TRAFFIC MANAGEMENT AND ACCIDENTAL INVESTIGATION WITH DRIVING (CDI4)

FUNDAMENTALS OF TRAFFIC CONTROL

Traffic Control
Refers to the procedure, devices, and communication systems that help vehicle
and vessels safely share the same road, rails, waterways, or air space.
A. Traffic signs
 Refers to any device mounted on portable support whereby a message is
conveyed by means of word or symbols officially installed for the purpose of
regulating, warning, or guiding traffic.
 Traffic signs are installed to serve the following functions;
 To control traffic
 To safeguard the flow of traffic
 To expedite traffic
 To guide traffic and motorists
CLASSIFICATION OF INTERNATIONAL TRAFFIC SIGNS
 International traffic signs are classified into three. These are;
 Danger warning signs
 Regulatory signs
 Informative signs
1. Danger warning Signs (Caution Signs)
 TRIANGULAR in shape with red colored border that warn motorist of
approaching hazardous road conditions.
 Call the reduction of the speed.
2. Regulatory signs (Instruction Signs)
 it requires the driver to actually perform or not to perform a specific act.
 Usually round in shape except “stop signs and yield signs”
3. Information signs (Guide signs or Direction signs)
 it provides the driver with information that he may or may not use but will
assist him.
 Usually rectangular in shape with white-colored on blue background.
 Green background is usually used for route markers and destination
signs.
B. TRAFFIC SIGNAL LIGHTS
Traffic Lights
 It refers to any power operated traffic control device by which traffic is warned or
directed to take some specific actions.
 The color of traffic lights is chronologically arranged to give motorists better view of
signal lights.
 From the top, series of color is Red, Yellow/amber, and Green.
SPECIFIC MEANING OF TRAFFIC LIGHTS
1. Steady red
 stop at the designated line, vehicle will be crossing to the other side,
expect pedestrian to cross, unless specified, you can turn right after a full
stop to clear the traffic coming from the left.
2. Steady green
 go, it is turn of the other side to stop, pedestrian is not allowed to cross,
vehicle going straight have the right of way, do not
anticipate green light.
3. Steady green arrow
 go, vehicle turning left can do so, oncoming straight traffic is still red to
give way turning left, do not anticipate a green arrow.
4. Steady yellow
 prepare to stop, it is the turn of vehicle on the other side and they will be
given “go” signal shortly, do not beat the red light.
5. Flashing red

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COURTESY OF CATHERINE M. KENIO, RCrim
INSTRUCTOR: NEMELYN D. PUMANTOC, RCrim
 TRAFFIC MANAGEMENT AND ACCIDENTAL INVESTIGATION WITH DRIVING (CDI4)

the same to stop sign, stop at the designated lane, vehicles and
pedestrian will be crossing from the other side, proceed when clear.
6. Flashing yellow
 the same as the yield sign, proceed through the intersection with caution,
you have the right of way over the red flashing light, vehicles on the other
side will proceed after coming to full stop.
7. Steady Green and steady Left/Right Arrow
 Vehicles can go straight or vehicles on the left lane can make a left turn
 Vehicles can go straight or vehicles on the right lane can make a right
turn.
 The RIGHT GREEN signal might or might NOT have a road sign
disallowing a right turn while the RED light is ON.

GENERAL RULES OF ROAD USE AND CONDUCT
A. Speed Limit and Other Rules on Speed. Any person driving a motor vehicle on a highway
shall drive the same at a careful and prudent speed, not greater nor less than is reasonable
and proper, having due regard for the traffic, the width of the highway, and of any other
condition then and there existing; and no person shall drive any motor vehicle upon a
highway at such speed as to endanger the life, limb and property of any person, nor at a
speed greater than will permit him to bring the vehicle to a stop within the assured clear
distance ahead.
1. Maximum Allowable Speeds. Subject to the provisions of the preceding paragraph, the
rate of speed of any motor vehicle

Passenger cars Motor trucks &buses

and motorcycle
a. On open country roads, with no 80 km. 50 km.
blind corners not closely bordered
by habitations.
b. On “through streets” or boulevard 40 km. 30 km.
clear of traffic, with no blind corners,
when so designated.
c. On city and municipal streets, 30 km. 30 km.
with light traffic, when not designated
“through streets”.
d. Through crowded streets, approaching 20 km. 20 km.
intersections at “blind corners”,
passing school zones, passing other
other vehicles which are stationary,
or for similar dangerous circumstances
2. Exception to the speed limit. The rates of speed hereinabove prescribed shall not apply
to the following:
a. A physician or his driver when the former responds to emergency calls,
b. The driver of a hospital ambulance on the way to and from the place of accident or
other emergency.
c. Any driver bringing a wounded or sick person for emergency treatment to a hospital,
clinic, or any other similar place.
d. The driver of a motor vehicle belonging to the Armed Forces while in use for official
purposes in times of riot, Insurrection or invasion.
e. The driver of a vehicle, when he or his passengers are in pursuit of a criminal.
f. A law-enforcement officer who is trying to overtake a violator of traffic laws.
g. The driver officially operating a motor vehicle of any fire department, provided that
exemption shall not be construed to allow useless or unnecessary fast driving of drivers
aforementioned.
3. Uniform Speed Limits throughout the Philippines. No provincial, city or municipal
authority shall enact or enforce any ordinance or resolution specifying maximum allowable
speeds other than those provided by R.A. 4136.

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INSTRUCTOR: NEMELYN D. PUMANTOC, RCrim
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B. Lateral Placement. Lateral placement means the proper Positioning of the motor vehicle while
traversing on a traffic way or while on parked.
In the Philippines, unless a different course of action is required in the interest of the safety and
the security of life, person or property, or because of unreasonable difficulty of operation in
compliance herewith, every person operating a motor vehicle or an animal-drawn vehicle on a
highway shall pass to the right when meeting persons or vehicles going the same direction, and
when turning to the left in going from one highway to another, every motor vehicle shall be
conducted to the right of the center of the intersection of the highway.
On the other hand, motor vehicles should be parked only on designated areas and so properly
parked without enzcroaching the parking stall or space of another vehicle.
C. Overtaking and Passing. In overtaking another vehicle, a driver should pass at a safe distance
to the left of the vehicle being overtaken and shall resume driving on the right side of the road
only after passing clear of the overtaken vehicle.
1. Exception. On the highways with two or more lanes where traffic goes in one direction,
2. Driver to Give Way to Overtaking Vehicle. The driver of a motor vehicle about to be
overtaken must give way to the overtaking vehicle and shall not increase his speed until
the overtaking vehicle has fully passed by (Sec. 40, R.A. 4136).
3. Restrictions on Overtaking and Passing. To avoid accident or any unusual incidents,
overtaking and passing on the following places are restricted (Sec. 41, R.A,4136) .
a. To the left side of the center line of a highway in overtaking another vehicle proceeding
in the same direction, unless such left side is clearly visible, and is free of oncoming
traffic for a sufficient distance ahead to permit safety overtaking.
b. When approaching the crest of a grade, nor upon a curve in the highway, where the
driver's view along the highway is obstructed within a distance of five hundred feet
ahead, except on a highway having two or more lanes for movement of vehicles in one
direction.
c. At any railway grade crossing, nor at any intersection of highways, unless such
intersection or crossing is controlled by traffic signal, or a traffic officer.
d. Between any points indicated by the placing of official temporary or caution signs
indicating that men are working on the highways.
e. In any "no passing or overtaking zone.
D. Right of Way. This principle refers to the legal or customary precedence (priority in place or time)
which allows one vehicle to cross or pass in front of another.
1. Rules on Right of Way. Sections 42 - 44, of R.A. 4136 provides for the rules on giving the
right of way.
a. In case of two vehicles approaching or entering an intersection at the same time, the
driver of the vehicle on the left shall yield the right of way; however, the driver of any
vehicle traveling at an unlawful speed forfeits this right
b. In the case of a vehicle approaching but has not yet entered the intersection, its driver
shall yield the right of way to vehicle already within the intersection or turning therein to
the left across the line of travel of the first mentioned vehicle (Sec.42, b).
c. In case of a vehicle on a highway within a business or residential district, its driver shall
yield the right of way to pedestrians crossing the highway within a crosswalk, except at
intersections where traffic is regulated by a peace officer or a traffic signal. If there is no
crosswalk, pedestrians shall yield the right of way to vehicles on the highways Sec. 42,
c).
d. In case of a vehicle traversing a “thru-highway”, its driver should bring it to a full stop
before crossing. However, if it is clear and no hazard exist, the vehicle may slow down
to 5 miles per hour instead of a full stop (Sec. 42, d)
2. Exceptions to the Right of Way Rule. Right-of-way rules do not apply in the case:
a. Of a vehicle entering from a private road or drive. The right of way is in favor of all
vehicles utilizing the highway (Sec.43)
b. The driver of vehicle upon a highway shall yield the right of way to police or fire
department vehicles and ambulances when such vehicles are operated on official
business and the drivers thereof sound audible signal of their approach.
c. The driver of a vehicle entering a “through highway” or a “stop intersection” shall yield
the right of way to all vehicles approaching in either direction on such “through
highway.”

