental Meditation (TM).
His earlier name was Mahesh. Later on he added Maharishi and Yogi to his name Mahesh.
Maharishi means ‘great seer’ and yogi means ‘one who has realized the ultimate.’
He came out of Himalayas and went to Madras to teach the people his new yoga techniques.
He spent there six months but his efforts were not successful because the people were very slow

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in learning his yoga techniques. Finally, he decided to take it to the West where the people have
the habit of accepting every new idea.
First of all he went to England and wanted to convert the Britishers. The ‘Beatles,’ who were
the famous singers during the late fifties got converted to Mahesh Yogi’s TM. In 1959 he went
to America and established Spiritual Regeneration Movement (SRM) for the propagation of his
yoga techniques. In America TM attracted many young people and college students. There were
also industrialists, beaurocrats, housewives, actors, professionals, scientists, sports figures and
political leaders among those who got interested in TM.
He wrote two books, “The Science of Being and Art of Living.” And another book is a
commentary on Bhagavat Gita. It was a commentary upto six chapters of Bhagavat Gita.
Practicing TM
To know TM first a person need to take initiation. He/she should wear loose clothes. The
person needs to bring a white handkerchief, and a flower. Then the initiator will take the person
to a dark room.
In the initiation, first the guru-mantra is pronounced to the ears of the candidate. Then the
seed-mantra (beej-mantra) is pronounced. It is said that this mantra works inside the man. It acts
like a kick. While the individual continues to meditate, he/she comes to a point where there are
no thoughts in his/her mind and Mahesh Yogi calls this Creative Intelligence. Mahesh yogi calls
this experience ‘god.’ This whole meditation and experience is called TM.
Mahesh Yogi claims that TM:
 Can be learned easily and enjoyed by everyone.
 Provides deep rest.
 Improves clarity of perception.
 Develops creative intelligence.
 Demands awareness.
 Ensures full development of the individual in a natural way.
Mahesh Yogi had a big dream to train one teacher of TM for every 1000 people in all parts of
the world. Approximately 7000 TM teachers were initiating new members at the rate of 30,000
new members per month in 1990s. In order to achieve his goals he established many institutions
and movements. They are: -
 Spiritual Regeneration Movement (SRM)
 Students international Meditation Society.
 International Meditation Society.
 Maharishi International University.
 An ashram in Noida, New Delhi.

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Why A Christian Should Not Practice TM
a. TM is a false religion. The Bible says there will be many false teachers
and religions in the end days (Rev. 13). T.M is shaping up to become one of the largest false
religions in the world.
b. Using meditation as means to forget one’s sin and guilt is fooling oneself.
Christian meditation is not designed for that purpose. Sin must be taken care of by repentance,
confession and receiving of God’s forgiveness.
c. Meditation for Christians should become a continues state of mind that
results from an experience of a clean heart and mind.
d. A Christian should meditate upon Jesus Christ who has born our grieves
and carried our sorrows.
e. A Christian should read scripture every day and use this scripture as the
focal point for meditation. Selecting a verse or few verses and thinking about their meaning
works very well as a starting point for meditation.
f. Christian meditation is decidedly a Christ-centered experience. It must be
progressively developed.
C) ACHARYA RAJNEESH
Acharya Rajneesh was born in a village called Gadarwada in the district of Narsingpur in
Madhya Pradesh in 1931. His full name was Rajneesh Chandra Mohan. His father was a
businessman. Rajneesh obtained his B. A. degree from Jabalpur University. He also did his M.
A. in philosophy. He has worked as the editor of the Newspaper Nav Bharat. Rajneesh was a
teacher of philosophy and a brilliant man. He taught Philosophy in two different colleges. In
1974 he came to Pune and opened an ashram.
Rajneesh teaches through parables and stories. His arguments will put pressure upon anyone.
In such a way that his views will be accepted. Some people critically analyzed that Rajneesh is
not a philosopher himself but a critic of different philosophies.
Because of the advice of free sex he was much popular in the west but not in India. In India
loose sex is considered as immorality and it does not accept as such. Indians esteems highly
moral and traditional values.
His main followers were Europeans and Americans. He left India and established his ashram
in America in 1981. Rajneesh was a god on earth to his devotees. He was self-made, self-taught
and self-created. In his life he created much controversy through his teachings and deeds.
Rajneesh, though being a great philosopher, was a failure in India. He remained with a bunch of
people who were his disciples.

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His Method Of Meditation
The most essential part of his teaching is the teaching on meditation. There are four stages in
his meditation, each lasting for 10 minuets.
a. The first stage is to take deep breathing while standing. This will awaken
the spiritual energy within one person.
b. Second stage is outlet. Comes out, in whatever way a person want to
express himself may do it. Dance, sing, and moving etc.
c. The third stage is calming down. Brings down the emotion, come to
peace. The person also repeats a mantra, hoo-hoo-hoo. In this stage the person’s inner energy is
awakened.
d. The fourth stage is becoming silent. This stage is very gradual. The person
goes deep and deep inside and has the experience of joy and peace, which is the original joy. This
is the stage of enlightenment or ‘samadhi.’
The previous stages are much important to the beginners but those have repeatedly done the
‘sadhana’ may come to the fourth stage very quickly. Some may stay in the fourth stage
temporarily. For some it is a long duration. In this stage the ego completely disappears. Rajneesh
says, “one in this stage simply becomes love (not ‘loving’).”
His Teaching
Rajneesh did not want to continue in the old traditional labels. Even though he was born as a
Jain, he use to say, “I am neither Jain nor Hindu.” Rajneesh says, “I am not part of any tradition
but the beginning of a tradition.”
He rejects intellect as a valid source of Knowledge (of God or of salvation). His
enlightenment comes from Zen Buddhism (Japanese Buddhism).
His view of sex and mysticism is a combination of tantrism and modern psychology. He also
uses the teachings of Mahavir Swami, Buddha, and Christ from time to time. He also makes use
of the emotional being of man.
For Rajneesh sexuality and spirituality are two ends of same energy because in sexuality
there comes a point where a person knows nothing else but knows only joy. So also in spirituality
the person forgets about himself and only experiences joy. In both the stages the person knows
deeply his inner. He condemns pleasure negation discipline. He does not believe in the life of
suffering.
Rajneesh use to say, “I have come not to teach but to awaken you and to transform the
humanity.” He used to say that his previous birth was 700 years ago and in that birth also he was
a spiritual master. The spiritual master takes birth only out of compassion for others.

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D) MATA AMRITANANDA MAYI

Mata Amritananda Mayi (Mother of the Immortal Nectar) is one of India‘s much revered Gurus,
not only by the people of her homeland, Kerela, but also by millions, both within and outside the
country. Affectionately known as ‗Amma‘ this spiritual luminary, renowned for her service to
humanity, love of God, and concern for others, is the epitome of noble traits. Her mission is
based on a harmonious blend of modern science, technology and ancient wisdom. Mata
Amritananda Mayi Mission at Amritapuri is the residence and headquarters of the living legend
who attracts disciples from all over the world.

Early life: On Sept 27, 1953 a girl child was born at a fisherman‘s house in the Idamannel family
at Villivakku of Prayakadavu village in Quilon, Kerela and she was named Sudhamani
(Ambrosial Jewel). She was the 4th of the 13 children born to Sugunanandan and Damayanthi..
The circumstances surrounding Sudhamani‘s birth are intriguing. Her mother felt no labour
pains, and heard no cries of a newborn. The baby was born with dark blue, almost black skin.
She was born smiling and lay in padmasana, which is the lotus posture of hatha yoga, with her
fingers in chinmudra i.e., the tip of the thumb and forefinger touching to form a circle. Her
parents thought something was wrong with her because of her skin and went to doctors to try to
cure it but to no avail. Unfortunately, the infant‘s complexion was a matter of great displeasure to
her mother who, along with other members of the family, looked upon the child with great
disdain.

From the moment the girl was born, the family began noticing unusual signs. At six months, she
started to walk, and not long after that, was seen running. At age 2, she began reciting prayers in
praise of Lord Krishna, by 5 she lost herself in her prayers, and by 7 she would sing and dance
ecstatically in praise of Krishna. She grew up to be an obedient child, well loved by everyone.
Due to her virtuous qualities, everyone in the village called her Kunju (The Little One).

However, because of her dark colour, she was the subject of potential social stigma, not to
mention a possible difficulty in finding a suitable husband. She was often abused and beaten – a
situation which represented a society and world at large where people fretted over dowry and
marriage of the sometimes unwanted female babies. Sudhamani was exceptionally brilliant in her
studies. However, at the age of nine, while she was in the fourth grade, her chronically ailing
mother, who was suffering from rheumatism entrusted her with many of the household duties.
She patiently endured the hard work after her mother‘s health deteriorated due to repeated
pregnancies. Somehow she managed to pass the fourth grade. Thereafter, she was fully involved
in domestic chores and did household work till 11 P.M. When everybody was fast asleep, she
would sit in the small room which the family used as a temple, pouring out her heart to Krishna
through devotional singing.
She ultimately had to give up her education after passing the 4 th standard. At home her mother
became even more hot-tempered and cruel due to her ill-health, which was aggravated by the
work she had to do at home during Sudhamani‘s absence when she was sent to her
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grandmother‘s and uncle‘s home to work. But Sudhamani had no complaints with the callous
upbringing she was given. She said that from her mother, she learned perfectionism. She would
get beaten up even if there was a little rubbish left over in the courtyard after sweeping of if a
slight trace of dirt was found after the vessels were washed. Her elder brother was a terror, and
Sudhamani became the frequent victim of his hot temper.

Besides her exceptional brilliance, endearing and cheerful nature, exemplary devotion and
soulstirring songs, Sudhamani was known for her uncompromising compassion for the poor and
the needy. At a very young age she was acutely aware of the poverty and suffering in her village.
She was disturbed by the plight of the poor and sometimes she would steal food and bangles
from her family to give away to the poor and suffering. At other times she would keep on
pestering her father for money to be given to the needy.

Sudhamani‘s spiritual quest included long hours of meditating and devotional singing after she
finished with her daily routine works. Often her father or her brother would reprimand her when
she danced, sang and cried out for Krishna while others tried to sleep. Her parents were in
despair as to what to do with her whom they began to suspect was mentally ill. Later, when
Sudhamani was feeling unbearable grief because she hadn‘t seen god, she turned against the
whole world. She felt angry at nature and at times she would spit into her food. Sudhamani
became like a small child calling out, ―I want to see my mother!‖ Her craving for the Divine
Mother became extreme and her prayers incessant. She pleaded to the Mother to put an end to
her life is She was unwilling to come to her.

Enlightenment: A significant incident occurred in Sept 1975 that lifted a veil from her divinity.
One day, as Sudhamani was walking home, holding aloft a bundle of grass, she overheard the
final verses of the Srimad Bhagavatam from a neighbouring house. It is said that Sudhamani‘s
inner identification with Lord Krishna transformed even her features to the amazement of the
devotees gathered there.

Sudhamani felt a strong aversion for the material world. She would sit for long hours immersed
in meditation on the Divine Mother by the seaside in the silent hours of the night. Urged by an
inner voice, she had to leave the house and thenceforth lived outdoors. Raising her hands above
the head with tears rolling down her cheeks like a small child appealing to its mother, Sudhamani
would cry out, ‗Amma, Amma…have you left me here to die with longing for your vision?‖ One
day, Sudhamani heard an inner voice say: ―My child, I dwell in the heart of all beings and have
no fixed abode…‖ It was after this inner call that she started manifesting Devi Bhava, the mood
of the Divine Mother, in addition to the Krishna Bhava. During her Devi Sadhana, she was
generally aloof and uncommunicative. All her time was devoted to prayer and meditation. She
became more daring and even her facial expression changed. Her disciples renamed her
Amritanandamayi, since she was called Sudhamani and ‗sudha’ means ‗amritam’ or nectar.

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She became more and more involved with her spiritual pursuits, mingling with her devotees and
imparting them spiritual instructions. This marked the beginning of her spiritual mission. She
was henceforth addressed as Amma, and she gave darshan to the devotees as Devi. By the end of
1978, a group of well-educated young people, renouncing every worldly thing took refuge with
Amma in an attempt to serve humanity. They included an Australian woman Gayatri, and
another one, a native of Reunion Island. Amma‘s father now agreed to donate a small piece of
land for her cause. This marked the informal beginning of the ashrama. Initially, Amma was not
in favour of the idea of a formal ashrama. However, as the flow of disciples and devotees
increased, it became a necessity. Thus, on 6 May 1981, with a view to preserve and propagate the
ideals and teachings of Amma, the Mata Amritanandamayi Mission was founded and registered.

Teachings: Amma expresses profound truth in a simple, motherly way. She teaches through
experience. Though speaking only Malayalam, her native tongue, the multi-racial and
multireligious composition of her followers is a proof of her extraordinary calibre.

a) God: Amma teaches that God is simple. He places no conditions, and has no limits. He
gives unconditionally. He is love and that love is constant, uninterrupted and an unbreakable
flow. She also says that sorrow is the real guru that will take us closer to God. Love alone lends
attraction and beauty to actions. To know God is to love Him.

