ANAPHY LEC (MIDTERM)

LESSON 1: The Nervous System

Functions of the Nervous System Nervous Tissue: Neurons
1. Sensory input – gathering information ● Neurons = nerve cells
● To monitor changes occurring inside and outside the body ● Cells specialized to transmit messages
(changes = stimuli) ● Major regions of neurons
2. Integration 1. Cell body – nucleus and metabolic center of the cell and large
● to process and interpret sensory input and decide if action is nucleolus
needed.
3. Motor output 2. Processes – fibers that extend from the cell body (dendrites
● A response to integrated stimuli and axons)
● The response activates muscles or glands ● Extensions outside the cell body
○ Dendrites – conduct impulses toward
Structural Classification of the Nervous System the cell body
● Central nervous system (CNS) ○ Axons – conduct impulses away from
○ Brain the cell body (only 1)
○ Spinal cord
● Peripheral nervous system (PNS)
Axons and Nerve Impulses
○ Nerve outside the brain ● Axons end in axonal terminals
○ spinal cord ● Axonal terminals contain vesicles with neurotransmitters
● Axonal terminals are separated from the next neuron by a gap
Functional Classification of the Peripheral Nervous System
○ Synaptic cleft – gap between adjacent neurons
● Sensory (afferent) division ○ Synapse – junction between nerves
○ Nerve fibers that carry information to the central nervous
system
● Motor (efferent) division
○ Nerve fibers that carry impulses away from the CNS
● Motor (efferent) division
○ Two subdivisions
■ Somatic nervous system = voluntary
■ Autonomic nervous system = involuntary

Nerve Fiber Coverings

● Schwann cells – produce myelin sheaths in jelly-roll like
fashion
● Nodes of Ranvier – gaps in myelin sheath along the axon
Application
● In Multiple Scleroses the myelin sheath is destroyed.
● Scleroses - The myelin sheath hardens to a tissue
● This is considered an autoimmune disease.
● Why does MS appear to affect the muscles?

Neuron Cell Body Location

Nervous Tissue: Support Cells Most are found in the central nervous system
(Neuroglia or Glia) ● Gray matter – cell bodies and unmylenated fibers
● Nuclei – clusters of cell bodies within the white matter of the
1. Astrocytes central nervous system
● Abundant, star-shaped cells ● Ganglia – collections of cell bodies outside the central nervous
● Brace neurons system
● Form barrier between capillaries Functional Classification of Neurons
and neurons
1. Sensory (afferent) neurons
● Control the chemical environment
● Carry impulses from the sensory receptors
of the brain (CNS)
● Cutaneous sense organs
2. Microglia (CNS) ● Proprioceptors – detect stretch or tension
● Spider-like phagocytes
● Dispose of debris
2. Motor (efferent) neurons
3. Ependymal cells (CNS) ● Carry impulses from the central nervous system
● Line cavities of the brain and spinal cord
3. Sensory (afferent) neurons
● Circulate cerebrospinal fluid
● Carry impulses from the sensory receptors
4. Oligodendrocytes(CNS) ○ Cutaneous sense organs
● Produce myelin sheath around nerve fibers in the central ○ Proprioceptors – detect stretch or tension
nervous system
4. Motor (efferent) neurons
● Carry impulses from the central nervous system
Neuroglia vs. Neurons
5. Interneurons (association neurons)
● Neuroglia divide. ● Found in neural pathways in the central nervous system
● Neurons do not. ● Connect sensory and motor neurons
● Most brain tumors are “gliomas.”
● Most brain tumors involve the neuroglia cells, not the Neuron Classification
neurons.
● Consider the role of cell division in cancer!

Support Cells of the PNS

● Satellite cells
○ Protect neuron cell bodies
● Schwann cells
○ Form myelin sheath in the peripheral nervous system

Structural Classification of Neurons

1. Multipolar neurons – many extensions from the cell body
2. Bipolar neurons – one axon and one dendrite
3. Unipolar neurons – have a short single process leaving the cell body
How Neurons Function (Physiology) Simple Reflex Arc

● Irritability – ability to respond to stimuli

● Conductivity – ability to transmit an impulse
● The plasma membrane at rest is polarized
○ Fewer positive ions are inside the cell than outside the cell