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COURTESY OF CATHERINE M. KENIO, RCrim
INSTRUCTOR: NEMELYN D. PUMANTOC, RCrim
 TRAFFIC MANAGEMENT AND ACCIDENTAL INVESTIGATION WITH DRIVING (CDI4)

Starting, Stopping or Turning Rules. The driver of any motor vehicle on a highway, before
starting, stopping or turning from a direct line, shall first see that such movement can be made
safely; and if any pedestrian is affected by such movement, he shall give a clearly audible
signal by sounding the vehicle’s horn.
a. When Other Motorists are affected. Whenever the operation of any other approaching
or following may be affected by such movement, the driver making the movement shall
give a signal to the other driver/s of his intention to make such movement (Sec -.44, a).
b. Hand Signal. The required signal shall be given by means of extending the hand or arm
beyond the left side of the vehicle or by an approved mechanical or electrical signal
device (Sec ,44, b).
c. Making a Right Turn (Normal Procedures). The following are the rules to be observed in
making a correct turning to the right from a four-lane street to a four-lane street.
At an intersection with a red traffic light, make a right turn ONLY after coming to a full stop
to make sure that no vehicle is coming from the left.
a. Signal your intention to turn right with your turning signal light or a hand signal at least
100 ft. before you intend to make your turn.
b. Stay on the right lane of the road.
c. NEVER make a right turn from left lane.
d. At an intersection with a red traffic light, make a right turn ONLY after coming to a full
stop to make sure that no vehicle is coming from the left.
e. If there is a sign prohibiting a right turn unless the light is GREEN, DO NOT TURN right
while the RED LIGHT IS ON.
4. Making a Left Turn (Normal Procedures). Motor vehicles intending to turn left from a four-lane
street to four-lane street should observe the following procedures:
a. Signal your intention to turn left with your turning signal or a hand signal at least 100 feet
before you intend to make your turn.
b. Stay on the left lane of the road.
c. NEVER make a left turn from the right lane. D. At an intersection with a traffic light,
vehicles GOING STRAIGHT have the right of way. Wait for them to pass first before you
turn left.
d. At an intersection with a traffic light, make a left turn ONLY WHEN THE GREEN LIGHT
IS ON OR WHEN THERE IS A LEFT TURN LIGHT.
5. Making a U-Turn on a Two-lane Road (Normal Procedure). Following is the recommended
procedure in making a U-Turn on two-lane road
a. Make a right turn signal at least 100 ft. before you start moving to the right side of the
road.
b. Stay as close to the right side as possible. Come to a complete stop if necessary. Check
behind you for traffic. Also check for oncoming traffic on the other lane.
c. Once all traffic has passed you, initiate your U-turn. See to it that you can make it in one
“sweep”. If you have a long vehicle, look for an intersection or a wide section of the road
to make a U-turn in.
d. At this point, you should be making the U-turn IF you know the turning radius of your
vehicle.
e. Do not move immediately to the middle of the road. Keep to the right side until you have
increased your speed sufficiently to move to the middle of the lane.
6. Making a U-Turn on a Four-Lane Highway (Normal Procedure). Following is the correct
procedure.
a. Check for traffic behind you and indicate your intentions with a left turn signal. If no fast
vehicles, stay on the left lane.
b. Clear the “other side” for oncoming traffic and initiate your turn as soon as it is clear. Do
not come to a complete stop. Straighten out on the right lane and begin gaining speed.
c. As soon as you have reached a relatively safe speed, signal your intention to move to
the fast lane with a left turn signal.
d. Move to the fast lane as soon as you are fast enough to hold up traffic moving in the
same direction.
Pedestrians’ Rights and Duties. Pedestrians have the right to occupy or pass on spaces or
portions of traffic way allocated for them like crossing on pedestrian lanes and passing on
sidewalks or catwalks. In addition, pedestrians, as part of the traffic system, their fundamental
duty is to observe and obey all traffic rules and regulations. Motorists should also know the

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COURTESY OF CATHERINE M. KENIO, RCrim
INSTRUCTOR: NEMELYN D. PUMANTOC, RCrim
 TRAFFIC MANAGEMENT AND ACCIDENTAL INVESTIGATION WITH DRIVING (CDI4)

rights of the pedestrians so that they will not be using the portions of the traffic way allocated for
the pedestrians for parking purposes.
General Parking Rules and Similar Regulations. Motor vehicles should park only on areas
specifically designated for parking. All accidents are not caused while vehicles are being driven.
A parked vehicle may create an accident, kill someone or destroy property. Before leaving your
vehicle, set the brakes, put the gear in low or reverse or park position and remove the key. This
will prevent your car from rolling down an incline and will also prevent cars from pushing your
car.
7. Parking on Cities. In cities and towns, unless otherwise directed by a city or municipal
ordinance, motor vehicles will be parked parallel and within 12 inches of the curb. For additional
pre-caution while parking, observe the following:
a. Downhill with or without curb-turn wheels to right.
b. Uphill curb with curb – turn wheels from curb.
c. Uphill without curb – turn wheels to curb.
8. Parking on a Highway. On rural roads, pull entirely off pavement to park. Whenever
practicable, turn on your parking lights.
9. Parking Prohibited in Specified Places. No driver Shall park a vehicle, or permit it to stand,
whether attended or unattended, upon a highway in any of the following places
a. Within an intersection.
b. On a crosswalk.
c. Within six meters of the intersection of curb lines.
d. Within four meters of the driveway entrance to any fire station.
e. Within four meters of a fire hydrant.
f. In front of a private driveway.
g. On the roadway side of any vehicle stopped or packed at the curb or edge of the
highway.
h. At any place where official signs have been erected prohibiting parking.
TRAFFIC ISLANDS
Concept
A. Traffic Islands Defined. These are areas within the roadway constructed in a manner to
establish physical channels through which vehicular traffic is guided.
B. Functions of Traffic Islands. Traffic islands as a part of traffic control devices are
designed to:
1. Segregate pedestrians and vehicles; and
2. Control streams of traffic in order to minimize conflict, expedite traffic flow or increase
safety.
C. Classifications of Traffic Islands. Traffic islands are classified according to the design,
place of installation, and purpose of construction.
1. Pedestrian Island (Pedestrian Barriers) These are constructed between the
pedestrian sidewalk and the road pavement to prevent pedestrian from using the
roadway in passing and to prevent motor vehicles from using the sidewalk for
parking and passing purposes.
2. Traffic Islands. These are the raised portion in the middle of the traffic way
constructed to separate the streams of motor vehicles traversing on opposite
directions and at the same time preventing motorists from using the opposite lane for
overtaking.
a. Division Islands. These are constructed primarily to divide the streams of the
motor vehicle.
b. Channelizing Island. These are constructed to channelize or direct the flow of
traffic
c. Rotary Islands. These are constructed along Intersections or “rotundas” for
purposes of turning-around. Their functions are:
(1) prohibit pedestrians from crossing major thoroughfares at points where such
crossing is exceptionally hazardous,
(2) minimize imprudence and delays to vehicular Traffic, and
(3) channelize and control pedestrians.
TRAFFIC LAW ENFORCEMENT