The knowledge that teaches us to how to live and how to lead a satisfied life in the face of
obstacles, is the spiritual knowledge, the mind‘s knowledge. Only by striving for self-realization
can we enjoy everlasting bliss. Amma calls for sraddha or awareness and attention for the work
at hand which is an admirable quality of a spiritual aspirant. If we take refuge in God, He will
meet both our spiritual and material needs. Devotion to God will bring prosperity to us, to our
families and to the society.

b) Guruhood: Amma is considered to be the Satguru or Supreme Guru who speaks directly
from the state of Oneness. She has initiated many educated youths, both male and female into
sannyas or monkhood and defined their monkhood as a life of service to others. Although
receiving no formal guidance or initiation into the spiritual life by a guru, she explains the
intricate philosophies of the scriptures without having studied them. By defining sannyas as a life
of selfless service, she has brought alive the ideals of the ancient Vedic tradition. Though she had
no formal education beyond 4th standard, she communicates the truth transcending the barrier of
language.

c) Motherhood and dowry system: She maintains celibacy but she has become known as the
mother for many. People pour out their woes to her and get consoled. She shares her boundless
love with all, young or old, sick and the poor, everyone who comes to her receives the same
unconditional love. At the root of all the social services undertaken lies her teaching that the
Divine exists in every person, plant and animal. Perceiving this unity is the essence of spirituality
and the means by which to end all sufferings.

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Decrying the widespread practice of dowry system, her movement has made a resolve not to give
or take dowry. They also wanted the outdated Indian penal system to be changed to suit the
social needs of today. They speak on empowering women through universal motherhood, extol
the virtues of motherhood, which according to them is the noblest of ideals. ―Motherhood is not
a weakness, it needs to be awakened.‖

d) Temple: The inner shrine of Amma‘s temple, the ‗Brahmasthanam‘ (the abode of the
Absolute Brahman) has a single block of stone with the images of four deities on its four sides,
symbolizing the essential unity in the diverse forms worshipped as God in the Indian tradition.
Women priests consecrated by Amma are allowed to serve in the temples. She has devised a
special kind of communal worship where the devotee, rather than the priest, is able to make
offerings to God personally.

e) Chanting (Japa): Japa is the vocal and mental repetition of the divine name or sound or
mantra. Amma says that the purpose of japa is to lead us to the ultimate silence of the Self, from
where all sounds and forms arise. Further, in the present age of materialism, chanting the mantra
or japa, is the easiest way for us to obtain inner purification and concentration. Japa can be done
at anytime, anywhere without observing any rule regarding the purity of mind and body. It can be
done while engaged in any task. Since modern day diseases are mostly psychosomatic, Japa will
bestow good health to both mind and body.

Constantly repeating God‘s name will diminish the ego. Love will spring through japa if one has
complete faith and intent to reach the goal and done with the proper understanding of this
principle, it will ultimately take us to the Source. At this point, the seeker realizes that the form
he has been meditating on, as well as all the other forms that exist within himself, are the
manifestations of the Self.

f) Meditation: It is not simply sitting with eyes closed. It is a state of unbroken

concentration like an endless stream. Amma says that we should give up the idea about becoming
more spiritual as that very thought can sometimes be a hindrance. First, we must prepare the area
where we will meditate. As the mind becomes more clearer in meditation, we also become more
relaxed and filled with inner peace.

g) Kundalini Shakti: Amma teaches that there is a Ganges or holy river within us, which
has the power to purify our mind.

Social Services: Amriteswari Society organizes social services wherever it is needed and
possible. Pelangi Home established in 1984 is a welfare home for destitutes. Sembawang
Halfway centre is a place of rehabilitation of drug addicts. At Amritapuri Ashram, a Vedanta
Vidyalayam or school has been established. Since 1987, Amma has been constructing houses
every year for the benefit of the poor who live around the Ashram. In 1996 she inaugurated a

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huge project called Amritakuteeram with a goal to construct 1 lakh houses in different parts of
India. Amrita Niketanam is set up to care for orphans and Anbu Illam for the aged.

The Mata Amritanandamayi Math has 300 small centres in all districts of Kerela, over a 100 in
other states, and over 25 large centres around the world. Though the Math concentrates on
welfare projects in India, it has initiated several abroad, like playschools for children, and centres
which distribute free food and clothing to the poor. Already 30,000 homes have been constructed
in Maharashtra and Rajasthan for the poor. The Math feeds about 50,000 poor people each
month, and regularly provides clothing for the needy. Tribal schools have been set up in Kerela‘s
Idukki and Wayanad district, and there are reputed medical, engineering colleges, schools and
hospitals in Amma‘s name.

The 800-bed Amritanandamayi Institute of Medical Sciences (AIMS) has state-of-the-art

facilities, catering to both the rich and the poor. Her ashram at Amritapuri houses 3,000 devotees
at a time, but it is still not big enough to host all her devotees from around the world. There is
even a special train Amrita Express, for her devotees. Future projects include an AIDS hospice,
mass marriages for the poor, rehabilitating prostitutes in Kolkata and setting up of a free legal
cell with 1008 lawyers serving the needy.

In 1993, Amritanandamayi was one of the 3 people who represented Hinduism at the Parliament
of the World‘s Religions in Chicago. In 2002, she won the Gandhi-King Award for
NonViolence; earlier recipients included Nelson Mandela and former UN Secretary-General Kofi
Annan. Her ashram figures at the top of the list of charities receiving donations from abroad. In
1998-99, for instance the ashram is said to have received more than 50 crores.

Amritanandamayi‘s spiritual power is a simple, warm hug. She usually follows her hug with a
kiss on the forehead or cheek, a gentle stroking of the hands/back/cheek chin and some
reassuring words. Sometimes she gifts people a candy or an apple. As she retires to her room,
some of her devotees would crouch and kiss the spot where she sat, to capture some of her grace.
Amma‘s darshan certainly has an effect on her devotees. Some cry, some laugh, others just go
and meditate after that, some say they feel highly energetic while some others are just happy
getting hugged. Others find in her a love that seems all-encompassing. To some she;s
miraculous, they narrate how their loved ones with disease considered incurable, were
miraculously cured when they were taken to Amma. To others, she is a mystery. No one has
counted, but a popular estimate is that she would have hugged more than 2 crore people.
Sometimes there have been time when she has hugged over 20,000 people at a stretch in 20hours
sessions.

Evaluation: Amritanandamayi had to face the wrath of rationalists in the beginning, although
criticisms have become less now, there are still some who find fault with her. Certain
intellectuals have also pointed fingers. Sreeni Pattathanam, head of the Indian Rationalist

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Association in 1985 published a book in Malayalam entitled ―Sacred Stories and Realities of
Mata Amritanandamayi,‖ in which he claimed that the ―miracles‖ of Amma had been falsified.
He also alleged that there had been many suspicious deaths in and around her ashram that
required police investigation. In 2013, Gail Tredwell, a former disciple, self-published a memoir
of her 1980-99 tenure in Amma‘s ashram. She made certain allegations which included the claim
that Tredwell was physically assaulted by Amma, but these have not been substantiated.
Criticisms have also been levelled regarding the source of foreign aid received by Amma and
demanding investigation of its utilisation.

Furthermore, whether in politics or religion, personality cult is not a healthy practice. It becomes
a lower cultural indicator of the followers and affects their critical intelligence as well. Besides, it
spirituality is a connection between human being and Divine, there is absolutely no need to have
an intermediary. The sadguru tradition in Hindu culture also draws the line somewhere and gurus
like Ramana Maharishi never allowed people to worship him.

However, it is in fact, a splendid contribution of Amma to help women get rid of inferiority
complex and undervaluation. She is indeed a great inspiration to many. Her selfless social service
is a replica of her beautiful inner consciousness and her effort for the poor and the downtrodden,
the marginalised and the excluded deserve praise. Her efforts in raising over 100 crores of rupees
for the Tsunami affected people in South India is also worthy of all appreciation.

e. Sri Sri Ravi Shankar

Sri Sri Ravi Shankar is a humanitarian leader, a spiritual teacher, and an ambassador of peace.
His vision of a stress-free, violence-free society has united millions of people the world over
through service projects and the courses of The Art of Living.

Early Life: Sri Sri Ravi Shankar was born on 13 May 1956 to Venkatratnam and Vishatakshi at
Papanasam in Tamil Nadu. Venkatratnam was well versed in Sanskrit, Tamil and English and
was a devout social worker besides being spiritually oriented. He worked for the upliftment of
poor girls through his Trust which included a school and a vocational training unit. Ravi
Shankar‘s mother was a devout woman who kept herself busy with puja and visiting temples. His
father, who dabbled in astrology, often predicted that he would be very special. As the village
was famous for its Shiva and Vishnu temples, the parents named the boy Ravi Shankar
Narayana, Shankar and Narayana being the names of Shiva and Vishnu respectively.

From his early years, there were certain events which indicated that the child was special. For
instance, once he was seated on a large swing which was hanging from four iron chains. All of a
sudden, the chains broke and the swing fell down. Miraculously, Ravishankar remained
unharmed. At the age of 3 he was sent to a teacher, who wanted to begin his lessons with a
shloka from the Bhagavad Gita. Incredibly, the young Ravi Shankar completed the shloka for his
teacher, surprising her with his knowledge. At the age of 4, little Ravishankar was discovered

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chanting shlokas from the Bhagavad Gita. He skipped sports lessons in school, but had mastered
the Rig Veda by the time he was 9. When he was in the 8 th standard, students from the 10th
standard would come to him for advice. People liked and enjoyed his company even when he
was an adolescent. His creative faculties were also quite enhanced right from his childhood and
he would write poems and direct plays.

One day, he watched his father performing puja and wanted to know all about it. His father gave
him a photo of Meenakshi, the consort of Shiva and he unquestioningly accepted her as his
personal God. He would not eat anything before offering it to his personal God. Unable to
pronounce Meenakshi, he called her Vicchini.

Enlightenment: Ravi Shankar graduated from St. Joseph‘s College, Bangalore University with a
degree in Science. After completing his graduation, he came into contact with a number of
renowned masters and intellectuals. One such person was Maharishi Mahesh Yogi, who wanted
to take the budding seeker and scholar to Rishikesh. This, however, led to a lot of discontent in
the family since he had been offered the position of a manager in a bank and his family wanted
him to take up the job. After an internal debate, the spiritual quest in Ravi Shankar got the better
of him amidst a barrage of protests and he first went to Rishikesh, then overseas, where he
completed his Ph.D in Vedas and science and spent a lot of his time travelling.

In 1982, Ravi Shankar observed 10 days of silence, speaking to no one. In his own words, he felt
that something was ‗coming up‘. It is said that the sudarshan kriya was revealed to him around
this time. It is also said that this is the definitive period of Sri Sri Ravi Shankar‘s enlightenment
and the birth of ‗Art of Living‘.

Art of Living: In 1982, Sri Sri Ravi Shankar presented to the world a new gift for humanity – the
sudarshan kriya, which is a unique breathing process to eliminate stress from the body by
flushing out the negative toxins and flooding each cell in the body with new life. The Art of
Living Foundation was established on the outskirts of Bangalore, with its first course being held
in Shimoga. It was a unique experience in which Ravi Shankar communicated with the
participants without speaking a word. When he began to speak, many felt that they had already
heard what he had to say. In course of time, these courses became more structured and its
teachers were groomed to carry this knowledge all over the world. Since then, many more
courses have been added. But the message of love remains the same. The Art of Living is an
international, non-profit, educational and humanitarian organization. It‘s educational and
selfdevelopment programs offer powerful tools to eliminate stress and foster a sense of well-
being. Appealing not only to a specific population, these practices have proven effective globally
and at all levels of society.

Philosophy and teachings:

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Spirituality: Shankar teaches that spirituality is that which enhances human values such as love,
compassion and enthusiasm. It is not limited to any one religion or culture. Hence it is open to all
people. He feels the spiritual bond we share as part of the human family is more prominent than
nationality, gender, religion, profession, or other identities that separate us.

In Shankar's view, ―Violence-free society, disease-free body, quiver-free breath, confusion-free

mind, inhibition-free intellect, trauma-free memory, and sorrow-free soul is the birthright of
every human being.‖ Spirituality is the food of every human being. Since we are made up of both
matter and spirit, anything that uplifts one‘s spirit, enthusiasm and joy is spirituality. It is the lack
of spirituality that leads to violence in society and to suicidal tendencies. Ravi Shankar refuses to
endorse religious fanaticism, labelling it as distinct from spirituality.

According to him, science and spirituality are linked and compatible, both springing from the
urge to know. The question, ―Who am I?‖ leads to spirituality; the question, ―What is this?‖
leads to science. Emphasizing that joy is only available in the present moment, his stated vision
is to create a world free of stress and violence. His programs are said to offer practical tools to
help accomplish this. He sees breath as the link between body and mind, and a tool to relax the
mind, emphasising the importance of both meditation/spiritual practice and service to others. In
his view, ―Truth is spherical rather than linear; so it has to be contradictory.‖

Sudarshan Kriya: Sudarshan Kriya is a breathing-based technique that is a core component of the
Art of Living courses and ―the cornerstone of . . . Art of Living Foundation's trauma relief
programs‖. It involves Ujjayi breathing and bhastrika in vajrasana followed by rhythmic
breathing in sukhasana.

It is claimed that both sudarshan kriya and pranayama have been researched in the National
Institute of Mental Health and Neuro Sciences (NIMHANS), Bangalore, where they have been
found to work wonders for 70-80% of patients suffering from severe depression.

Universal Love: According to Ravi Shankar, our true nature is love and love infuses the whole
creation. Once we rid ourselves of stress, we realise our true nature. Knowledge is the means to
become ‗hollow and empty‘, to get rid of all the impressions one has accumulated over one‘s
lifetime. These impressions cloud the mind, hence, the confusion and lack of clarity. Once one
has attained this state of inner emptiness – the natural self – one can experience for oneself the
dynamic oneness of creations, whose very nature, like our own, is love. Responsibility to our
fellow human beings is not to be taught, it is an intrinsic part of universal love. This appears to
be the core of Ravi Shankar‘s teachings.