Starting a Nerve Impulse

a. Depolarization – a stimulus
depolarizes the neuron’s membrane

b. A depolarized membrane allows

sodium (Na+) to flow inside the
membrane

c. The exchange of ions initiates an

action potential in the neuron

Types of Reflexes and Regulation

● Autonomic reflexes
○ Smooth muscle regulation
○ Heart and blood pressure regulation
○ Regulation of glands
○ Digestive system regulation
● Somatic reflexes
The Action Potential ○ Activation of skeletal muscles
● If the action potential (nerve impulse) starts, it is propagated over the entire
axon Central Nervous System (CNS)
● Potassium ions rush out of the neuron after sodium ions rush in, which
repolarizes the membrane ● CNS develops from the embryonic neural tube
● The sodium-potassium pump restores the original configuration ○ The neural tube becomes the brain and spinal cord
● This action requires ATP ○ The opening of the neural tube becomes the ventricles
■ Four chambers within the brain
Nerve Impulse Propagation ■ Filled with cerebrospinal fluid

● The impulse continues to move toward the cell

body Regions of the Brain
● Impulses travel faster when fibers have a myelin
sheath ● Cerebral hemispheres
● Diencephalon
● Brain stem
● Cerebellum

Cerebral Hemispheres (Cerebrum)

● Paired (left and right) superior parts of the brain

● Include more than half of the brain mass
Continuation of the Nerve Impulse between Neurons ● The surface is made of ridges (gyri) and grooves (sulci)

● Impulses are able to cross the synapse to another nerve Lobes of the Cerebrum
○ Neurotransmitter is released from a nerve’s axon ● Fissures (deep grooves) divide the cerebrum into lobes
terminal ● Surface lobes of the cerebrum
○ Frontal lobe
○ The dendrite of the next neuron has receptors that ○ Parietal lobe
are stimulated by the neurotransmitter ○ Occipital lobe
○ An action potential is started in the dendrite ○ Temporal lobe

The Reflex Arc

● Reflex – rapid, predictable, and involuntary responses to stimuli
● Reflex arc – direct route from a sensory neuron, to an interneuron, to an
effector
Lobes of the Cerebrum

\
Specialized Areas of the Cerebrum Thalamus
● Surrounds the third ventricle
● Somatic sensory area – receives impulses from the body’s sensory ● The relay station for sensory impulses
receptors ● Transfers impulses to the correct part of the cortex for localization and
● Primary motor area – sends impulses to skeletal muscles interpretation
● Broca’s area – involved in our ability to speak
Hypothalamus
Sensory and Motor Areas of the Cerebral Cortex
● Under the thalamus
● Important autonomic nervous system center
○ Helps regulate body temperature
○ Controls water balance
○ Regulates metabolism
● An important part of the limbic system (emotions)
● The pituitary gland is attached to the hypothalamus

Epithalamus
● Forms the roof of the third ventricle
● Houses the pineal body (an endocrine gland)
● Includes the choroid plexus – forms cerebrospinal fluid

Brain Stem
● Attaches to the spinal cord
● Parts of the brain stem
○ Midbrain
○ Pons
Specialized Area of the Cerebrum ○ Medulla oblongata

● Cerebral areas involved in special senses

○ Gustatory area (taste)
Midbrain
○ Visual area ● Mostly composed of tracts of nerve fibers
○ Auditory area ● Reflex centers for vision and hearing
○ Olfactory area ● Cerebral aquaduct – 3rd-4th ventricles

● Interpretation areas of the cerebrum

Pons
○ Speech/language region
● The bulging center part of the brain stem
○ Language comprehension region
● Mostly composed of fiber tracts
○ General interpretation area
● Includes nuclei involved in the control of breathing

Medulla Oblongata
● The lowest part of the brain stem
● Merges into the spinal cord
● Includes important fiber tracts
● Contains important control centers
○ Heart rate control
○ Blood pressure regulation
○ Breathing
○ Swallowing
○ Vomiting

Cerebellum
● Two hemispheres with convoluted surfaces
Layers of the Cerebrum ● Provides involuntary coordination of body movements