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COURTESY OF CATHERINE M. KENIO, RCrim
INSTRUCTOR: NEMELYN D. PUMANTOC, RCrim
 TRAFFIC MANAGEMENT AND ACCIDENTAL INVESTIGATION WITH DRIVING (CDI4)

Traffic Law Enforcement Defined. Traffic Law Enforcement action is part of enforcement
involving the arrest, issuance of Temporary Operator’s Permit (TOP) or Inspection Report
Summons, or warning of any person who is believed to have violated a law, ordinance, or
regulation pertaining to the use of traffic roads.
Rationale. Traffic enforcement action may prevent such violation from endangering persons,
property, or inconveniencing other users of traffic users of traffic roads, prevent continued
violation, or discourage future repetition.
As traffic law enforcer, he must decide the kind of action he will take in case he has
knowledge of any violation. Drivers are guided more by the enforcement actions of traffic law
enforcers than by the way the law is written. It is therefore important that traffic enforcers should
know what to do and be consistent in their actions so that drivers may know exactly what to
expect. Further, consistency of traffic enforcers in the enforcement of traffic laws builds respect
and compliance with the law.
A. Scope of traffic law enforcement. The range of action of traffic law enforcement includes
but not limited to the following:
1. The action taken by the police and the court to compel obedience to traffic laws
and ordinances regulating the movement and use of motor vehicles for the
purpose of creating a deterrent to unlawful behavior by all potential violators.
2. Enforcement of traffic legislation is an area of activity aimed at controlling road
users, let behavior by preventive persuasive and punitive methods in order to
effect a safe and efficient traffic movement; and
3. It applies to all statutes, ordinances and legally authorized regulations relating to
the use of street and highways and operation of motor vehicles.
B. Two Major Functions of Traffic Law Enforcement. For more effective traffic law
enforcement and more specific roles in enforcement, the function is divided into the
following:
1. Police Traffic Law Enforcement. This function includes the enforcement of
traffic laws deterrent to law violations, special assistance to prosecutors and
courts and incidental service to highway users. Usually these are the
responsibilities of traffic enforcers like members of the PNP TMG and the LTO
Law Enforcement Service (LES).
2. Court Traffic Law Enforcement. One part of traffic law enforcement is
performed by the court through PROSECUTION, ADJUDICATION and
PENALIZATION of cases. These actions are usually undertaken by any of the
regular courts where traffic cases fall under their jurisdiction and the Traffic
Adjudication Service (TAS) of the LTO.
C. Three Important Goals of Enforcement Activities. For more specific actions, enforcement
activities aim:
1. To increase safety level- enforcement effort should be directed towards the
reduction of accidents or minimizing their effects.
2. To increase traffic efficiency – when traffic violators are reduced particularly
those related to traffic obstruction through an effective enforcement, there will be
free-flow of traffic.
3. To insure harmonious and comfortable environment – when there is an
increase safety level and increase traffic efficiency, traveling is more comfortable
and luxurious and it may reduce chaotic situations in the traffic way.
D. Major Elements of Traffic Enforcement System. In the pursuit of effective traffic
enforcement, three elements are Involved. Removing one of the elements or any of the
elements, enforcement is not complete.
1. Enforcement System. This area consists of legislation, police and the courts.
Legislation defines and specifies correct or incorrect I user behavior, Police and the
courts are charged with the responsibility of insuring that these laws are adhered to.
2. Road Users System (Traffic Way User). This element includes pedestrians, pedal
cyclist, drivers, passengers and others.
3. Road System (Traffic System). This area is composed of the entire road and vehicle
complex, as well as all traffic rules and regulations.

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COURTESY OF CATHERINE M. KENIO, RCrim
INSTRUCTOR: NEMELYN D. PUMANTOC, RCrim
 TRAFFIC MANAGEMENT AND ACCIDENTAL INVESTIGATION WITH DRIVING (CDI4)

E. Five (5) Essential Steps in the Enforcement Process. Enforcement of traffic laws includes
the following process:
1. Detection (of violation”). A whole police responsibility that entails looking for defects in
the behavior of motorist, pedestrians, vehicle, equipment and roadway condition.
Requires knowledge of law on the part of the police
2. Apprehension. It is also a whole police function which involves the actual taking of
enforcement actions.
3. Prosecution. This area is handled by the prosecution and partly the court where the
police also provide corresponding influences through preparation and introduction of
evidence or close contact with the prosecuting officer.
4. Adjudication. While this is obviously a court and prosecutions function, the police
provide influence on this step by acting as witness to the prosecution or supplying
additional evidence. This step determines the guilt or innocence of the accused.
5. Penalization. The court after due process imposes the penalty upon the accused if
found guilty. The penalty is greatly influenced by previous records of conviction as
provided by police. Penalty involved is either fine or imprisonment or both fine and
imprisonment or may result to the suspension or revocation of the driver’s license of the
accused.
E. Reasons for Violation of Traffic Laws. Road users violate traffic laws and ordinances due
to varying reasons. The following are the common reasons why road users violate traffic
laws, rules and regulations and other traffic statutes:
1. Physical disabilities or infirmities
2. Ignorance of traffic
3. Lack of training and experience
4. Wrong attitude towards driving
5. PUV drivers for increased compensation
6. Driver’s apathy towards signs, signals and markings
7. Influential person violates because they feel they are Exempted from punishment
F. Considerations that act as deterrents to motorist and pedestrians. Some road users
are hesitant in violating any traffic law or ordinance because of varying reasons which are
enumerated as follow:
1. Fear of fine or punishment
2. Loss of driving privilege
3. Possibility of being involved in accident
4. Positive area of good citizenship doing what is right and setting an example.
G. Kinds of Enforcement Action. When traffic enforcers detected violation of traffic laws, an
enforcement action may be taken against the individual which is either arrest, or citation, or
warning alone.
1. Traffic Arrest. It is an enforcement action which consists of taking a person into custody
for the purpose of holding of detaining him to answer a charge of law violation before a
court.
a. When a traffic violator can be arrested?
(1) Offense committed is serious
(2) Detention is necessary to avoid continued violation
(3) there is reasonable doubt that the violator will not appear in court
b. How is arrest made? In general, arrest is made by any of the following:
(1) By an actual restraint of the person to be arrested, or (2) by his submission to the
custody of the person making the arrest.
c. Use of force in arresting. No violation or unnecessary force shall be used in making
an arrest and the person arrested shall not be subjected to any greater restraint than is
necessary for his detention.
d. Arrest in Traffic. In arresting a traffic violator, the traffic officer must consider the
following:
(1) An arrest can be effected even without warrant if the offense is committed in the
presence of an arresting officer.
(2) The officer making an arrest must intend to take the violator into custody for the
purpose of bringing him before a court.
(3) Detention of the arrested person may take place.