Peace and humanitarian work: Sri Sri Ravi Shankar has been on a goodwill mission to
Pakistan in 2004 and again in 2012 when he inaugurated Art of Living centers in Islamabad and
Karachi. During his visits to Iraq in 2007 and 2008, he met with political and religious leaders to

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promote global peace. Ravi Shankar was also instrumental in brokering peace between the
Colombian government and the guerrilla movement FARC during his visit to Cuba in 2015. In
November 2016, the South Asian Forum for Peace was launched at a conference titled
―Kashmir Back to Paradise‖ in Jammu. This forum would bring together 8 South Asian
countries to cooperate and work in areas such as entrepreneurship, skill development, cultural
exchange, educational partnerships and women empowerment initiatives among others.

68 militants from 11 militant outfits surrendered to the government in Manipur on the eve of
India's 71st Independence Day in August 2017. The Chief Minister of Manipur, N. Biren Singh,
lauded Ravi Shankar for his efforts in making this happen & ―bringing peace in troubled areas‖.
Ravi Shankar's organization has been working in Manipur for the last 15 years. In September
2017, at the ―Strength in Diversity - North East Indigenous People‘s Conference‖, Ravi Shankar
claimed that another 500 militants were waiting to ―lay down weapons and join the peace
process‖. The conference was attended by representatives from 67 rebel outfits from the
Northeast. Expressing his willingness to facilitate the peaceful transition of any rebel group
wanting to join the mainstream, Ravi Shankar claimed that his organization has been working for
this for the last 10-12 years and ―will continue to work until the last gun is laid down‖.

Ravi Shankar is also involved in interfaith dialogue and currently sits on the Board of World
Religious Leaders for the Elijah Interfaith Institute. Through interfaith summits in 2008 and
2010, he has been engaging faith-based leaders for collective action against HIV. In July 2013 at
a meeting in UNAIDS headquarters in Geneva, issues including HIV prevention, gender based
violence, stigma and discrimination were discussed.

In 1992, Ravi Shankar also launched the Prison SMART Foundation (Stress Management and
Rehabilitative Training) to address the needs of individuals and professionals affected by the
criminal justice system. Programmes are offered to prison inmates, at-risk youth and victims of
crime and criminal justice professionals.

His volunteers assisted the 2004 tsunami victims, Hurricane Katrina victims, in Haiti, and many
other regions of conflict and natural disaster.

Social Initiatives:

IAHV: In 1997, he also founded the International Association for Human Values (IAHV) an
NGO which is based in Geneva to coordinate sustainable development projects, nurture human
values and coordinate conflict resolution in association with The Art of Living. In India, Africa
and South America, the two sister organizations‘ volunteers are spearheading sustainable growth
in rural communities, and have already reached out to 40,212 villages.

Volunteer for a Better India: VFABI is involved in many activities, including protest against the
2012 Delhi gang rape case, free health camps, and voter awareness and registrations in India.

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“NONVIO” Movement: NONVIO was launched as a nationwide movement by Shankar's
foundation in March 2013 with the aim of eliminating violence. It encourages individuals to
pledge one act of non-violence through different social and online media and adopt nonviolent
principles in government, public health, and media.
India Against Corruption: He was involved in the movement demanding a strong lokpal bill and
was also one of the founders of the ―India Against Corruption‖ movement.

World Forum for Ethics in Business: In 2003, he initiated the Ethics in Business - Corporate
Culture & Spirituality dialogue with an aim of strengthening human values and ethics in
business. This evolved later on in the formation of the World Forum for Ethics in Business which
convenes international conferences on ethics. World Summit on Ethics in Sports, a oneday event
held in September 2014 at the FIFA headquarters in Zurich, focused on ―morality and
openness‖ in sports.

Sri Sri University: Sri Sri University in Odisha was established in 2009 on the initiative of Sri
Sri Ravi Shankar. The school won a Best Innovative University Award at the 2017 National
Education Excellence Awards.

Awards: Numerous honors have been bestowed upon Ravi Shankar, including the highest
civilian awards of Colombia, Peru, Mongolia and Paraguay. He is the recipient of the Padma
Vibhushan, India‘s second highest annual civilian award and has also been conferred with 15
honorary doctorates from around the world, and many other awards. In 2009, Shankar was
named by Forbes Magazine as the 5th most powerful leader in India.

Criticisms: Numerous criticisms have been levelled against Ravi Shankar and his Art of Living.
Many people who have been involved with Art of Living have alleged that it is an organization
which shares many features with what many people refer to as cults, and that it employs what
many refer to as brainwashing.

Criticisms have also been levelled against the safety of the Sudarshan Kriya, the breathing
technique which is the center-piece of Art of Living‘s Basic Course.. Some of the specific claims
that Art of Living has made about Sudarshan Kriya include that it can cure cancer and AIDS, be
used as a treatment for drug addiction, treat depression, improve sleep, improve focus and
concentration, and that it is effective in reducing stress. It is claimed that although Art of Living
take pride in flaunting the various alleged benefits of Kriya, they do very little if anything to
warn prospective practitioners of any of the risks associated with practicing the technique. In
fact, not only do they not warn participants that they may experience adverse side effects, they
actually go so far as to deny that these side effects even exist. hundreds of comments left by
those who have practiced Sudarshan Kriya and who have reported that they suffered various
ailments including headaches, dizziness, lightheadedness, nausea, fatigue, abnormal changes in
blood pressure and blood-sugar levels, development of various allergies, uncontrollable muscle
spasms, and feeling faint to name but a few.

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With regards to the surrender of militants in Manipur in 2017, the press release – or Shankar
himself – did not quite elaborate what exactly was the ―major role‖ of Ravi Shankar or Art of
Living was in bringing the hardened militants back to the mainstream. Or, for that matter, how
the organisation had managed to convince these militants from the Meitei groups. The CorCom –
as the joint coordination committee of the Kangleipak Communist Party, Peoples‘ Revolutionary
Party of Kangleipak, Peoples‘ Revolutionary Party of Kangleipak (Progressive) and United
National Liberation Front is known – refuted the claims of the government, calling the surrenders
a ―drama‖. In a press statement, the committee claimed that most people who had turned up for
the surrender ceremony had long left their respective organisations and had been working on the
orders of the security forces and had been ―randomly gathered and presented to the public in a
fresh avatar‖. But the scepticism about the surrenders – among the media, Manipur residents and
even some in the government – does not stem from the CorCom‘s denial, which was perhaps
only natural. The size of the cache of arms supposedly recovered from such a large group of
militants was underwhelming. A total of eight arms were recovered from the 68 militants: three
AK series rifles, one Lethode gun, and four pistols.

Unit V: Religio-Political and Secular Movements

1. Jamaat-e-Islami Hind

Jamaat-e-Islami is an Islamic organisation in India, founded as an offshoot of the Jamaat-eIslami,

which split into separate independent organisations in India, Pakistan, Bangladesh and Jammu &
Kashmir following the Partition of India in [Link] formed on 26 August 1941 at Lahore under
the leadership of Sayyid Abul Ala Maududi. After the Partition members of the organisation
remaining in what became the Republic of India, re-organised themselves to form an independent
party, having its own Constitution and separate leadership and organisational structure from
Jamaat-e-Islami, Pakistan. Although India was a Hindu-majority country, and beset by at times
violent Hindu-Muslim sectarianism, Maududi believed that there was ―at least a 60 per cent
chance for Islam‘s success‖ in India - Islam as a complete way of life, devoid of nationalism,
socialism, liberalism or any other non-Islamic ideologies.

The Indian Jamaat-e-Islami came into being in April 1948 at Allahabad and was officially called
―Jamaat-e-Islami Hind‖. 240 members attended the first meeting and elected Maulana Abul Lais
Nadvi as their Amir (leader), and established their Headquarters at Malihabad, Lucknow, U.P. In
1960, it was shifted to New Delhi.

Jamaat-e-Islami Hind then underwent a process of reorganisation, reframing its Constitution and
written policy. The new constitution came into effect on 13 April 1956. The organisation held an
All-India Meet at Rampur (U.P) in 1951 followed by meetings at Hyderabad (1952) Delhi(1960),
Hyderabad(1967), Delhi(1974), Hyderabad(1981), Hyderabad (1997) and Delhi (2002). It has
also held regional conferences on various occasions in different parts of the country. The state
chapters of the organisation also hold separate conferences at regular intervals.
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The organisation was banned twice by the Government of India during its six decades of
existence, the first temporarily during the Emergency of 1975–1977 and then in 1992. While the
first was revoked after the Emergency was lifted, the second was reversed by the Supreme Court
of India. Issuing its judgement on the ban it remarked about the organisation: as ―an All India
organisation professing a political, secular and spiritual credentials with belief in the oneness of
God and universal brotherhood‖.

Aims & Objectives: Officially, the organisation describes its objective as ―Iqaamat-e-Deen‖ or
―Establishment of (Islamic) way of life in all aspects of life‖ with ―achievement of divine
pleasure and success in the Hereafter‖ as the sole motive of the effort. It also defines it core
doctrine as ―La Ilaha Illallahu Muhammadur Rasulullah‖ (There is no God but Allah and
Muhammad is His Prophet). It also states that the Quran and Sunnah would be its base, and all
objectives would be achieved only through constructive and peaceful methods of propagation.
Furthermore, it states that in all its actions, Jamaat shall be bound by moral limits, and shall
never adopt any means which is against truth and honesty or communal harmony. It shall adopt
constructive and peaceful methods for a righteous revolution.

Jamaat Philosophy: The essence of Jamaat‘s idealogy can be summarized thus:

a) Outlook on Humankind and Universe: Islam is the ideology of Jamaat. It teaches a three-fold
concept: unity and sovereignty of God, the prophethood, and the life after death. From these are
derived its outlook on humankind: unity of all humankind, the purposiveness of human‘s life and
the universality of the way of life. Unity of humankind is possible since all human beings are
Adam‘s children, hence brethren, and equal subjects and servants of God. There is no superiority
in face and blood. There is life after death. On resurrection day, human has to appear before God
and render an account of their conduct in this world. They will be either rewarded or punished.
The purpose of human life is to so live this earthly life that it leads to the good of the hereafter.

Unity and Sovereignty of God: This world and everything in it has been created by one God. He
is the creator and sustainer of life. He is the ruler and sovereign. He gives laws to humankind
through prophets in order to regulate humankind‘s activities. Humankind‘s duty is to live life
according to God‘s law and render allegiance to Him.

Prophethood: Human‘s most urgent need is guidance. For this purpose, God has sent prophets to
instruct humankind in the true way of life. All prophets have given the same message. The last
messenger is Muhammad.

Universality of the Islamic Way of Life: Islam is a religion for all humankind. It is through
faithful acceptance of the message and the sincere adherence to it in practice that a person
becomes a true Muslim. The Islamic conception of religion is concerned with all the aspects of
human life – moral, spiritual, secular and mundane.

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Social Activity: The Social Service Wing of the Jamaat coordinates with various NGOs in India
under the umbrella of the Human Welfare Trust (HWT) like the Ideal Relief Wing (IRW),
Islamic Relief Committee (IRC) and Tamil Nadu Relief Committee (TNRC). The IRW was an
active participant in the rescue efforts during the Kashmir earthquake and also played important
roles in the relief efforts in the aftermath of the Asian tsunami and the 2008 Mumbai attacks. The
TNRC built 38 houses for victims of the Asian tsunami in Tamil Nadu at a total cost of Rs 12.5
million. It also built 160 permanent houses at Nagore, Pudupattinam and Kottakuppam and
provided livelihood assistance to hundreds of families in those areas.

The Islamic Relief Committee Gujarat played a major role in rehabilitation of the people of
Gujarat in the aftermath of the Gujarat riots and the Gujarat earthquake. It spent almost Rs 40
million for victims of the riots, building 1,321 new homes and repairing 4,946 damaged ones. It
allocated another 40 million Rupees for the victims of the Gujarat earthquake. It also led the
legal proceedings against the accused in the aftermath of the riots.

Association for Protection of Civil Rights (APCR), an NGO for legal activities backed by the
Jamaat works for legal action against human rights violations especially for backward
communities and minorities. It has worked along with other NGOs like the PUCL and ANHAD
(Act Now for Harmony And Democracy) in contesting the official version of the encounter
killings at Batla House, Jamia Nagar in Delhi on 19 September 2008. It has also opposed armed
confrontation as a solution to the Maoist insurgency in parts of India.

Work Among Women: The organisation has had active participation from the women of the
community through its women's wing and its feeder organisation, the Girls Islamic Organisation
of India. In February 2006, its Andhra Pradesh wing organised a two-days State Women‘s
conference, the first of its kind at Hyderabad drawing more than 30,000 Muslim women.
Speakers at the event emphasised the rights and privileges of women pertaining to education and
employment within the framework of Islam and condemned practices like dowry as
―unislamic‖. In January 2010, the women's wing in the state of Kerala organised its State
Women's Conference. The conference was inaugurated over video-conferencing by Yvonne
Ridley as she was denied a visa by the government of India. The conference issued resolutions
calling for reforms in Muslim Personal Law, action against dowry and reclaim of family values.

Work Among Students: Jamaat organizes separate circles of boys and girls almost in all states
of India for their religious, moral and social improvement, and gives moral support to Muslim
students and youth movements.

Developmental Activities: Jamaat is keenly interested in bettering the standard of living of the
people, economically and socially. Primary importance is given to the growth of moral and
ethical awareness. They co-operate in all developmental activities which are not contrary to
Islamic law.

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Politics: They believe in the sovereignty of God, vice regency of humankind, and supremacy of
God‘s law. They do not take part in parliament since the majority of the citizens in India do not
accept divine guidance. However, they do not rule out participation. There is deep patriotism
among its members and teach national solidarity as all are children of Adam. They claim that
they uphold the democratic character of India and dislike the trends towards totalitarianism and
dictatorship. Jamaat supports secularism and wants the secularist government in India to
continue. However, secularism should be the policy only at the state level, so that the people are
not irreligious. They do not believe in the Secularism of the West.