1. Gray matter
Protection of the Central Nervous System
● Outer layer
● Scalp and skin
● Composed mostly of neuron cell bodies
● Skull and vertebral column
2. White matter
● Meninges
● Fiber tracts inside the gray matter
● Cerebrospinal fluid
● Example: corpus callosum connects hemispheres
● Blood brain barrier
3. Basal nuclei – internal islands of gray matter
● Regulates voluntary motor activities by modifying info sent to
the motor cortex Meninges
● Problems = ie unable to control muscles, spastic, jerky 1. Dura mater
● Involved in Huntington’s and Parkinson’s Disease ● Double-layered external covering
○ Periosteum – attached to surface of the skull
○ Meningeal layer – outer covering of the brain
● Folds inward in several areas
2. Arachnoid layer
● Middle layer
● Web-like
3. Pia mater
● Internal layer
● Clings to the surface of the brain

Cerebrospinal Fluid
● Similar to blood plasma composition
● Formed by the choroid plexus
● Forms a watery cushion to protect the brain
● Circulated in arachnoid space, ventricles, and central canal of the spinal
cord

Diencephalon Ventricles and Location of the Cerebrospinal Fluid

● Sits on top of the brain stem
● Enclosed by the cerebral heispheres
● Made of three parts
○ Thalamus
○ Hypothalamus
○ Epithalamus
 Peripheral Nervous System
● Nerves and ganglia outside the central nervous system
● Nerve = bundle of neuron fibers
Blood Brain Barrier ● Neuron fibers are bundled by connective tissue
● Includes the least permeable capillaries of the body
● Excludes many potentially harmful substances
● Useless against some substances
Structure of a Nerve
○ Fats and fat soluble molecules ● Endoneurium surrounds each fiber
○ Respiratory gases ● Groups of fibers are bound into fascicles by perineurium
○ Alcohol ● Fascicles are bound together by epineurium
○ Nicotine
○ Anesthesia

Traumatic Brain Injuries

● Concussion
○ Slight brain injury
○ No permanent brain damage
● Contusion
○ Nervous tissue destruction occurs
○ Nervous tissue does not regenerate
● Cerebral edema
○ Swelling from the inflammatory response
○ May compress and kill brain tissue

Cerebrovascular Accident (CVA)

● Commonly called a stroke
● The result of a ruptured blood vessel supplying a region of the brain
● Brain tissue supplied with oxygen from that blood source dies Classification of Nerves
● Loss of some functions or death may result ● Mixed nerves – both sensory and motor fibers
● Afferent (sensory) nerves – carry impulses toward the CNS
Spinal Cord ● Efferent (motor) nerves – carry impulses away from the CNS
● Extends from the medulla oblongata to the region of T12
● Below T12 is the cauda equina (a collection of spinal nerves) Spinal Nerves
● Enlargements occur in the cervical and lumbar regions ● There is a pair of spinal nerves at the level of each vertebrae for a total of
31 pairs

Autonomic Nervous System

● The involuntary branch of the nervous system
● Consists of only motor nerves
● Divided into two divisions
\ ○ Sympathetic division
○ Parasympathetic division
Alzheimer’s Disease
● Progressive degenerative brain disease
Comparison of Somatic and Autonomic Nervous Systems
● Mostly seen in the elderly, but may begin in middle age
● Structural changes in the brain include abnormal protein deposits and
twisted fibers within neurons
● Victims experience memory loss, irritability, confusion and ultimately,
hallucinations and death

Spinal Cord Anatomy

● Exterior white mater – conduction tracts
● Internal gray matter - mostly cell bodies
○ Dorsal (posterior) horns
○ Anterior (ventral) horns
● Central canal filled with cerebrospinal fluid
● Meninges cover the spinal cord
● Nerves leave at the level of each vertebrae
● Dorsal root
○ Associated with the dorsal root ganglia – collections of cell
bodies outside the central nervous system
● Ventral root
 Anatomy of the Autonomic Nervous System

Autonomic Functioning
● Sympathetic – “fight-or-flight”
○ Response to unusual stimulus
○ Takes over to increase activities
○ Remember as the “E” division = exercise, excitement,
emergency, and embarrassment

● Parasympathetic – housekeeping activites

○ Conserves energy
○ Maintains daily necessary body functions
○ Remember as the “D” division - digestion, defecation, and
diuresis

Development Aspects of the Nervous System

● The nervous system is formed during the first month of embryonic
development
● Any maternal infection can have extremely harmful effects
● The hypothalamus is one of the last areas of the brain to develop
● No more neurons are formed after birth, but growth and maturation
continues for several years (new evidence!)
● The brain reaches maximum weight as a young adult
● However, we can always grow dendrites!