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COURTESY OF CATHERINE M. KENIO, RCrim
INSTRUCTOR: NEMELYN D. PUMANTOC, RCrim
 TRAFFIC MANAGEMENT AND ACCIDENTAL INVESTIGATION WITH DRIVING (CDI4)

(4) Officer making an arrest must act under legal authority when taking the arrested
person into custody.
(5) The person being arrested must understand that he is being arrested. (6) The
purpose of arrest is to bring a suspended violator before a court to answer a charge
of violation.
e. Recording the Data of Arrest. Whichever action is used by the officer or Agency; the
following information are necessary:
(1) Date/time of Arrest.
(2) Place of Arrest.
(3) The common name of the offense for which the person is arrested.
(4) The full name of the arrested person, his home address, his business address and
his telephone number.
(5) Physical description of the arrestee, including his date of birth, nationality and
marital status.
(6) Name of witnesses to the arrest.
(7) Name and badge number of arresting officer.
f. When taking person into custody. The arresting officer when taking a person into
custody must consider the following:
(1)The possibility that the person you are arresting May attempt to injure or kill you or
escape in your custody.
(2)Inform him that you are placing him under arrest. (3) explain to him why you are
placing him under Arrest.
(3)Reasonable search may be carried connection with the lawful arrest.
g. When transporting arrested person. The arresting officer should observe the
following guidelines in transporting arrested person:
(1) If your unit is equipped with radio, request for transportation unit and maintain
custody of your prisoner until it arrives.
(2) Give instructions to the transporting officer about the place where the arrestee is to
be delivered
(3) Have the necessary information and instructions written out so that the transporting
officer will not err in the delivery.
(4) In certain conditions, direct the arrested person to Drive his own vehicle to your
Headquarters and follow him with your police mobile. (5) However, if the driver is
not in good condition the vehicle is in bad shape, let someone drive the vehicle to
the Headquarters.
h. Warrantless Arrest or Citizen’s/Civilian Arrest. Oftentimes, arrest in traffic is made
right after the commission of the traffic violation. Hence, traffic enforcers should know
the following rules to be observed in arresting a person without warrant of arrest as
stipulated by paragraphs a-c, Sec. 6, rule 113, Rules of Court:
(1) When in the presence of the arresting officer, the person to be arrested has
committed, is actually committing, or is about to commit an offense.
(2) When an offense has in fact been committed, and the arresting officer has personal
reasons to believe that the person to be arrested has committed it.
2. Traffic Citation. This is a means of having violators appear in court without physical arrest.
To ensure that an apprehended traffic violator will appear to the court or to the proper authority,
the traffic officer should confiscate the violator’s driver’s license and issue Traffic Citation Ticket
(TCT), TOP, or Traffic Violator’s Receipt (TVR).
a. Apprehension. An apprehending officer duly as designated by the LTO, you should
observe the following when apprehending a traffic violator:
(1)You may confiscate the driver’s license or certificate of registration of the vehicle for any
violation of the RA 4136 regulations, City and Municipal Ordinances.
(2)Fill out the blank spaces of TOP/or TCT forms in order to provide a detailed report of
apprehension for The information, guidance and reference of all concerned.
(3)Advise the violator to report within 72 hours, but not less than 24 hours to give allowance
for proper transmittal from receipt thereof to appropriate offices.
b. Where the violator should report? The violator should be advised to report to:
(1) Traffic Court, if in Manila and for violation of the City’s Traffic Ordinance.
(2) City/Provincial Prosecutor, if in other chartered cities or provincial capitals without traffic
courts, for violations of local traffic ordinances.
(3) Municipal Court, in its municipalities, for violation of local traffic ordinances.

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COURTESY OF CATHERINE M. KENIO, RCrim
INSTRUCTOR: NEMELYN D. PUMANTOC, RCrim
 TRAFFIC MANAGEMENT AND ACCIDENTAL INVESTIGATION WITH DRIVING (CDI4)

(4) LTO Central Office (TAS) for Metro Manila or its Counterparts [REGIONAL TRAFFIC
ADJUDICATION SERVICE (RTAS)] for violation of the Land Transportation and Traffic
Code (RA 4136), and its rules and in the provinces regulations.
c. Uses the TOP, the TCT, and the TVR. These are official documents designed for various
purposes, namely:
(1) It serves as a receipt for the confiscation of a vehicle or the driver’s license or the
CR/OR of the Vehicle.
(2) It serves as a temporary permit to operate motor vehicles for 72 hours without extension
from the time of confiscation or apprehension (in case of TVR in Manila, 7 days).
(3) It is an official for of judicial or administrative Citation to facilitate action on the case for
which it is Issued.
(4) It is a record for disposing a case cited therein either administratively or judiciary.
(5) It is also a receipt for release of the confiscated items after adjudication and termination
of the case.
d. Preparation of the Information/Complaint. Within your tour of duty, prepare information
or complaint by filling up the TOP for processing of all traffic apprehensions at the
appropriate office.
e. Filing of Information/Complaint. Within 24 hours from the time of apprehension, file the
complaints, together with the confiscated items, with the Clerk of Court or Provincial
Prosecutor or the court having appropriate jurisdiction as previously stated. Table 3
below shows the summary step followed in traffic citation.
Kinds of Place of Period of Where to Report Period of What What will
Violation Violation Filling-up (violator) Reporting should happen?
TOP/TCT/TVR the
violator
do?
R.A 4136 NCR Within 24 hours LTO- Main TAS 3-5 days Pay the Paid the
fine or fine Dl is
plead returned,
not Guilty plea,
guilty Traffic
Officer is
summoned.
-do- Provinces Within 24 hours LTO- RTAS 3 days or -do- -do-
outside 72 hours
NCR
Local Within 24 hours Traffic Court (if any)/ 3-5 days -do- -do-
Traffic Prosecutor’s Office
Ordinances
-do- Chartered Within 24 hours Traffic Court (if any)/ 3 days or -do- -do-
cities Prosecutor’s Office 72 hours
outside
NCR
-do- Within 24 hours Prosecutor/Municipal -do-
Court
Table 3
Steps in Traffic Citation
f. Preliminary findings and disposition of License. Within 72 hours or three (3) days from the
filing of the case with the respective traffic enforcement offices, the hearing authority shall make
immediate preliminary findings on the basis of police or complainant’s witness reports as to
whether or not there is an imperative necessity of withholding the driver’s license confiscated.
(1) Should there be no such necessity; he shall promptly order the return of the
confiscated license to the owner without prejudice to re-calling said license.
(2) Where the violator fails to appear before the court or the investigating official
concerned, his license or permit shall be forwarded to the LTO for its suspension or
revocation pursuant to Sec. 29., RA 4136.
g. Records of court proceedings.
(1) When the violator appears in Court 15 days and pleads guilty, the Clerk shows the fine
schedule and the violators pays the fine at the Treasurer’s Office, receipt of which is

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shown to Clerk of Court who records the same on the TOP, and his license, if cleared for
release, is now returned to the driver.
(2) If the violator appears after 15 days, his license is forwarded to the LTO for suspension or
revocation; he shows his TOP copy to the LTO for proper disposition of his license. Clerks
of Courts, in every case, should inform the LTO and/or the apprehending officer of the
final disposition of the case.
(3) The violator appears in Court and desires not to plead guilty to the charge, the Clerk of
Court sets the date of hearing and notifies the accused accordingly and sends
corresponding subpoena to an apprehending officer for his appearance.
(4) When the accused is found not guilty after trial, his license, if in the possession of the
Court or of the LTO, shall immediately be returned to him unless there is any other legal
ground for its suspension or revocation.
3. Traffic Warning. This is an enforcement action which Does not contemplate possible
assessment of penalty by the court or otherwise as a result of warning alone. There are three
types of traffic warning: visual, verbal, and written.
a. Visual Warning. This is usually used when you have observed a minor violation but are
more importantly occupied at a moment. Indicate by gesture of the hand and /or of the head.
b. Verbal Warning. This is a form of safety education. Tell the driver/violator that he violated
a law and explain the hazards of such violations.
c. Written Warning. This is a combination of verbal warning and citations. It gives the spirit
of verbal warning and the form of citation. This is seldom used nowadays.
H. Decision Enforcement. In determining what enforcement action to be taken, whether you
arrest, cite or warn the apprehended violator, consider the following:
1. Degree of violation;
2. Accuracy of observation;
3. Traffic and weather condition;
4. Evidence gathered;
5. Whether a new law or not; and
6. Continuous or momentary actions, a factor in some type of violations.