On 18 April 2011, Jamaat facilitated the launch of a national political party Welfare Party of
India, under a leadership that included top functionaries of the organisation and members from
the wider Muslim community and outside, including a Christian priest.

Communal Harmony: The Jamaat still gives top priority to the removal of communal distrust.
They counsel the Muslims to have restraint when there are provocations. The Muslims who
remained in India after the partition were totally demoralized due to the partition, Jamaat restored
confidence in them. The organisation condemned all incidents of bomb blasts and disruptive acts
in various parts of the country and demanded an ―impartial and honest probe into all such
incidents‖ and formation of ―a sensible and effective strategy to check such incidents‖. It has
also voiced its concern on what it sees as a prejudiced approach by the authorities and the media
to blame the Muslim community in the immediate aftermath of such incidents.

The Central Advisory Council of the Jamaat-e-Islami Hind adopted a resolution on 9 November
2001, condemning global terrorism, saying that some people having immoderate sentiments
associate terrorism with religion while religion strictly opposes it. As for Islam, killing an
innocent person is tantamount to killing all human being and saving the life of a person is saving
the entire human folk.

On the issue of communalism and riots, Jamaat has been in the fore front of opposing any sort of
imposition of particular religion, culture and language on others by force. It has often said that,
creating animosity, hatred in the name of religion among different groups is not acceptable. It has
also laid stress on the importance of freedom of faith and religion and would oppose any
legislations which violate this freedom.

Evaluation: To sum up, we can say that the Jamaat-e-Islami Hind firmly believes that Islam
which has been the religion of humanity, is eminently suited to resolve our present problems and
to lead a life of real happiness in this world and the hereafter. The Jamaat has been involved in
many activities for the upliftment of society and their contribution in relief and rehabilitation
works has also been commendable. Their stand on communal harmony and riots are also much
appreciable.

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However, the very philosophy that Islam is the answer to all the problems exhibits the
exclusivistic attitude of the Jamaat-e-Islami Hind. They are at heart a true Islamic organization
whose ultimate aim is to establish a society based on the teachings of the Qur‘an and the Sharia.

2. Sarvodaya and Bhoodan Movement

1. Sarvodaya Movement: Sarvodaya is a term meaning ‗Universal Uplift‘ or ‗Progress of All‘.

‗Sarvodaya‘, the word, in ancient literature, might have been used in some context, but its use as
a definitive philosophy is only 100 years old. This word took shape in Gandhi‘s mind in 1904
when he read Ruskin‘s book ‗Unto This Last‘, but the word took concrete shape in 1908 when
Gandhi translated the gist of this book in Gujarati. The translation is an example of Gandhi‘s
literary acumen. The title of Ruskin‘s book was taken from a Biblical story ‗Unto This Last‘,
which means that even the last person should get an equal share. In those days, the concept of
‗Greatest good of greatest number‘ was in vogue. But Gandhi said that Sarvodaya meant the rise
of all, and it was not merely the greatest good of the greatest number or of the last person
standing in the queue. From then on, the ideology of Sarvodaya got firmly established in social
discourses. The detailed explanation of the meaning of Sarvodaya can be found in ‗Hind Swaraj‘
that was written by Gandhi in 1909. Gandhi advances the concept of Sarvodaya, which were
based on three basic principles:

• That the good of the individual is contained in the good of all.

• That a lawyer‘s work has the same value as the barber‘s in as much as all have the same
right of earning their livelihood from their work.
• That is a life of labour, i.e., the life of the tiller of the soil and the handicraftsman is the
life worth living.

―The first of these I knew. The second I had dimly realized. The third have never occurred to
me.
‘Unto This Last’ made it clear as daylight for me that the second and third were contained in the
first. I arose with the dawn, ready to reduce these principal to practice.‖

Sarvodaya Movement in India: The Sarvodaya Movement originated in India in the early
1920s and it was an extension of the work which Gandhi had originally started in the name of
constructive programme. According to Ostergaard, the Sarvodaya Movement in India represents
an attempt to apply to the task of social reconstruction the ideas originally developed by
Mahatma Gandhi. Sarvodaya Movement is a people‘s movement to carry forward the ideas and
programmes sponsored by Gandhi for the welfare of all and the awakening of all.

The foundations of the Sarvodaya Movement have been firmly laid by Gandhi based on the
principles of truth, non-violence and love, all of which have eternal value. Gandhi‘s concept of
Sarvodaya emphasizes the survival and development of all. ―It contains various concepts like

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Satya, ahimsa, decentralization, antyodaya, small but face to face communities, dignity of labour,
and bread labour, limitation of wants, simple life in tune with nature etc.

The goal of Sarvodaya to say in simple terms, is to establish a peaceful society, where there will
be no exploitation of any kind, economic, social, political or cultural. In such a society every
individual, big or small, rich or poor, weak or strong will have equal opportunities for all-round
development. This is what Sarvodaya means, ‗welfare of all‘. The Sarvodaya concept also
specifies that for achieving good ends, only good means should be adopted. Good means the path
of love, truth and non-violence.
Gandhi's ideals have lasted well beyond the achievement of one of his chief projects, Indian
independence (Swaraj). His followers in India (notably, Vinoba Bhave) continued working to
promote the kind of society that he envisioned, and their efforts have come to be known as the
Sarvodaya Movement. Anima Bose has referred to the movement's philosophy as ―a fuller and
richer concept of people's democracy than any we have yet known.‖ Sarvodaya workers
associated with Vinoba, J. P. Narayan, Dada Dharmadhikari, Dhirendra Mazumdaar, Shankarrao
Deo, K. G. Mashruwala undertook various projects aimed at encouraging popular
selforganization during the 1950s and 1960s, including Bhoodan and Gramdan movements.
Many groups descended from these networks continue to function locally in India today.

Objectives of Sarvodaya Movement: The Sarvodaya Movement has as its target the
establishment of a whole network of such self-supporting village communities. The family
relationships which are confined at present to the blood group will be extended to cover the
whole village where distinctions based on race, creed, caste, language and so forth will
completely be eliminated. Agriculture will be so planned that all the people will have enough to
consume. Industry will be conducted on a cottage basis till all the people in the village are
gainfully employed. The needs of the village will be determined by the people of the village
themselves, through Village Council, representative of the whole village.

Principles of the Sarvodaya:

a) There is no centralized authority, and there is political and economic atmosphere in the
villages.
b) Politics will not be the instrument of power but an agency of service and Rajnity will
yield place to Loknity.
c) All people will be imbued with the spirit of love, fraternity, truth, non-violence and
selfsacrifices. Society will function on the basis on the non-violence.
d) There will be no party system and majority rule and society will be free from the evil of
the tyranny of the majority.
e) The Sarvodaya society is socialist in the true sense of the term. All calling will be the
same moral, social and economical values. The individual personality has the fullest
scope for development.

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 f) The Sarvodaya society is based on equality and liberty. There is no room in it for
unwholesome some competition, exploitation and class-hatred.
g) Sarvodaya stands for the progress of the all. All individual should do individual labour
and follow the ideal of non possession. Then it will be possible to realize the goal of:
from each according to his work and to each according to his needs.
h) There will be no private property, the instrument of exploitation and the source of social
distinctions and hatred. Similarly, the profit motive will disappear, rent and interest to
will go.
i) The Sarvodaya Movement is based on Truth, Non-violence and Self-denial.
j) The Sarvodaya Movement makes a sincere and bold attempt to create the necessary
atmosphere to bring together such individuals with an unwavering faith in the Welfare of
All
k) The gain to the individual would be small. The development of each quality depends
upon every other. If all the qualities are improved a little, then the individual would gain
more.

Sarvodaya Samaj: After Gandhi‘s death, a first conference of constructive workers was held in
March 1948. It was decided to form a rather loosely structured fellowship of Lok Sevaks
(servants of the people) called ‗Sarvodaya Samaj,‘ i.e., society for the welfare of all. This samaj
was expected to pursue the idea of uniting the various organizations of constructive Gandhian
work formed either during his lifetime or immediately after his death. These efforts, to
channelize the various societies with their sectarian potential into a kind of encompassing
structure which would give the Lok Sevaks at least a minimum of infrastructural backing
succeeded to a certain extent. Four organizations with specific target groups and fields of work
joined hands in the ―All India Association for the Welfare of All‖ (Akhil Bharat Sarva Seva
Sangh) estd in 1949.

Sarvodaya Samaj is merely an advisory body of the Sarvodaya Movement. It is not a political or
religious organization. The aim of Sarvodaya Samaj was to strive towards a society based on
truth and non-violence, in which there would be no distinction of caste or creed and no
opportunity for exploitation of the individuals or groups. The basic principle of this organization
was its insistence on the purity of the means.

Sarvodaya Conference: At the conference of constructive workers held in 1948, it was decided
that on invitation of the samaj, the Gandhians would meet once every year to exchange
experience and everyone would chalk out his future course of action in his own light. The first
Sarvodaya Sammelan (Conference) was held near Indore in 1949 and Sarva Seva Sangh, a loose
federation of the All India Constructive Work Organizations created by Gandhi, came into being.
In ensuing years conferences were held annually at several places. However, from the Nakodar
Sammelan (1972) onwards, slowly but steadily there appeared to be a division in the Sarvodaya
workers of radicals and moderates. Even though Gram Swaraj was the main topic of the

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Sarvodaya Sammelan at Kurukshetra (1973), a sense of disillusionment and frustration on
account of the slow progress of work was evident in the speeches of the delegates.

The Sarvodaya Sammelan of Kharagpur (1980) demonstrated the disarrayed condition of the
Sarvodaya Movement which was yet to recover from the trauma of Emergency and the condition
of suspended animation. The Sarvodaya Sammelan at Shimoga (1981) appealed to the people to
give up looking to the government and parties for leadership and work for Lok Swaraj – People‘s
Rule on their own organized strength. By the time the Sevagram Sarvodaya Sammelan was held
(1983), the movement had once again began to reorganize itself. The Sarvodaya Sammelan of
Jayaprakashnagar (Ballia) saw the re-dedication of workers to the cause of Sarvodaya. These
conferences gives hope for the future of the Sarvodaya Movement.

2. Bhoodan Movement: Following the death of Gandhi in 1948, Acharya Vinoba Bhave
(Vinayak Narapuri) took over the leadership. Under his insistence, the Sarvodaya Samaj was
established in 1948, which was an organisation of those who stood for truth and non-violence.
They worked for 10 months among the refugees who came from West Pakistan following the
partition of India. They had to face famine conditions and Vinoba decided to eat only vegetables
grown by himself, and not to buy any vegetables with money. This programme is called
Kanchana Mukti. Vinoba undertook padayatras((Sanskrit, lit. journey by foot) is a journey
undertaken by a politicians or prominent citizens to interact more closely with different parts of
society, educate about issues concerning them, and galvanize his or her supporters.) in order to
spread the ideals of Sarvodaya.

It was while Vinoba was conducting his padayatra in Telangana that the idea of bhoodan
(Landgift) was born in his mind. Some harijans approached him for a gift of land. They were
uneducated people. He called the rich landlords of that village and asked who would be willing
to share their land with the poor. One young man promised to give 100 acres of land. This
incident made Vinoba think and he could not sleep that night. People used to donate lands for
building churches, temples and educational institutions; but donating lands for the poor was
unheard of. He felt that he must appeal to the goodness in humankind to respond to the need of
others. Next morning Vinoba walked to the next village. When the villagers garlanded him, he
said it was not flowers that he needed, but land. There was good response in that village. By June
6th 1951, Vinoba acquired 12,201 acres of land as bhoodan through his padayatra.

Nehru, the then Prime Minister called Vinoba to Delhi to help him in the discussion on the first 5
year plan. He went on foot covering a distance of 792 miles in 62 days. During this padayatra,
he received 19,436 acres of land as bhoodan. By March 24th 1954, 27,53,465 acres more land
was received. Since then, the bhoodan movement has grown to the level of gramdan, talukdan,
Zilladan and statedan.

The mission of the movement was to persuade wealthy landowners to voluntarily give a
percentage of their land to the landless people. However, this land could not be sold. In effect,

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landless labourers were being given a small plot of land on which they can settle, as well as grow
some of their own food. The Government of various Provinces, passed Bhoodan Acts which
generally stipulated that the beneficiary had no right to sell the land or use it for a nonagricultural
purpose- including forestry. For example, under section 25 of Maharashtra State Bhoodan Act,
the beneficiary (who must be landless) should use the land for agricultural cultivation to secure
his own and family's daily bread. If he/she fails to cultivate the land for over a year or tries to use
it for some other non-agriculture activities, the government has the right to confiscate it.
The movement though independent of government had the support of congress. JP Narayan
withdrew from active politics to join Bhoodan movement in 1953. By 1960s the movement had
lost its flame despite its considerable initial promise. The Sarvodaya Samaj, however, on the
whole failed to build an active large scale mass movement that would generate irresistible
pressure for social transformation in large parts of country. Yet the movement made a significant
contribution by creating moral ambience, putting pressure on landlords and created conditions
favorable to the landless.

Evaluation: Many critics have criticised Gandhi‘s Sarvodaya ideals as impracticable. Though
the ideals of sarvodaya are noble and nobody can find fault with them, in the actual world they
will be found wanting. It will be almost impossible to establish a society strictly on the basis of
great principles by Mahatma Gandhi and others. Sarvodaya doctrines are soaring and it is
doubtful whether they can rest on the earth. The poor record of Panchayat Raj in India bears
testimony to the backward condition in which people are. In the highly competitive world, one
country cannot succeed in having Gramraj. Unless all states in the world accept the Sarvodaya
idea. The chances of having it is a particular country like India are bleak. As well as, it is difficult
to bring a change of the heart in the youth, who is given to selfishness. People donated useless
land in response to the Bhoodan.