I. Pursuit in Traffic Enforcement. Pursuit is a part of routine enforcement activity performed by

police and is used when a violating driver is detected.
Pursuit is a part of the apprehension of a violator. In this instance, general, a driver who is
aware of his violation at your presence will stop his vehicle when signaled to do so.
Apprehension is complete and pursuit is not necessary. There are times, however, when a
driver is not aware that he has been detected in violation and must be pursued until
apprehended. Pursuit and successful apprehension of a violator may require the operation of
your patrol vehicle at high speed for an extended distance.
1. When to pursue? When a violator fails to stop on signal, your normal reaction is to pursue
the violator until you apprehend him. However, due to traffic congestion or other
complications, such action is sometimes neither practical nor safe. In pursuing, observe the
following:
a. Pursuit must always be tampered with common sense and foresight of like hazards. b.
Better judgment is used in deciding to lose a traffic violator who can be apprehended at
another time than giving great risk to yourself, your vehicle and other drivers.
c. Pursuit requiring high speed operation of police vehicle may be justified in certain
circumstances such as in the apprehension of a driver endangering the lives of motorists,
pedestrians, and others through operation which can be classified as other than
reasonable and proper which is dangerous and negligent.
d. Type of serious violation is an important factor in deciding to pursue:
(1) Non-hazardous violations. Pursuit to apprehend this violator seldom warrants a
prolonged chase or operation of your police vehicle at high speed. These violations do
not justify the same degree of risk as may be justified as hazardous violations.
(2) Hazardous violations. These violations present continuing danger to other road users
that required immediate and sometime aggressive pursuit.
Examples are:
(a) Driving while under the influence of liquor.
(b) Reckless driving; and
(c) Driving on excessive speed.

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e. Consider the following when pursuing hazardous violators:

(1) A violator of this nature is likely to have little concern for other drivers at their safety.
(2) Successful flight from identification and apprehension is usually his only concern.
(3) Be prepared for acts of this type of violator which could give him an advantage
while interfering with your pursuit and successful apprehension. Like trying to force
you or other motorists off the road.
f. Consider your driving skill and experience. Driving skill is that collection of proper habits
which enable a person to detect and evaluate road and traffic conditions about him, and to
maneuver his vehicle properly without consciously thinking about what he is doing. Check
your skill in these areas:
(1) Manipulative skills making your vehicle behave intend.
(2) Recognizing road and traffic conditions that may hinder your pursuit.
(3) Defensive driving anticipating and allowing bad driving by others.
g. Resisting Distraction. You should know what evasive actions will permit you to avoid or
escape unfavorable traffic conditions. A driver can often protect himself from danger if he
knows how to recognize the danger in time and take proper evasive action.
2. Pursuit Techniques. A successful pursuit operation can be attained if the pursuing officer
knows the following:
a. His limitations and strength in driving a patrol vehicle Under normal conditions.
b. Good driving combined with effective techniques will help to minimize the dangers
involved in pursuit in high speed.
c. driving skill is not automatically improved by wearing a police uniform, or by having a
police car to operate.
3. Identification of Pursued Vehicle.
a. When alone, use a clipboard with attached paper and pencil. Anchor the clipboard by
sitting on part of it so that notes can be written without looking down.
b. Post a list of wanted persons or vehicles on a “hot sheet” within easy viewing range
while in driving position. The list should be arranged by cases of offense for rapid
identification of violators wanted for more serious offense.
c. Identify the violator’s vehicle for later identification, particularly when pursuit is lengthy,
interrupted or abandoned, or in case you are injured by the violators.
d. The registration plate is very important and accurate method of establishing identity of a
vehicle is also important. Train yourself to observe complete license plate number at a
glance.
e. Record the registration number as soon as possible, and check it against your “hot
sheet.” Sometimes prescribed registration number on a clipboard is the only clue to the
identification of an escaping violator who has struck or injured an officer.
4. Itemized Identification Features of the Vehicle. For an effective identification of the
pursued vehicle, the officer must be familiar with the following features:
a. COLOR – For example, red, black, etc. When the vehicle has more than one color, first
give the color of the body and then the top, i.e., black body, gray top.
b. YEAR OF MANUFACTURE learns to identify the year Model of a vehicle, i.e., “1996”.
c. MAKE- Honda, Toyota, Mitsubishi, Isuzu, etc.
d. BODY TYPE – p-up, wagon, 4dr sedan, truck, etc.
e. PLATE NUMBER – city or province of issuance, letter and number prefixes, i.e., AAA
456
f. OUTSTANDING FEATURES AND ACCESSORIES – “wide bank racing stripe,” vinyl
top, particular damage which are noticeable as crumbled fender, damaged door, or cracked
door.
g. UNUSUAL FEATURES OF THE DRIVER or PASSENGERS- clothing, air, glasses, etc.
5. Keep Headquarters Advised - through the dispatcher about the progress of the pursuit
operation.
a. It is your duty to apprehend violators as soon as possible. Radio contact with HQs aids in
accomplishing this objective by alerting other patrol units in the area.
b. While in pursuit, use your radio whenever necessary and advisable. If forced to abandon
pursuit and there is no radio available, use any nearest telephone.
6. Stopping and approaching a violator. It is completed when you have stopped the violator's
vehicle and move to the place where you will begin to talk to the driver. The following should be
observed:

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a. In stopping a violator, it must be done in safety to you, the driver you stopped, to other
road users.
b. Approach the violator preferably on the left side from the rear and be alert for the
unexpected.
K. Officer-Violator Relationship. The first reminder for an officer is to establish PLEASANT
RELATIONSHIP with offending motorists or pedestrians. This may be accomplished by:
1. The appearance of your uniform, equipment and person which will create the violator's
impression of you. A neat, clean uniform properly worn and well-groomed person will
create a good impression.
2. Observance of the following rules when talking with the violators:
a. Get your emotions under control. Don’t appear before him when you are both at the
peak of tension.
b. Advise the violator the nature of the alleged violation in a manner that he can fully
understand.

c. Allow the violator to talk and explain his side.

d. Be courteous and business-like. You may introduce yourself or use only “good
morning”, “Sir” or “Madam.” By using “Sir” or “Madam.”
e. Request compliance. Use requesting words such as “May I,” “Please” and “Kindly”
when directing the violator.

a. Avoid telling the driver what not to do. If you want him to do something, whenever
possible, explain why you want him to do it.
3. Never open your conversation in a sarcastic or derogatory Way. Avoid such opening
as:
a. Don’t you know - - - - - ?
b. Who do you think are?
c. Where do you think you are going?
d. What’s your hurry?
(4)Being alert at all times for the unexpected, approach the violator with these cases:
a. Take time to get ready to talk with the violator.
b. Know what you are going to do and say.
c. Have any equipment you will need such as flashlights, clipboard, or citation pad.
d. Review the facts which led you to your stopping the violator before you begin to talk.
e. Decide what enforcement action you are going to take Before you approach the
violator.
(5)In requesting for the driver’s license or vehicle registration certificate (CR), observe the
following:
a. Do not put your head or arms in the car windows.
b. While waiting for the license, ask the driver, “What is Your name, Sir?”
c. Never accept anything other than the Requested Papers
d. Ask the papers being requested be removed from the billfold or other container.
e. Have the driver hand the requested papers to you Outside the window.
f. Establish the identity of the driver and check the entries of both the license and the
registration papers for any possible fraud, or false identities or falsifications.
g. Do not return the driver’s license and vehicle Registration certificate until you are
about to terminate the Interview.
(6) In terminating your contact with the violator –
a. Explain to the driver what action he must take.
b. Tell him when and where he must appear.
c. Don’t discuss probable bail penalties with the violator.
d. Avoid any naughty suggestion that he should engage in the services of a counsel or
how he should plead.
e. When you are certain the driver understands what he should do, close the interview
by:
1. Thanking the driver for his cooperation.
2. Explaining how he may avoid further difficulty.
f. Help the driver get safely through the traffic.
g. When the violator leaves, don’t follow him immediately. He may feel that you are just
waiting to nab him again.

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L. Road Check. This is another enforcement activity where it involves the conducting of actual
inspection of vehicles, and motorists on the road.
1. Objectives of road check. The objective of road check is to detect and inspect the
following:
a. Faulty vehicle equipment b. registration and licensing violations
b. Intoxicated drivers
c. The load or cargo of commercial transportation vehicle for load weight
2. Considerations to be taken.
a. Minimum delay to motorist
b. Thorough checking procedure c. protection/safety of both motorist and officers
c. Timing, location and frequency

In case thorough checking of vehicles will be conducted, take note of the legalities of
searches or the instances that validates the search, i.e., search incidental to lawful arrest,
consented search, search of moving vessel, and search by “tips”.

TRAFFIC DIRECTION AND CONTROL

Concept:
As discussed earlier, the movement of people, goods, vehicles, trains, ships, and
airplanes from one place to another is called traffic. And controlling traffic involves attempts to
make these Movements as fast, safe, and efficient as possible. Aside from
Utilizing traffic signs, pavement markings and markers, and traffic signal systems, one important
aspect of traffic control is the assigning of traffic officers along intersections where traffic
congestions are common problems.

Assigning of traffic officers on strategic places does not only ensure the obedience to
traffic laws, rules and regulations but it also serves as emergency solution when traffic lights
suddenly fail or when the traffic signal light could not control the flow of traffic.
Traffic officers manning intersections can also provide emergency services to the public not only
during lights out but also during disasters or calamities like fire or ambulances responding to fire
or crime scenes. During these moments, traffic officers can immediately give way to responding
fire engines, police cars, or ambulances by directing and control traffic along intersections.

Intersection Defined. As applied to a street or highway means the space occupied by two
streets at the point where they cross each other. Usually, this is the place where traffic
direction and traffic control needed.

Police Traffic Direction. It is defined as telling drivers and pedestrians when, how and
where they may or may not move or stand at a particular place, especially during
emergencies or period of congestion.

A. Who are tasked to direct and guide traffic? In the Philippines, traffic officers are usually
deputized by the Land Transportation Office who normally comes from the PNP-TMG,
Police auxiliaries, MMDA Traffic Management Section. In some Places, volunteers coming
from barangay security forces and other civic organizations assist in the directing and
controlling of traffic particularly during rush hours, special occasions, and time of
emergencies.
B. Directing and Guiding Traffic. The concept for an effective directing and guiding traffic:
1. When you are assigned to direct traffic, you are expected to indicate to the drivers and
pedestrians how, when, and where they may move.
2. In order to do this, use a type of sign language which shall Be clearly understandable to
all persons you will be directing.
3. However, if your signals are different from those used by other officers, motorists would
probably fail to understand them and ignore you altogether.
4. Hence, it is important for the efficient direction of traffic That the officers use uniform
gestures and signals.
5. Moreover, the signals should be able to be seen over a fairly long distance. When
directing traffic, you first want drivers and pedestrians to recognize that you are the officer
who will tell them what to do. But you must also know how to tell them when to stop, go or
turn by using gestures alone.

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6. Normally, this is in the center of the intersection. Stand as though you mean business.
Stand straight with your weigh equally distributed to each foot.
7. When you are not signaling, let your hands fall at your sides. When you authorize vehicles
to move, do not face them. Vehicle. Stand so that your side is toward the oncoming
C. Suggested Methods of Directing and Guiding Traffic.
1. Use hand signals to designate decisions to motorists and pedestrians.
2. Supplement the arm/hand signals with a whistle:
a. one long blow to STOP.
b. two short snappy blasts for GO.
c. three blasts to be used for assistance.
3. If two or more officers are assigned in one intersection, only one makes the decision,
while the other take theirs from him.
4. To stop a moving lane, point at the car you intend to stop and give the driver the
opportunity to stop.
5. The hand signal should be made with the arm extended and the palm facing the person or
vehicle to be stopped.
D. Night Control of Traffic. There are instances when traffic officers are needed to direct and
guide traffic during night time, not only during lights out where traffic lights are not functioning
but also during some instances where an accident occurs and traffic officers are needed to
guide the motorists. Whichever case, the following are the suggested methods to be used while
directing and guiding traffic during night time.
1. When light is sufficient, work as in day time.
2. If light is not sufficient, use flashlight:
a. To STOP, direct the flashlight in line of the vision and move back and forth.
b. To START, use the same motion as in daylight except with flashlight.
c. Supplement the actions with whistle.

TRAFFIC PATROL

Traffic Patrol. It refers to the observation of road conditions, the behavior of the drivers and
other users of vehicles for the purpose of traffic supervision and law enforcement and providing
authorized traffic-connected services to the public.

However, traffic patrol is not all moving from one place to another place, but it also involves
stationary observation particularly on strategic places where accidents and traffic violations are
very common occurrence.

A. Types of Traffic Patrol. Traffic patrol may be conducted on Area or line bases which refer to
the territory covered. It Includes, for enforcement purposes, stationary observation to Detect
drivers’ behavior as well as moving about to detect Violators.

1. Line Patrol. This involves observation either in moving or stationary observation at a

certain route or point of a major street in a city. Usually, this is done by foot patrol officers.
2. Area Patrol. This involves the conduct of observation Either by moving patrol or
observation of a certain area which included a number of streets, roads or sections of a
highway. Area patrolling is usually the job of mobile police officers as well as those
motorcycle cops.
B. Types of Stationary Observation. As discussed earlier, observation of traffic conditions of
selected place, usually one with unfavorable accident experiences for traffic law supervision.
Stationary observation may be conspicuous, visible, or concealed, depending upon the location
of the patrol unit in relation to the street under observation.
1. Conspicuous Observation. Stationary observation in which observer remains in full view
of traffic conditions. Here, the traffic patrol officer is situated in any place where he could
be seen by all traffic users.

2. Visible Observation. Stationary observation in which the observer is in full view but so
located, for example, at side street, so as to require effort on the part of traffic users to
discover the observer.

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3. Concealed Observation. Stationary observation in which the observer is not visible to

persons using ordinary power of observation from the roadway being observed.

C. Purposes of Traffic Patrol. Traffic patrolling is usually conducted for the following purposes:

1. Deterrent to violations and dangerous driving.

2. Detecting and apprehending violators.

3. Observing and reporting traffic conditions.
4. Observing and reporting road conditions, including view obstruction which needs
attention.
5. Providing certain services to the public.
6. Handling emergencies as they arise and keeping traffic Flow smoothly.

D. Deterring Drivers from Violating. The effect of traffic law enforcement on the behavior of
the motorist drivers depends Upon what they think the police will do or the reputation of the
Police for action. Once you have a reputation as a good traffic enforcer for taking action when it
is necessary, a deterrent effect may be achieved in several ways:
1. Be sure you are seen by other motorists while taking enforcement actions against a
violator.
2. Be in full view while simply patrolling or inspecting.
3. Leave the area and proceed to another area after you Have taken enforcement action.
4. In order to achieve a deterrent in law enforcement, be sure to spend more time in some
area wherein motorists or drivers fail to be aware of their common bad driving practices.
5. Enforcement action should be taken at once among habitual violators in order to deter
traffic violators.
E. Deter Violator for Unsafe Driving. Be alert for potentially hazardous drivers. His action may
not be illegal, but may serve as road hazards that need to be cautioned.