In any case, the non-violent movement started by Gandhi, Vinobha and others have remained
incomplete. The forces of opposition proved stronger. The apathy of the intellectuals and lack of
vision meant that no one could understand the real value of the movement. But nevertheless,
these movements have enriched our thought process.

The effort continued for two and a half decades. Vinobha spoke at length about it wherever he
went and he thought about reforming and reconstructing the society a great deal. The
fundamental questions about society were asked and discussed and solutions were sought for
them on the basis of non-violence. Many of the concepts in Hind Swaraj were also evaluated and
it came into public domain and consciousness. As a result, in the world arena, the philosophy of
Sarvodaya has etched its name very clearly. This has been a major contribution of Vinobha‘s
movement. The philosophy is above any particular area or time and provides new thoughts about
constructing a society. The history of this incomplete movement might say anything, but in the
annals of human revolution, Vinobha‘s contribution is invaluable.

3. RASHTRIYA SWAYAMSEVAK SANGH (R.S.S.)

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 Keshub Baliram Hedgewar is the founder of Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh. He was born on
st
1 April 1889 to a Brahmin parents in Maharashtra. His father migrated from Andhra Pradesh to
Nagpur. Unfortunately, Hedgewar became an orphan at the age of thirteen. So he had to fight
against all kinds of adverse situation. But in the midst of this life of struggle he developed a love
for the motherland. While he was still a teenager, he learned the history of Hindu India,
especially the history of Maratha kingdom. He was very much influenced by the life of Shivaji.
Hedgewar hated Britishers from the very childhood because he saw that they are ruling India by
muscle power in spite of being a handful of people.
After he passed high school he took part in Bande Mataram agitation. He joined National
Medical College at Calcutta to study medicine. In 1916, he completed his medical study LM & S.
(License in Medicine and surgery) and returned to Nagpur. But he did not set up his own medical
practice. He decided to remain bachelor throughout his life to dedicate himself for the service of
the nation. Keeping this view in mind, he started living a disciplined life and he set up the
Rashtriya Swayamsevak Mandal in 1925 with the support of five friends. Hedgewar died on 21 st
June 1940 and M. S. Golwalkar took over the leadership of RSS. It is noteworthy to mention that
RSS grew into a large organization by the time of Hedgewar’s death, within a period of 15 years.
Philosophy and Emphasis of RSS
a. RSS wants to create a spirit of service among Hindus.
b. It inculcates a spirit of sacrifice and devotion to the Hindu Samaj.
c. It wants to bring about an all around regeneration
d. It wants organize a well-disciplined corporate life.
e. It wants to be purely devoted to cultural work and not to be involved in politics.
f. RSS believes in one culture, one nation (Akhand Bharat) and Hindu Rashtra.
g. RSS disclaims that Christians and Muslims are the true sons of India.
h. They say the non-Hindus are enemies of India, they have no love for the nation,
they corrupt people, and make Indians turn their back on indigenous practices.
i. RSS is against communists because they say communists do not have any pride
for India’s culture. RSS accuses that the communists have loyalties to Russia and China and
therefore, Muslims, Christian and communists are India’s internal threats.
j. RSS believes in five H’s: Hindu Nation, Hindu Religion, Hindu Race, Hindu
Culture, and Hindu Language.
k. RSS aims for the unification of all Hindus.
l. It wants to create a sense of pride in the cultural heritage of India.

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 m. RSS seeks re-admission of all those Hindus who accepted Islam or
Christianity or any other religion.

It has many programs such as:

 Promoting Sanskrit language.
 Introduction of religious instruction in the Universities.
 Protection of cows.
 Giving financial supports to Hindu priests and sadhus.
 Creating Religious consciousness among Hindu masses.
 Organizing big meeting and festivals to unite all Hindus.
RSS is a militant group of Hindus. It is basically a religious organization, involved mostly in
religious activities. It is trying to revitalize Hinduism to bring unity and love. RSS wants to
bring back those people who have been converted to other religions.
RSS is also involved in relief and rehabilitation work. RSS has programmes for student
welfare, Labor welfare, Tribal and Harijan welfare. RSS gives training to the community welfare
workers. RSS now function as an umbrella organization for many other Hindu organizations.
All these organizations together are called Sangh Parivar (RSS family). B.J.P, VHP, Vanavasi
Kalyan Kendras, Hindu Maha Sabha, Bharatiya Vichara Kendram and Bajrang Dal are all part of
this Sangh Parivar. RSS was banned by congress governments in 1948, 1978 and 1992.

Vishwa Hindu Parishad (VHP)

Vishwa Hindu Parishad (VHP) was established in 1966 at Allahabad. It was founded as a
result of years of thinking and deliberation. Finally at Allahabad a group of people key people
met together for the founded VHP. Swami Chinmayananda was one the most influential person
among them.
VHP has at least 16 departments and programmes. Few of them are Religious propagation,
Service, Cow protection, Publicity, Establishing foreign units, Youth wing, Publication. VHP
tries to bring out unity among Hindus. VHP runs schools temples, hospitals, hostels, and health
centers. It is also involved in propagating news for Hinduism.
VHP demands review of Indian constitution. They allege that the Indian constitution is anti-
Hindu. So it is anti-national. We need to review the constitution.
They actively involve in propaganda against Islam and Christianity. VHP makes claims of
the Hindu sacred places, which has been converted into mosques or churches. VHP claims that
95% of the people died during the Independent struggles and indo-Pak war are Hindus.
They spoke against spending money for the visit of pope. But VHP is not against Christian
worship. They are against the preaching of the gospel and converting people into Christianity.

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 VHP has established many centers in abroad in USA. The activities of V.H.P. were banned
in 1992 after it took part in the demolition of Babri Masjid at Ayodhya. Later on this ban was
lifted.
4. DALITS
A Dalit is not considered to be part of the human society, but something, which is beyond
that. The Dalits perform the most menial and degrading jobs. Sometimes Dalits perform
important jobs, but this is mostly not socially recognised. Dalits are seen as polluting for higher
caste people. If a higher caste Hindu is touched by an untouchable or even had a Dalit's shadow
across them, they consider themselves to be polluted and have to go through a rigorous series of
rituals to be cleansed.
In India there are approximately 240 million Dalits. This means that nearly 25% of the
population is Dalit. It also means that in a country, where everybody is supposed to have equal
rights and opportunities, 1 out of 4 persons is condemned to be untouchable.
In general one can say that being a Brahmin means that you are more privileged. This can
imply having a good education and, accordingly, a more powerful position in the society. Being
born as a Dalit you will be less well off and because of less education you will have a less good
job. In daily life there are a lot of consequences of being a Dalit.
Dalits are poor, deprived and socially backward. Poor means that they do not have access to
enough food, health care, housing and/or clothing (which means that their physiological and
safety needs are not fulfilled). They also do not have access to education and employment. With
deprived we would like to underline the injustice they face in every days life. Officially,
everybody in India has the same rights and duties, but the practice is different. Social
backwardness, lack of access to food, education and health care keeps them in bondage of the
upper castes.
Dalit does not mean low caste. Dalit does not mean any religion. Dalit refers to some unique
people with distinct culture and traditions.
But how did they lose their identity and their uniqueness?
"Every hour - two dalits are assaulted, every day three - dalit women are raped and two
dalits are murdered ....two dalit houses are burnt." (Human Rights Education Movement in
India)
A Dalit is not only forbidden to enter the home of a Brahmin but he must also not draw water
from the same well, not eat from the same pot or place. He must not glance at or allow his
shadow to fall on the Brahmin. All these acts will pollute the "pure Brahmin."
Origin of The Word Dalit
The term ‘Dalit' has roots in Sanskrit where the root 'dal' means 'to split, crack, open'. ( This
Indo-European root appears in German and English in the form of 'dal' or 'tal', meaning 'cut'. In
English, 'dale' is a valley, a cut in the ground; in German, 'thal': a tailor is one who cuts; 'to tell a
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tale' is the same as 'to cut a tally', the cut-marks made by the shepherd on his staff when
counting sheep.
'Dalit' has come to mean things or persons who are cut, split, broken or torn asunder,
scattered or crushed and destroyed. By coincidence, there is in Hebrew a root 'dal' meaning low,
weak, poor. In the Bible, different forms of this term have been used to describe people who
have been reduced to nothingness or [Link] present usage of the term Dalit goes back
to the nineteenth century, when a Marathi social reformer and revolutionary , Mahatma Jyotirao
Phule (1826-1890), used it to describe the Outcastes and Untouchables as the oppressed and the
broken victims of our caste-ridden society. Under the charismatic leadership of Dr. B.R.
Ambedkar (1891-1956), this term gained greater importance and popularity. During the 1970s,
the followers of the Dalit Panther Movement of Maharastra gave currency to the term 'Dalit' as a
constant reminder of their age-old oppression, denoting both their state of deprivation and the
people who are oppressed. This term for them is not a mere name or title: for them it has become
an expression of hope, the hope of recovering their past self-identity. The term has gained a new
connotation with a more positive meaning. It must be remembered that Dalit does not
mean Caste or low-Caste or poor ; it refers to the deplorable state or condition to which a large
group of people has been reduced by social convention and in which they are now living.
Caste System
One of the more confusing mysteries of India is its caste system. The caste system, which has
existed already for more than 3000 years, has been developed by the Brahmins (priests) in order
to maintain their superiority. Eventually, the caste system became formalised into 4 distinct
classes (Varnas).
At the top are the Brahmins, the priests and arbiters of what is right and wrong in matters of
religion and society. Next come the Kshatriyas, who are soldiers and administrators. The Vaisyas
are the artisan and commercial class, and finally, the Sudras are the farmers and the peasant
class. These four castes are said to have come from Brahma's mouth (Brahmin), arms
(Kshatriyas), thighs (Vaisyas) and feet (Sudras).
Beneath the four main castes is a fifth group, the Scheduled Caste. They literally have no
caste. They are the untouchables, the Dalits, which means oppressed, downtrodden and exploited
social group.
Names Of The Dalits
The Dalits are called by different names in different parts of the country. These names were
given by the Caste people as expressions of contempt. They include: Dasa, Dasysa, Raksasa,
Asura, Avarna, Nisada, Panchama, Chandala, Harijan, Untouchable. Each of these names has a
history and background. Besides these names, there are a number of other titles or names which
have been given to them at the level of the regional language. For example, Chura in Punjab
(North West India), Bhangi or Lal Beghi in Hindi (North India), Mahar in Marathi (Central

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India), Mala in Telugu, Paraiya in Tamil and Pulayan in Malayalam (South India). These names
carry within them the two-term contrast of "we-the pure" and "you-the impure". In response to
these insulting labels, the Untouchables have chosen to give themselves a name and this is
'Dalit', which refers to the hardship of their condition of life. This name is a constant reminder
of the age-old oppression. The term is also an expression of their hope to recover their past self-
identity. If today the Dalits are reduced to a life of abject poverty and treated as polluted human
beings, it is the non-dalit that must be seen as the agent of their dehumanisation. By the British,
the Dalits were named 'the Depressed Classes' and 'the Scheduled Castes', in the Scheduled
Caste Act of India, 1935. Mahatma Gandhi named them 'Harijans' which means 'children of
God' : but this term was not welcomed by the Dalits because it did not adequately describe their
condition.
Atrocities in Dalits' Daily Lives
The oppression of Dalits has occurred for the past 3,000 years. They are segregated in all
spheres of social life: in places of worship, education, housing, land ownership, use of common
property resources such as wells and village water taps, roads, buses and other public places.
They are the people who are made to do all menial and degrading jobs in our society. They are
considered to be untouchable, to be too 'polluted' to touch. In their daily lives, untouchability
results in, among other things, the following consequences:
In many dominant caste (rich) families, the servants are Dalits. After a Dalit servant has
cleaned the rooms, pots and pans, one of the family members will sprinkle 'holy water' around
the house to purify all that has been touched by the Dalit servant.
Dalits are not allowed to wear shoes; if they wear shoes, they will be forced to take them off
when coming into the presence of a dominant caste person.
In rural areas, Dalits are not allowed to cycle through the dominant caste area of the village.
Dalits live mainly in separate communities, outside the actual village.
In general, Dalits are not allowed to sit at bus stops; they have to stand and wait until
dominant caste people have entered onto the buses. Dalits are also not allowed to sit on the bus
seats, even if they are vacant.
Dalits are not allowed to enter many Hindu temples, for fear of their polluting the temples.
Dalits have been chased out, abused and beaten up for daring to as much as set foot inside a
temple, even though it is a temple for their religion.
After half a century of Independence, even many educated Dalits continue to face
discrimination in renting a house to live in.
Most Hindus will avoid having a Dalit prepare their food, for fear of becoming polluted.
Dalits have been systematically attacked or socially boycotted for asserting their basis rights
to land, minimum wages, education, housing, food, water, etc.
A Survey Of Indian Religions
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 Some embraced Sikhism, Buddhism, Islam or Jainism. The Dalit Christians, of course, are
those who embraced Christianity. Apart from the supernatural aspects of the Christian faith, one
human factor may well have been the hope of rising to a measure of equality with others and of
attaining some measure of human dignity in this world. In their transition to a new identity, this
hope has been realised to some extent but not totally. The roots of casteism are deep: casteism
pervades all walks of life, even the realm of religion. In practice, the Dalits remained 'Dalits'
regardless of religion. A Dalit is a Dalit whether he is a Hindu or a Muslim or a Buddhist or a
Christian. Even as members of various Christian communities, Christan Dalits suffer the same
ancient segregation, oppression and unjust discrimination, the same social, educational and
economic disabilities, only now at the hands of their fellow Christians of the upper castes. .
Conversion into the new faith has not redeemed them from their 'dalitness', the stigma of
'Untouchablity'. Dalit and untouchable they have remained, even within the Christian
communities. Among the 25 million Christians in India, 20 million are Dalits: the Dalits
constitute the vast majority of the Christians.
A View of the Indian Religions
Percent of total population of India
Religion Population (Millions) Percentage

HINDUISM 800 80%

ISLAM 140 14%

SIKHISM 20 2%

BUDDHISM 8 0.8%

CHRISTIANITY 25 2.5%

JAINISM 4 0.4%

OTHERS 3 0.3%

Current Statistics of Dalits According to their Religion

20% of the Indian population is considered to be of Dalit origin. This means that there are
200 million people who belong to the Scheduled Castes. They practise different religions. In
addition to this 20% who are in the Scheduled Castes, there is a further 10% of the Indian

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population who are categorized as the Scheduled Tribes , making a total of 30% who are outside
the main stream of the population of India.
Religious groups as percentages of the total Dalit population of India
Populati Percent
Religion
on age
140
Hindus 70%
Millions
15.5
Muslims 7.75%
Millions
19
Christians 9.5%
Millions
15
Sikhs 7.5%
Millions
7.5
Buddhists 3.75%
Millions
Jains & 3 Million
1.5%
Others s

The Constitution of India declares that India is a secular state and that every person has a right to
practice any religion. For many years, the Christian Dalit communities have been appealing to
the Government of India to cease discriminating against them on the basis of their religion and to
restore their legitimate rights.