This kind of driver may not have enough driving experience; he may be under the influence
of liquor or narcotics that may later on contribute to an accident if no action is taken against him
at once.
F. Example of Actions and Conditions which may Need Close Watching for Further
Investigations. While patrolling, traffic officers must give special attention to some
conditions that may result to greater danger or continuous violations. These are:
1. Driving extremely at low speed.
2. Slow moving vehicles in left or “high speed” lanes.
3. Racing motor sliding stops, jumping starts, and the like.
4. Excessive maneuvering such as backing up four or five times to get into a parking space.
5. Pulling to curb lane at traffic signal.
6. Having turn signals on when not attempting to turn.
7. Waving in roadway.
8. Failing to slow for an intersection with obstructed view.
9. Passing or attempting to pass several cars in a bunch.
10. Suddenly turning off at approach of police vehicle.
11. Teen-age groups at night particularly when in two or more vehicles.
12. Damage or dressed up vehicles
13. Faulty or obscured license plates.
14. Unlighted parked cars with motor running. Warn drivers or pedestrians who are about to
commit a violation. Confirm your observation of a driver by making a sign or signal that his
intended action is to be avoided.
15. For example, a driver may be about to stop and to double park or start to leave a vehicle
which is standing in a driveway. A gesture is usually enough to warn the driver to desist.
G. Detecting and Apprehending Violators. These are the main jobs or duties of traffic patrol
officers.
H. Observing Traffic Conditions. As traffic patrol officer, you are the eyes and ears of the
department when on traffic patrol. You must supply information about what is happening on
the street. This information may be used for many purposes.
[Link] Intelligence. Unusual points of serious congestion Must be noted. You may observe an
unusual amount of delay at a certain intersection each morning and when you learn that it is

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due to loading or unloading of passengers on a “NO LOADINGZONE", be sure to report the

situation at once to your superior officer. Pay special attention to congestions that tie up traffic
for a block or more. You should also report unnecessary delay at stop signs or signals which
are installed when traffic is heavier. Include in your report all road and bridge conditions.
J. Patrol Assignment. You may be assigned to either area or line patrol, or you may have
instructions to use a combination. The following are some for example, you may patrol a
certain street noted for excessive accidents in a line at specific times. guidelines when
assigned in traffic patrol unit.
1. Be sure to be familiar with the street lay out in your area. Learn the short cuts, the
dead ends, and the back streets. Learn which streets are likely to serve as escape
routes from the city or provincial roads.

2. Familiarize yourself with the places where congestion is likely to occur so that you can
"drive around" these places when on emergency call.

3. When assigned to area patrol, you may or may not be able to cover your entire
assignment area on each tour of duty, depending upon its size. You may not be able to
give the same amount of attention to each section due to the necessity of concentrating
on a certain trouble spots. However, you should consider yourself responsible for traffic
conditions in the entire area.

4. When assigned to line patrol, you are responsible for the traffic conditions on a
particular street or highway. You may be permitted to depart from your assigned street
when, for example, you pursue violator or on an authorized break time such as lunch.

5. You may also want to employ patrol techniques which will require you to depart
momentarily from an intersecting street rather than always approaching it from the street
which you are patrolling. At times this will enable you to get better view of traffic
conditions on your assigned street.
K. Patrol Tactics and Techniques. Occasionally, you may have an assignment in which you
work with another patrol unit. When multiple patrol units are used, special tactics are possible.
Examples of these are following:
1. When one unit overtakes a group of vehicles, the other unit brings up the rear of the
group. If one or more drivers in the group think that they can no longer be observed
since they have been passed by the first patrol unit, they feel free to violate. The
following patrol unit observes and apprehends the violators. A conspicuous and
concealed unit may be used together in much the same manner.

2. When an entire column of vehicles must be stopped, one unit stays at the rear while
the other overtakes the leader. If two vehicles are racing, or if two violators separate,
the paired patrol units can separate for individual pursuit.

3. Another advantage of working together is that officers can protect each other,
particularly when approaching suspicious persons or vehicles. Except for special
purposes or occasions, patrol unit works independently so that more areas can be
not covered that way.
L. Steps to Take in Cases of Special and Unusual Situations. Oftentimes, traffic patrol
officers are confronted with unusual situations while on field operations. The following are some
of the guidelines to be observed when faced with unusual incidents:

1. What to do in case of abandoned motor vehicle? A motor vehicle is said to be

abandoned when it is left unattended in an area not provided for parking or unattended for
one or two days in an area provided for parking. For these reasons, unattended vehicles
become a problem to traffic flow. In some instances, they are accidentally found to be a
more serious problem than what is actually thought of, particularly when they are
abandoned by car nappers or hold uppers. Abandoned vehicles may be classified into two
Categories: a) unattended due to mechanical defects, and b) abandoned by car nappers or
hold-up men.
a. In the case of the first category:

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(1)Verify and check on the ownership of the vehicle,

(2)and if possible, advise the owner to relocate the vehicle to a much safer
place.
b. In case of the second category:
(1)Get the plate number and other data of the vehicle,
(2)Make a report on the presence of the abandoned Vehicle to the nearest
TRAFCOM or traffic police unit,
(3)Make possible steps to inform the owner,
(4)bring the vehicle to the TRAFCOM or traffic area and conduct a
Technical Inspection Report in the presence of the alleged owner, (5)
advise the owner to present all pertinent papers of The vehicle for the
identification of the ownership, (6) if the vehicle is found to have violated
any provision of RA 6539, note its violation and together with the
Technical Inspection Report, submit it for investigation, and (7) finally,
submit a duly accomplished spot report.

2. What to do on stalled or bogged down motor vehicles? In most instances, traffic

accidents or jams by stalled or bogged down vehicles that are left Carelessly unattended
in the highways. In these cases, therefore, it is important that you should know the basic
Courses of actions in order to avoid unnecessary risks of Human lives and property and
further allow the continuous Free flow of traffic. When you notice stalled or bogged down
Vehicles having mechanical defects and blocking the roads:
Take these precautionary measures:
a. Check the defect or condition of the vehicle,
b. Ensure the safety of vehicles and persons involved by conducting traffic
direction in the vicinity,
c. If practicable, push the vehicle to the road shoulder. You may request
assistance of other motorists to do this, otherwise avail of wreckers or heavy
trucks to move it,
d. Advise the owner of the vehicle to avail the services of repairman, and
e. Provide early warning devices or any lantern to deter accident occurrences and
provide appropriate precautions for the safety and conveniences of the
repairman and the other motorists.
3. How to handle traffic jam? Traffic Jam is caused by such factor as vehicular accident,
stalled vehicle due to engine trouble, absence of traffic officer at an intersection, or road
construction. Steps to be taken by traffic officer are:
a. Determine the cause of the traffic jam,
b. Where traffic jam is caused by vehicular accident, conduct fast, immediate but
complete investigation and remove vehicles involved at the scene of accident,
c. If traffic jam is caused by mechanical trouble, assist motorist to push the vehicle
to a place where it will not obstruct the flow of traffic,
d. Establish yourself and conduct systematic flow of Traffic,
e. Observe if the flow of traffic became smooth, if not, refer back to letter “a”
above, and
f. Implement proper traffic regulation to avoid traffic jam.
4. In case of vehicle cannibalization. Cannibalization is characterized by stealing the parts of
the motor vehicle instead of car napping the whole car. In case of this incident, take the
following steps:
a. Determine the vehicle parts that were stolen, Vehicle
b. Take down the name of the owner of the vehicle, the description of the
vehicle, and the location or where the incident took place.
c. Look immediate possible clues that might lead to the identification of the
perpetrators or their modus operandi,
d. Interview the witnesses and owner to get a general picture of the situation
prior to the incident,
e. Prepare a spot report and submit it to the nearest TRAFCOM Unit, and
f. If further investigation is necessary, the vehicle may be impounded for
safekeeping

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TRAFFIC ACCIDENT INVESTIGATION

Concept:

Traffic Accident Investigation. Generally, to know what question to ask and what to look
for, you must have some fundamental bearing on accidents and their causes. When you speak
of traffic accident, everybody knows what you mean – SOMETHING WENT WRONG on the
highway, either a wrecked car, somebody is injured or possibly killed.
A. Traffic Accident Investigation Determines? It aims to know the five (5) “W’s” and one (1)
“H” of the incident.