Unit VI: Contemporary Issues and the Response of the Churches

1. Fundamentalism and Communalism

Fundamentalism: The dictionary defines the word fundamentalism as ‗a form of Protestant

Christianity which promotes the belief that the Bible is literally true‘ and in a broader sense, it
says that fundamentalism refers to ‗the strict following of the fundamental doctrines of any
religion or system of thought‘. According to Sr. Stella Baltazar, ―Fundamentalism implies a
belief held by a group of people who have the power and the facility to impose, project their
beliefs on others and control them with an ulterior personal motive which negates and denies
access to such facilities and information to a section of people in its own circle or outside of it.
When a group uses the name of God in doing this, it becomes Religious Fundamentalism.‖

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Historical origins: When we look at the historical origin of this term, we find that, the term
Fundamentalism originated from the sphere of the Protestant Christians in U.S.A. in the year
between 1909 and 1915 with a series of pamphlets called ‗The Fundamentals: A testimony to the
Truth‘ which attacked modernist or liberal views of the Bible and defending fundamental
doctrines. Thus, we can say that ‗Fundamentalism‘ refers to the movement of the conservatives
against the liberals in order to uphold and preserve the original principles of a religious faith. It
also implies returning to the basic teachings of any religion. Even though the term
‗Fundamentalism‘ was first used as a deliberate reaction to liberalism, it has come to have a
pejorative connotation in the minds of the common people.

Fundamentalism now has a bad and derogatory connotation because; it has come to designate
one‘s own position as the only valid position. It rears a false consciousness among members of a
particular group placing emphasis on the most minor and marginal details of a tradition, often
forgetting the dynamic orientation of faith to the ultimate meaning of human life. Therefore, in
popular usage, the term ‗fundamentalism‘ has come to mean the narrow-minded claim that one‘s
faith is the sole truth while opposing others‘ belief, faith or opinion. Moreover, ‗religious
fundamentalists‘ have come to be seen as the people who are terrorizing and causing immense
trouble to their fellow human beings in the name of religion.

When fundamentalism first came into prominence, it meant returning to the basic tenets of the
Bible, or to return to the fundamentals or foundation of one‘s own faith. But today, it has come
to mean much more than that with mostly a negative implication. So, for Vincent Shekhar,
religious fundamentalism is ―a threat posed by ideologies and movements that its feelings and
structures are often manipulates by political, economic, cultural or ethnic power groups in order
to safeguard their vested interests‖.

Religious Fundamentalism has so many characteristics. Paul Puthanganady has listed out four
main characteristics of religious fundamentalism as follows:

1) It rejects change in the expressions of religious faith in social structure.

2) It tends to isolate itself from the influence of other religions, ideologies, etc.
3) It develops an attitude of self-righteousness in people who claim to be the defenders of
their faith.
4) It considers proselytism as an integral part of its religiosity.

Therefore, we can say that, religious fundamentalism is a prejudiced affirmation of the truth of
one‘s own beliefs. It is the firm conviction that one‘s belief is the sole truth and the desire to
impose this belief on others through violent means or any other method applicable, giving scant
importance or respect to the opinion of others.

Communalism: Communalism is a term with three distinct meanings according to the Random
House Unabridged Dictionary. These include: (1) a theory of government or a system of
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government in which independent communes participate in a federation; (2) the principles and
practice of communal ownership. (3) The third definition is ―strong allegiance to one‘s own
ethnic group rather than to society.‖ In the Indian subcontinent, the term communalism has taken
on a very different meaning, namely that of a religion—and, more specifically, ethnicity-based
sectarianism promoting communal violence, taken up by many political movements.

James Massey also sees a direct link between ‗communalism‘, ‗religion‘ and ‗politics‘. The
Western concept of communalism includes a deep social commitment of a commune or
community. In that context it is almost used in the sense of ‗communion‘, ‗collectiveness‘,
‗socialism‘ and ‗co-operation‘.

Rasheeduddin Khan, Communalism is ―…perversion of a religion from a moral order to a

temporal arrangement of contemporary convenience…from a strategy of living into tactics of
politics…communalism seeks to conform arbitrary religious tenets, tradition and values of suit
exigencies of current political life and tactical interest. Communalism thus is exploitation, naked
and subtle, of religion and of genuine attachment to a religious community. Likewise, Asghar Ali
Engineer says that, communalism in India ―has been the art of realizing secular ends through
religious means, by the elites of both the communities.‖ Here both communities would refer to
the Hindus and the Muslims.

However, while understanding the use of religion in communal politics we should note that
religion is neither the cause nor the end of communalism, but only its vehicle. Religion is made
to serve politics as a garb or rationalization. Religion plays an extraneous role or a role of a mask
because we find communalists to be both non-practicing religionists and those not interested in
theology. Religion is an instrument rather than a causative factor of communalism. Religion, on
account of its powerful emotional appeal, has often sought to be dragged into political and social
arenas by various interest-groups.

Thus, we can say that communalism is not religion. But this proposition is not entirely true as
communal feeling is fed by ‗religious sentiments‘. When religious sentiment of a community is
stimulated to an ‗end‘ and when the ‗end‘ is something other than religious, the society finds
itself trapped in the communal net. Hence, when religion is politicized for political, economic or
other ends, communalism emerges.

Response of the Churches in countering Religious Fundamentalism and Communalism: We

speak and hear of Hindu fundamentalism, Islamic fundamentalism, Christian fundamentalism,
Hindu-Muslim communal riots etc. very often. In such a context, what would be the response of
the Churches? What could be the measures that can be taken to counter religious fundamentalism
and religious communalism?

Certain measures for countering religious fundamentalism and communalism which has
undoubtedly affected the process of socio-economic growth of the country may be mentioned.

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a) Preach the Good News of Christianity and not the bad news of other religions: During
the British rule of India, Christianity was seen as the dominant ideology of the colonialists,
whose technology and military prowess were unmistakable. English was understood as the
language of Christianity by the majority of Indians. Moreover, Christian missionaries had the
tendency to publicly insist on the obvious superiority of all things Christian compared to the
heathen idolatry and debauchery of all things Hindu.

Therefore, as asserted by Cherian, this superiority attitude of the Christian missionaries forced
the educated and the enlightened Hindus to re-examine and defend their own religion. As a
result, there emerged numerous reforming agencies, some of which worked for the regeneration
of Hinduism, while some gave a more traditional defense of their faith by claiming superiority
for their religion. The outcome was the eventual emergence of fundamentalist tendencies. As put
by Dr. Roger Gaikwad, ―Quite often evangelists are guilty of preaching, what they interpret as,
the bad news of other religions rather than giving expression to the good news of Jesus Christ.‖
This is true not only for the Christian faith; people of other faiths have also employed exclusivist
theologies and strategies in propagating their own particular faiths and beliefs.

Therefore, in a pluralistic context of ethnicity and faiths, it is the duty and responsibility of every
Christian and the Church in general to preach the good news of Christianity which is concerned
with peace and justice, holistic salvation, love and equality. The Church and every Christian
should do away with the exclusivistic mindset, intolerance for people of other faiths or ethnicity
and any form of biased attitude.

b) Know your neighbour: What we do not know, we fear. We fear death because we are not
sure what lies beyond. We are afraid of the dark because we cannot see what lies ahead of us.
Many conflicts arise due to our limited knowledge about the people of different faith or ethnicity
living near us. Therefore, the Church and Christians living as a group in society must have a
good idea about the people with whom they share society and the faith that they profess. The
Church must make efforts to be in personal touch with friends professing a different faith or
culture. Christians must remember that they are people like us, with their joys and sorrows, their
burdens and anxieties, their fears and hopes, their failures and their sins.

As Max Muller so emphatically stated ―He who knows one, knows none,‖ Christians should
strive to know the customs and beliefs of the people of other faiths in order to effectively witness
the Gospel. Moreover, it would be good to be well acquainted with their history, doctrines and
practices. Only when the Church and Christians knows the people with whom they share society
well will they be able to present the Christian truth in a comprehensible and attractive manner
and be able to avoid misunderstandings and misinterpretation.

The Church‘s understanding of other faiths has usually been influenced by Western interpretation
and analyses. Therefore, it is necessary to study other religions as it is believed and practiced in
the context of the practitioners. In the same way, the perception of Christians by people of other

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faiths is also tinted by the history of conflicts and misunderstandings. Therefore, there is the need
for mutual correction and self-evaluation of each other‘s faith in order to eradicate unnecessary
prejudices.

c) Realize the image of God in each and every person: William Gurnall said, ―We are
afraid of human beings because we do not fear the Lord.‖ How true! Since we lack true fear of
the Lord we are unable to realize and see the image of God in our fellow human beings and
thereby we lack love for one another, respect for one another. Human beings are made in God‘s
image and in His very likeness (Gen. 1:27). If we could see God‘s image in every person, there
would be no room for hatred. Therefore, each and every person, whatever be his/her ethnicity,
culture or religion, is made in the image of God. If we truly fear the Lord, then we should be able
to realize the image of God in our fellow human beings and see him/her in God‘s likeness. The
Bible says, ―Let no debt remain outstanding, except the continuing debt to love one another, for
he who loves his fellowman has fulfilled the law,‖ (Rom. 13:8). Hence, in an ethno-religious
pluralistic context, it is crucial that we realize the image of God in each and every person and
leave no debt outstanding, except the continuing debt to love one another, in order to maintain
peace and harmony in the society

d) Responsibility of the Church: The Church should commit itself to proclaiming a firm
conviction that violence and terrorism are incompatible with the authentic spirit of religion, and
condemn every type of violence perpetrated in the name of religion. The Church has to teach the
people of different faiths that the riots and brutal killings are not the answer to the problems and
differences. The Church needs to work as a mediator and play an important role in the local,
national and international level. It should motivate, educate and encourage the members of the
congregation to actively participate in the liberation of the oppressed and the marginalized.

The evangelization of the world should not be concerned only with spiritual salvation, but to
transform the world, to change the economic, socio-political, cultural and religious milieu. The
Church should work for the realization of the Kingdom of God in the here and now and the
inculcation of Kingdom values in the society. There is a need to work for unity among the
various religious and cultural traditions through dialogue, which provides the creative challenge
for introspection, growth and insight within our own faiths and traditions also.

2. Secularism, Minority Rights, Freedom of Religion and Conversion

The term ‗Secular‘ had been inserted into the Preamble to the Constitution in 1976 by the 42nd
(Constitution) Amendment Act. But surprisingly, no definition of the term is found within the
Constitution. This has led to a lot of confusion and controversy in Indian politics with different
people understanding the term in different ways. Therefore, an attempt at defining the term
‗Secularism‘ is a complicated task. One has to take into consideration the circumstances which
led to the inclusion of the term in the Constitution, along with the origin and development of the
concept in the West. The definition of secularism in the Indian context is different from its

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original understanding in the West. Dr. S. Radhakrishnan had conceptualized Indian secularism
in the following terms:

It may appear somewhat strange that our government should be a secular one while our culture is
rooted in spiritual values. Secularism here does not mean irreligion or atheism or even stress on
material comforts. It proclaims, it lays stress on the universality of spiritual values which may be
attained in a variety of ways.

On another occasion, Radhakrishnan describes Indian secularism, as religious neutrality.

Jawaharlal Nehru saw secularism as the way for co-existence of religions, in a religiously diverse
and pluralistic India.

ut, it is a fact that in spite of India being a secular, democratic country, religious fundamentalism
has been on the rise in recent years, and this is indeed alarming. Donald Eugene Smith in his
book, India as Secular State gives the following definition:

The state is a secular state which guarantees individual and corporate freedom of religion, deals
with the individual as a citizen irrespective of religion, is not constitutionally concerned to a
particular religion – nor does it seek either to promote or interfere with religion.

The Constitution of India has 22 parts and out of these, the most important is part 3 which deals
with the Fundamental Rights of citizens. This has further 8 sections of which the ultimate section
is called, ―Right to Freedom of conscience and religion,‖ and Article 25 falls in this section.

The Article 25 of the Constitution of India implies that every person is guaranteed the freedom of
conscience and the freedom to profess, practice and propagate his/her own religion. Thus, under
clause 1 of Article 25, a person has a two-fold freedom – freedom of conscience, and freedom to
profess, practice and propagate religion. Here freedom of conscience refers to absolute inner
freedom of the citizen to mould his/her own relation with God in whatever way he/she desires.
The articulation and expression of this freedom in an outward form is ‗to profess and practice
religion‘. Moreover, ‗profess‘ means to freely and openly declare one‘s faith and belief. This
refers to the right to practice one‘s belief by practical expression in any manner, through
performance of rituals and rites, and to exhibit religious beliefs and ideas by such acts as
prescribed by religious order in which he/she believes. To ‗propagate‘ means to spread and
publicize one‘s religious views for the edification of others. But note should be taken that
propagation indicates persuasion and exposition without any coercive element.
Furthermore, clause 2 of Article 25 grants the State the right to regulate activities connected with
‗religious practice‘, if these either had any economic, financial and political implication, or
involve social welfare and reform issues. Article 26 of the Indian Constitution guarantees every
citizen the Right to freedom to manage religious affairs. The right guaranteed in Article 25
concerns individuals, whereas Article 26 is the right of an organized body like religious
denominations or any section thereof. Under clause (a) of Article 26, every religious

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denomination has the right to ‗establish and maintain‘ institutions for religious and charitable
purposes. Under Article 26 (b), a religious denomination or organization is free to manage its
own affairs in ‗matters of religion‘. The State cannot interfere in the exercise of this right unless
they are harmful to public order, health and morality. Accordingly, every religious denomination
enjoys complete freedom in the matters of deciding what are essential according to the tenets of
the religion they hold. The term ‗matters of religion‘ includes religious practices, rites and
ceremonies considered essential for practice of religion.

In addition, clauses (c) and (d) of Article 26 guarantees religious denominations the right to
acquire and own property and to administer such property in accordance with the law. This right
is a limited right, and is subject to the regulatory power of the State in clause 2 of Article 25 and
also any general property law. Thus, we can see that the right to manage its own affairs in
‗matters of religion‘ is a fundamental right whereas the right to ‗manage its own property‘ can
be regulated by law.

Article 30 of the Constitution deals with ‗the right of minorities to establish and administer
educational institutions.‘ This article is as put by James Massey, the Magna Carta of the basic
fundamental right of minorities, through which they can preserve and conserve their identities as
religious or linguistic communities.

Thus, from the above discussion, we can see that the above mentioned Articles of the Indian
Constitution guarantee all citizens of India the freedom to profess, practice and propagate any
religion and also to maintain institutions. Furthermore, there cannot be any religious tax to
promote the interests of any particular religion In a nutshell; we can say that the Constitution
firmly prohibits any form of religious discrimination.

Secular India provides freedom of religion and conscience to the citizens; protection for the
rights of the minority groups. In the face of various Freedom of Religion Acts enacted by several
states, is India still maintaining its secular fabric? A close study of these various Freedom of
Religion Acts points otherwise.

Undoubtedly there is no ground justifying conversions brought about by violence or other

illegitimate means of coercion. Forceful conversions violate the principle of freedom of
conscience and constitute one of the gravest human right violations. However, on examining the
existing acts, we can easily realize their unseemliness as the languages adopted by these
legislations goes far beyond the protection of the Freedom of Religion and conscience and in no
way do these Acts appear to be inspired by the aspiration to protect the same.

Do these various Freedom of Religion Acts preserve the secular fabric of India? Have they been
enacted for the preservation of the rights of the minority groups? Do they indeed preserve and
maintain freedom of religion as mentioned in the Constitution of India? A deeper study of these
so-called Freedom of Religion Acts points otherwise:

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A) At the outset, the debate on the topic of ‗conversion‘ deserves mention, since it is the main
reason behind the birth of the various Freedom of Religion acts. Any legislation to stop forced
conversion is a welcome act in a civilized society. Freedom to choose a religion or to convert
to a religion according to one‘s conscience is the spirit that has to be constitutionally
maintained. No religion can claim that they have the right to convert other people. If such a
claim is made, that amounts to a violation of the spirit of the Constitution. However, the right
to propagate is a constitutional right provided that it is subject to public order, morality and
health. The propagation of one‘s faith (religion) can lead to conversion of others. The makers
of the Constitution had not clearly spelt out in clear terms the right inherent in Article 25 of
the Constitution. Thus, in the absence of clear interpretation regarding the right to convert, the
majority cannot dictate terms and impose conditions on the minority norms and interpretations
framed by them under threat of their extinction.

B) The various terms used in these Acts demand speculation. All these Acts define conversion as
―renouncing one religion and adopting another.‖ The Arunachal Pradesh Act adds that,
―‗convert‘ shall be construed accordingly.‖ Conversely, nowhere is ‗reconversion‘ mentioned
in these Acts, while as asserted by P.L. John Panicker, although conversion is strongly opposed
by Hindus, they are engaged in suddhi movement to reconvert those who left Hinduism. Thus, it
is difficult to understand if induced conversion is an offence, then why induced re-conversion is
not so?

C) All the Acts include ‗threat of divine displeasure‘ within the definition of ‗force‘. Thus, as
per the laws, today, in Orissa, Madhya Pradesh and Arunachal Pradesh, the Christian who
writes or speaks or sings of ‗divine displeasure‘ over prevalent human sacrifices is liable to
be imprisoned or fined. Moreover, the definition of force is most crucial as it is uncertain as
to how it would be interpreted. For example, if a religion teaches that non-adherents risk
divine displeasure, the act of imparting this article of faith may constitute an act of force
under the Acts. If it is used within such a broad definition, there is always the danger of
misinterpretation which can be a direct contradiction of the right to freely profess and
propagate religion guaranteed by Article 25 of the Constitution of India.

D) Furthermore, the words ‗inducement‘ and ‗allurement‘ are commonly defined by the 3 Acts
as any gift or gratification in cash or kind or any grant of a material benefit. Here, it is a cause
of concern that the charitable and humanitarian acts which are fundamental to certain
religions may be interpreted as ‗inducement‘ or ‗allurement‘. This can seriously hamper and
restrict the freedom of its adherents to meaningfully practice their religion or religious beliefs.
Therefore, there is ambiguity as to which activities are permitted and which are prohibited.

E) Another imprecise definition is that of the word ―fraud‖ which has been defined by all 3 Acts
as, ―fraud shall include misrepresentation or any other fraudulent contrivance‖. The
vagueness of this definition is apparent. For example, if an individual was told that on

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 converting he/she would feel closer to God but on conversion the converted person did not
feel the expected degree of spirituality than can he/she claim to have been misrepresented?

Thus, while these Freedom of Religion acts/anti-conversion laws, on their face, appear to protect
religious adherents only from attempts to induce conversion by improper means, the failure to
clearly define what makes a conversion improper bestows governments with unfettered
discretion to accept or reject the legitimacy of religious conversions. All these vague and
ambiguous terms which can be misinterpreted and understood in a variety of ways hamper and
obstruct the free profession and propagation of religion, which is a fundamental right of every
citizen professing any religion. Therefore, it is a clear indication that these Freedom of Religion
Bills are unconstitutional in every sense.

F) Additionally, in the Orissa and Madhya Pradesh Acts, prior intimation to the District
Magistrate is required whereas in the Arunachal Act only subsequent intimation is
contemplated. Requirement of taking prior permission leaves the power of discretion in the
hands of the executive to decide if a person can change his/her religion or not. Given the fact
that no time frame is provided for the authority concerned to give his/her permission, an
individual‘s prospects of conversion are left on the sweet will of the executive. This
undeniably is a violation of the prospective convert‘s right to choice of religion as embedded
in the conscience clause of Article 25 of the Constitution.

Hence, from the above discussion, we can surmise that Anti-conversion laws do not seem to have
been intended to defend the fundamental right of Freedom of Religion. Instead, these laws seem
to have been intended to ensure that Hinduism would not decrease in importance throughout
Indian society. Since, the Hindu religious leaders considered conversion as a symbol of
deculturalization and denationalization. The Freedom of Religion bills enacted in different states
to stop forced conversion indirectly encourages conversion to Hinduism and denounces
conversion to any other religion. Thus, they are well-conceived communal programmes to
discourage Freedom of Religion to the minorities. Therefore, they are unconstitutional and
detrimental to the spirit of Indian secularism.

The Constitution does not give unlimited right of conversion to anyone. People have the freedom
of conscience and, if any person is converted voluntarily owing to freedom of conscience, then it
is perfectly all right. There can be no restriction to such conversions. However, if any attempt is
made by one religious community to another through unjustifiable influences either by money or
pressure or by other means, the State has every right to regulate such activity. Only on this
ground can the Freedom of Religion Acts passed by Orissa, Madhya Pradesh, Arunachal
Pradesh, or for that matter, any state, be justified and deemed Constitutional.

However, in actual practice, the actual scope of these Acts seems to be restricted to conversion to
Islam and Christianity. Since conversion is not a major tenet of Hinduism, but of Christianity and

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Islam. Therefore, these Acts disproportionately affect the minorities, especially Christians and
Muslims. These anti-conversion laws are not constitutional and on no ground can they be
justified as they are deceitful, and they contradict the Constitution of India and the Freedom of
Religion granted by the Constitution; they even affect the individual‘s ‗freedom of conscience.‘

Finally, if conversion to Christianity and Islam is to be made into an issue, then re-conversion to
Hinduism must also be made an issue and must be brought under the purview of the Freedom of
Religion Acts. For whether conversion is called suddhi (purification) or ghar waapsi
(Homecoming) it is still conversion. Just as a rose by any name is still a rose, so too, conversion
under any nomenclature is still conversion.

3. A Post-Colonial, Post-Modern Christian Critique of the Events of the 19th and 20th
Century in India

1. An age of transition: The urgent need for social and religious reform that began to
manifest itself from the early decades of the 19th century arose in response to the contact with
Western culture and education. The weakness and decay of Indian society was evident to
educated Indians who started to work systematically for their removal. They were no longer
willing to accept the traditions, beliefs and practices of Hindu society simply because they had
been observed for centuries. The impact of Western ideas gave birth to new awakening. The
change that took place in the Indian social scenario is popularly known as the Renaissance.

All transitional movements advocated some degrees of change and consequently generated
discord in one or more areas of life. Often associated with this conflict was a clarifying and
hardening of boundaries between religious communities and the defining of sectarian positions
within a given religion.

2. Attempt to return to past purity through protest: All but one of these movements
declared their aims as a ‗return to past purity‘. Among Hindus the power of Brahman priests, the
rituals they conducted, idol worship, the limited and subordinate role of women, polytheism, and
the caste system were condemned repeatedly as they had been over many centuries. Muslim
leaders arose who called for a return to purity and the rejection of erroneous customs and
innovations. Sikhs too sought to remove various 'false' customs and forms of worship as shown
by the Nirankaris‘ return to the Sikhism of Guru Nanak or the attempts of the Namdharis to
revive the panth.
3. Emergence of acculturative movements: The emergence of acculturative movements
within the colonial milieu was both a continuation of socio-religious dissent, and a modification
of this tradition. Those, who could not ignore these new rulers but who depended on them for
their social and economic position, found ways to restructure their own cultural heritage in order
to retain a place within that heritage. They could neither ignore the English nor could they join
British society and find acceptance within it. The English brought a new civilization, but one that
was itself undergoing rapid and escalating change. English culture contained tensions between

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older patterns of life and 'new' forms of social, political, and economic expression undergirded
by developments in science and technology. Within western thought this new knowledge, and all
that accompanied it, was understandable by the concept of 'progress', an idea foreign to South
Asia. Members of the educated elite accepted this concept readily as they strove to possess the
'progress' and 'modernity' owned by the British. These movements supplied a way in which
'progress' could be achieved and legitimized. The path to a better future lay in a return to a pure
and proper past; to the 'fundamentals' of religion as presented in ancient texts once those texts
were properly understood and comprehended. Individuals needed the guidance of inspired men
and their disciples, but once the path was given and the signposts erected, then a new and better
world could be achieved by turning back to the righteous past.

4. Changing perspectives upon Christianity: Science and technology posed few problems
for South Asian religious thinkers. It was more difficult to answer the challenges of western
superiority and the allied threat of Christian conversion. Military and technological dominance
were linked in British imperialist ideology to claims of racial and religious superiority. By the
second half of the nineteenth century, Christianity was fused with the Raj and had become an
integral part of the imperial English culture.

Indian religious leaders articulated three different positions in response to Christian insistence
that they alone possessed religious truth, and were compelled to convert all non-Christians to that
truth. Ram Mohan Roy argued for an equivalence between Christianity and Hinduism based on
the ethical core of each religion. Both were en- crusted with superstition, error, and mistaken
forms of ritual, but once these were removed, the two religions stood on an equal footing.

Others, such as Ramakrishna, Keshab Chandra Sen, and Swami Vivekananda, insisted that all
religions were true and, like the spokes of a wheel, led by different paths to the same ultimate
reality. This doctrine justified remaining in the religion of one's birth and made conversion
unnecessary. Both arguments denied the superiority of Christianity. By far the largest group of
religious leaders - Muslim, Hindu, Parsi, and Sikh - maintained that their particular brand of
religion was superior to Christianity. This they could 'prove' by using their own set of religious
beliefs as the normative measure for all religions. The controversies generated by opposing
religious groups took new forms and intensity when South Asian religions successfully adopted
the technology of printing.
5. Protestantization – Promotion of Vernacular Literature and Education: The
production of inexpensive printed texts accelerated the translation of scriptures and
commentaries into the vernacular languages to make them available to a wider audience than
could respond to material written in Sanskrit, Arabic, or Persian. English was also used, but this
could only reach a small elite of English literates. The vernaculars offered a wider audience, but
still an audience limited to those who were literate. Consequently, education became an
increasing necessity driven by a dependence on the printed word. Socio-religious movements
utilized printing and translation. They also produced a stream of didactic and polemical literature

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that explained the newly translated texts, elaborated on their ideologies, and defended them from
critics within and without their own religious community. The availability of a printed text
encouraged the creation of creeds that summarized a complex set of teachings, and furnished a
basic statement of belief for the disciples of a particular movement.

The patterns of religious authority were modified by printing since texts became available to
anyone who was literate, as did the 'right' to speak out on religious issues through inexpensive
pamphlets and tracts. Neither Brahmans, Parsi priests, nor the ulama had a monopoly of religious
authority. Challenges to these groups had appeared in centuries past, but with printing those who
acted in opposition could do so far more effectively. Printing, translation, and literacy combined
to create a framework, in many ways parallel to the Protestant Reformation in Europe with its
abandonment of classical Latin, its proliferation of translations and religious writings, and its
insistence that the devout read scriptures as an essential part of their search for salvation.

As in Protestantism, many of the socio-religious movements of South Asia taught that truth lay in
the text, and that it was the duty of their adherents to study these writings in order to find within
them a key to a proper, moral and spiritual life.

6. Differing goals and programmes: The socio-religious movements of the British period
added new dimensions to the existing religions of India. All religions gained a greater degree of
social service as movements undertook such tasks as forms of disaster relief, the construction of
schools, orphanages, and hospitals. The Ramakrishna Math and Mission, with its system of
hospitals and dispensaries, and its extensive relief projects, added to Hinduism a dogma of social
service and a successful programme based on that dogma. The Arya Samaj brought to Hinduism
not only a system of proselytism with professional missionaries, but a ritual of conversion by
which anyone could become a Hindu. Thus their redefined Hinduism could compete openly with
conversion religions. The Ahmadiyahs and Radhasoami Satsangis transformed the traditional
religious centres into model religious cities at Beas, Agra, and Qadiyan with industrialization and
commerce as well as religious teachings.

Socio-religious movements among untouchables, whether transitional or acculturative, followed

a pattern that began with attempts to improve the status of a particular caste, went through a
period of aggressive attacks on the overall structure of society.
7. An Age of Expansion: From the late nineteenth century to the twentieth, there was an
increased internationalization of South Asian socio-religious movements. Emigration and the
conversion of individuals outside the subcontinent accounted for the extension of South Asian
socio-religious movements into the rest of the world. The conversion of non-Hindus brought new
opportunities and problems to Hinduism, especially when it came to integrating converts into the
Hindu social structure. The post-Independence period has seen a continuation of this
internationalizing of religions as emigration has carried orthodox Hinduism, Islam, and Sikhism
abroad, as well as socio-religious movements from all three communities.

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8. Rise of religious fundamentalism: All socio-religious movements, transitional,
acculturative or orthodox-defensive, were fundamentalist, i.e. they sought a return to what each
considered the ‗fundamentals‘ of their religion. In Hinduism the Brahmos rejected much of
Hinduism and saw the Upanishads as the legitimate source of religious authority. The Aryas
went one step further to the Vedas as their ultimate container of religious truth and, in the
process, condemned almost the whole of popular Hinduism. Fundamentalism then referred to a
process of winnowing down religious authority and practice as group after group defined what
was true and used those authorities to justify their doctrines of return to the ‗truth‘.

9. Emergence of Communalism and Religious Nationalism: The British-Indian

government exacerbated religious conflict through various actions of its own, although in
numerous instances it is doubtful that they had any idea what might result from those actions.
The initiation of the decennial census in 1871 set about a process that redefined religion. Each
census defined, counted, and described the major religious com munities, and the 'recognized'
socio-religious movements, that is, those important enough to have been listed in the census. To
be discussed in the census reports gave an official recognition of a movement's existence and
importance; but, above all else, the comparative rates of growth measures whether or not a
religion was succeeding or failing.

Administrative and political acts by the government often heightened religious competition and
the identification of individuals with a particular set of religious beliefs. The creation of
municipal councils during this same period brought into existence a new arena of religious
competition as individuals on these bodies acted as representatives of their respective religious
communities, rather than of themselves or of secular interests. It was, however, the constitutional
reforms of 1909 that fused, once and for all, religion, the census, and political patronage into a
single system. The granting of separate electorates to Muslims necessitated the definition of that
religious community and its enumeration, an act that could only be done by the Indian census.
The extension of these separate electorates in 1919 and 1935 to religious, social, racial, and
various interest groups further tied religion to the political system.

The religious upheavals of the nineteenth century, with their debates, creeds, and various forms
of competition, led to a growing sense of belonging to a particular sectarian movement and,
beyond that, to membership in a broader religious community. This sense of communal identity
grew in intensity and came from a variety of sources as the century progressed. Most
fundamentally the desire to find and resur- rect a past purity, when conducted in a multi-religious
society, meant that, inevitably, the practices and beliefs of other religions were seen as intrusive
influences responsible for contemporary decadence and error.

10. Politicization of religion: With the fusion of religion and politics, each of the major
communities developed their own political organizations that spoke for the religious group and
competed with other political bodies. Feeding into this process of the politicization of religion
was the intensification of religious identity and loyalty to the religious group. This consciousness
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rested on a sense of belonging to one body of people and of being different from all others. In it
existed a potential for nationalism, which was a political expression of separate identity.

Within the context of nation states, technological development, urbanization, and a vast variety
of changes in many elements of daily life, the tradition of protest and dissent persists. Those who
seek to restructure society now do so in terms of religious symbols and authority, as they have
done for centuries. Religious dissent has been modified and at times blended with various secular
ideas to produce new ideologies of protest. Yet religion in itself remains a powerful vehicle for
the mobilization of human resources. It is within this increasingly complex world that the many
forms of religious protest, drawn from three different civilizations, will continue to make
themselves felt within India.

4. Political Parties, Civil Society Movements and the Church

I. What are Civil Society Movements?: The term ―civil society‖ today is increasingly
used in conversations, discussions, and press statements of popular and unidentified characters.
In the period in which we live, it is clear that civil society has a great value. According to some
sociologists, this term has taken as much importance as it deals with terms and concepts such as
freedom and historical value. Although this term is used very often today, we must bear in mind
that this term is not an invention of the twentieth century. The term civil society goes back to
Aristotle's phrase koinonia politike, occurring in his Politics, where it refers to a ‗community‘,
corresponding with the Greek city-state (polis) characterized by a shared set of norms and ethos,
in which free citizens on an equal footing lived under the rule of law.

The term ―civil society‖ generally is used to refer to social relations and organizations outside
the state or governmental control. Sometimes it is also taken to mean outside the economic or
business sphere as well. Usually ―civil society‖ refers to nongovernmental organizations
(NGOs) and associations that people belong to for social and political reasons: churches and
church groups, community groups, youth groups, service organizations, interest groups, and
academic institutions and organizations, for example. It also refers to the activities of these
organizations.

Though independent of the governmental structure, these organizations frequently become

involved in political activities. They try to influence governmental decision making and
participate in a variety of public participation processes. As such, the establishment and
maintenance of a healthy civil society is extremely important for the successful development and
operation of democratic political systems.

In a certain way, political parties can be considered as civil society organizations that summarize
the interest of a particular group (or groups), articulate and represent them. By participating in
democratic elections, they want to present these interests to formal political representatives and
institutions. Civil society organizations can perform certain functions that also apply to parties.

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However, they cannot fulfill the most important function of the parties; Participation in general
elections, which not only assures parties of their political power but at the same time, provides
them with representation.

II. Importance of Civil Society Movements: During times of crisis created by war, the
structures of civil society often disintegrate or are forcefully closed. The same thing happens
when authoritarian or autocratic governments see civil institutions as a threat and close them
down. This greatly weakens the integrative system, and leads to social relations based largely on
fear and force. Key to overcoming such a society is the re-establishment of a multitude of social
and political NGOs, which give people a voice in the affairs of their life, give them a sense of
belonging and integration with other countrymen and women, and connect them with their
democratic system in a meaningful way.

Once civil society has been eliminated, its recovery is very slow. It can be aided significantly by
outside assistance--by international NGOs coming in and helping the local people start parallel
organizations of their own. Training fledgling organizations in organizational and advocacy
skills can be helpful, as can training in goal setting, option analysis, and conflict resolution. Yet
it is important that organizations be able to form in their own way to meet their own needs--they
should not simply be little models of outside organizations that work in different places and
different cultures.

Although civil society exists independently of the state, it is dependent on the state's acceptance
to be able to grow and flourish. People must have the freedom to associate, to speak freely, to
publish, and to participate in social and political processes without fearing repercussions.
Without such freedom, civil society will be stunted at best.

Civil society groups may establish ties to political parties and the state, but they must retain their
independence, and they do not seek political power for themselves.

Often in transitions, groups arise that seek to monopolize the lives and thinking of their members.
These groups do not tolerate the right of their members to dissent, and they do not respect other
groups that disagree with them. Some of these groups may merely be fronts for political parties
or movements that seek to win control of the state. These groups are not part of civil society and
they do not contribute to building a democracy.
III. Role of Civil Society Movements in building and maintaining democracy: What, then,
can the independent, voluntary, law-abiding, tolerant and pluralistic organizations of civil society
do to build and maintain democracy?

i) Limit and control the power of the state: The first and most basic role of civil society is
to limit and control the power of the state. Of course, any democracy needs a well-functioning
and authoritative state. But when a country is emerging from decades of dictatorship, it also

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needs to find ways to check, monitor, and restrain the power of political leaders and state
officials.

Civil society actors should watch how state officials use their powers. They should raise public
concern about any abuse of power. They should lobby for access to information, including
freedom of information laws, and rules and institutions to control corruption.

ii) To expose corruption: This constitutes a second important function of civil society: to
expose the corrupt conduct of public officials and lobby for good governance reforms. Even
where anti-corruption laws and bodies exist, they cannot function effectively without the active
support and participation of civil society.

iii) Promote political participation: A third function of civil society is to promote political
participation. NGOs can do this by educating people about their rights and obligations as
democratic citizens, and encouraging them to listen to election campaigns and vote in elections.
NGOs can also help develop citizens‘ skills to work with one another to solve common
problems, to debate public issues, and express their views.

iv) Develop other values of democracy: Fourth, civil society organizations can help to
develop the other values of democratic life: tolerance, moderation, compromise, and respect for
opposing points of view. Without this deeper culture of accommodation, democracy cannot be
stable. These values cannot simply be taught; they must also be experienced through practice.
We have outstanding examples from other countries of NGOs—especially women‘s groups—
that have cultivated these values in young people and adults through various programs that
practice participation and debate.

v) Develop programs for democratic civic action: Fifth, civil society also can help to
develop programs for democratic civic education in the schools as well. After dictatorship,
comprehensive reforms are needed to revise the curricula, rewrite the textbooks, and retrain
teachers in order to educate young people about the crimes of the past and teach them the
principles and values of democracy. This is too important a task to leave only to officials in the
education ministry. Civil society must be involved as a constructive partner and advocate for
democracy and human rights training.

vi) Lobby for the needs and concerns of their members: Sixth, civil society is an arena for
the expression of diverse interests, and one role for civil society organizations is to lobby for the
needs and concerns of their members, as women, students, farmers, environmentalists, trade
unionists, lawyers, doctors, and so on. NGOs and interest groups can present their views to
parliament and provincial councils, by contacting individual members and testifying before
parliamentary committees. They can also establish a dialogue with relevant government
ministries and agencies to lobby for their interests and concerns.

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And it is not only the resourceful and well organized who can have their voices heard. Over
time, groups that have historically been oppressed and confined to the margins of society can
organize to assert their rights and defend their interests as well.

vii) Provide new forms of interest and solidarity: A seventh way civil society can strengthen
democracy is to provide new forms of interest and solidarity that cut across old forms of tribal,
linguistic, religious, and other identity ties. Democracy cannot be stable if people only associate
with others of the same religion or identity. When people of different religions and ethnic
identities come together on the basis of their common interests as women, artists, doctors,
students, workers, farmers, lawyers, human rights activists, environmentalists, and so on, civic
life becomes richer, more complex, and more tolerant.

viii) Provide training ground for future political leaders: Eighth, civil society can provide a
training ground for future political leaders. NGOs and other groups can help to identify and train
new types of leaders who have dealt with important public issues and can be recruited to run for
political office at all levels and to serve in provincial and national cabinets. Experience from
other countries shows that civil society is a particularly important arena from which to recruit
and train future women leaders.

ix) Inform the public about issues: Ninth, civil society can help to inform the public about
important public issues. This is not only the role of the mass media, but of NGOs which can
provide forums for debating public policies and disseminating information about issues before
parliament that affect the interests of different groups, or of society at large.

x) Mediate and help resolve conflict: Tenth, civil society organizations can play an
important role in mediating and helping to resolve conflict. In other countries, NGOs have
developed formal programs and training of trainers to relieve political and ethnic conflict and
teach groups to solve their disputes through bargaining and accommodation.

xi) Monitor the conduct of elections: Eleventh, civil society organizations have a vital role
to play in monitoring the conduct of elections. This requires a broad coalition of organizations,
unconnected to political parties or candidates, that deploys neutral monitors at all the different
polling stations to ensure that the voting and vote counting is entirely free, fair, peaceful, and
transparent. It is very hard to have credible and fair elections in a new democracy unless civil
society groups play this role.

Finally, civil society is not simply in tension with the state. Because civil society is independent
of the state doesn‘t mean that it must always criticize and oppose the state. In fact, by making
the state at all levels more accountable, responsive, inclusive, effective—and hence more
legitimate—a vigorous civil society strengthens citizens‘ respect for the state and promotes their
positive engagement with it.

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A democratic state cannot be stable unless it is effective and legitimate, with the respect and
support of its citizens. Civil society is a check, a monitor, but also a vital partner in the quest for
this kind of positive relationship between the democratic state and its citizens.

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