1. WHAT happened?
2. WHO and WHAT was involved?
3. WHERE did it happen?
4. WHY did it happen?
5. HOW did the accident occur?
6. WHEN did the accident happen?

B. Purposes of Traffic Accident Investigation. There are Four (4) main reasons, depending
on who does the investigation:

1. Everyone involved is curious about the causes and circumstances of the accident.
2. For the police to find out whether there is enough Evidence of law violation in the
accident.
3. Claims attorneys and adjusters want to determine negligence on the part of the drivers
involved in the accident so that damage claims can be properly adjusted.
4. Officials and others want specific information about Accidents to know how to prevent
future accidents.
C. Common Words and Phrases Used in Traffic Accident Investigation. The following
words and phrases with their corresponding meaning are often used in the process:
1. Accident. It is that occurrence in a sequence of events which usually produces
unintended injury, death, or property damage.
2. Traffic Accident. An accident involving travel transportation on a traffic way.
3. Motor Vehicle Accident. Events resulting in unintended Injury or property damage
attributable directly or indirectly to the action of a motor vehicle or its loads. Included are:
a. Accidental injury from inhalation of exhaust gas;
b. Fires;
c. Explosion;
d. Discharge of firearm within the motor vehicle while in Motion;
e. Collision between a motor vehicle and a railroad train or street car on stationary rails
or tracks; and
f. Failure of any part of the motor vehicle while the Vehicle is in motion.

Excluded are:
a. Collision of a motor vehicle with an aircraft or water craft in motion;
b. Injury or damage due to cataclysms (flood or sudden physical change of the earth
surface); and
c. Injury or damage while the motor vehicle is not under its power is being loaded on or
unloaded from another conveyance.
4. Motor Vehicle. Every device which is self-propelled and every vehicle which is propelled
by electric power obtained from overhead trolley wires, but not operated upon rails.
5. Key Event. An event on the road which characterizes the manner of occurrence of a
motor vehicle traffic accident.
6. Debris. The scattered broken parts of vehicles, rubbish, dust and other materials left at
the scene of the accident caused by a collision.
7. Skid Marks. These are marks left on the roadway by tires which are not free to rotate,
usually because brakes are applied strong and the wheels locked.
8. Traffic Unit. Any person using a traffic way for travel, Parking or other purposes as a
pedestrian or driver, including any vehicle, or animal which he is using. It applies not
only to motor vehicles but also to:
a. Pedestrians;

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b. Cyclists;
c. Street cars;
d. Horse-drawn (animal-drawn) vehicles; e. Farm tractors; and
e. Other road users in almost any combination – Example: A traffic accident could
involve a cyclist and a pedestrian.
9. Hazards. A hazard is generated when a critical space motion relationship between a
traffic unit and another object develops due to the movement of either or both. Example:
A curve in the path is a hazard. Another traffic unit in the path is also a hazard.
10. Safe Speed. The speed adjusted to the potential or Possible hazards or the road and
traffic situation ahead. Safe speed on the road is determined by the road rather than the
particular driver of a vehicle. Example: A curve ahead is a hazard and a safe speed for it
is a speed at which it can be taken comfortably.
11. Strategy. It is the adjusting of speed, position on the road, and direction of motion,
giving signals of intent to turn or slow down, or any other action in situations involving
potential hazards.
12. Tactic. Any action taken by the traffic unit to avoid hazardous situations like steering,
braking, or accelerating to avoid collision or other accident
13. Impact. The striking of one body against another or a collision of a motor vehicle with
another motor vehicle.
14. Contact Damage. Damage to a vehicle resulting from direct pressure of some foreign
object in a collision or roll over. It is usually indicated by striations, rub – off of material or
puncture.
15. Factor. Any circumstance contributing to a result without which the result could not have
occurred or it is an element necessary to produce the result, but not by itself sufficient.
16. Primary Cause. A misnomer loosely applied to the most Obvious or easily explained
factor in the cause of an accident or the most easily modified condition factor.
17. Cause. The combination of simultaneous and sequential factors without any one of
which result could not have Occurred.
18. Attribute. Any inherent characteristics of a road, a vehicle, or a person that affects the
probability of a traffic accident.
19. Modifier. A circumstance that alters an attribute permanently or temporarily.
D. Kinds of Traffic Accidents. In the investigation of traffic Accidents, it is imperative for the
traffic investigator to know the kinds on accident occurred in order to map out the necessary
activities to be done when responding and investigating.
1. Non-Motor Vehicle Traffic Accident. Refers to any accident occurring on a traffic way
involving persons using the traffic way or travel or transportation, but not involving
vehicle in motion. Example: pedestrian and cyclist in a traffic way.
2. Motor Vehicle Non-Traffic Accident. Any motor vehicle accident which occurs entirely
in any place other than Any motor a traffic way. Example: accident on a private
driveway.
3. Motor Vehicle Traffic Accident. Any motor vehicle Example: collision accident
occurring on a traffic way. between automobiles on a highway.

E. Classification of Motor Vehicle Traffic Accident According to Key Event.

1. Running off road. This is usually characterized by a motor vehicle falling on the roadside
or on a cliff along mountainous roads.
2. Non-collision on road. This does not involve any collision an example of which is
overturning
3. Collision on road. On the other hand, this type of accident includes all forms of accident
as long as there is a collision. Examples of this are motor vehicle colliding with:
a. Pedestrian- may be walking, running or standing on a roadway.
b. Other motor vehicle in traffic - may be head on, head and rear, sides opposite direction,
sides the same direction, head and side collision, etc.
c. Parked motor vehicle the form of collision may be similar to a moving vehicle like head
on collision, however, one is parked anywhere on a roadway.
d. Railroad train this type of collision usually occurs - along railroad crossings.
e. Bicycle in this form of collision, it is either the motor vehicle or the bicyclists who
initiated the collision.
F. Classification of Accidents According to Severity.

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1. Property Damage Accident. There is no fatal or injury to any person but only damage to
the motor vehicle or to other property including injury to animals.
2. Slight. Only slight damages to properties.
3. Non-Fatal Injury Accident. This results in injurie other than fatal to one or more persons.
4. Less Serious. Only less serious injuries to persons.
5. Serious. This causes serious injuries to persons.
6. Fatal. This results in death to one or more persons.

G. Causes of Motor Vehicle Traffic Accidents. Traffic accidents occur due to varying
circumstances and only after thorough investigation, when liability and responsibility can be
ascertained. Notwithstanding that no driver will readily accept that he initiated the accident. With
these, the traffic investigator is faced with a gargantuan task of bringing out the truth on who
should be held responsible for the unusual incident. His primary concern will be to determine
how and why the accident happened.
1. Simultaneous Factors
a. Road conditions.
b. Drivers’ attitude or behavior.
c. Weather condition.
2. Sequential Factors
a. Speed is greater or less than safe. B. Defective vehicle (vehicle malfunction).
3. Operational Factors
a. Road hazards.
b. Driver’s non-compliance to traffic laws, rules and Regulations.
4. Perception Factors
a. Driver’s inability to react promptly to a situation. B. Driver’s faulty action to
escape collision course.
When all possible causes of an accident have been grouped together by an investigating
officer and he believes the accident would not have occurred if any one of these causes did not
exist, then the investigator may have identified the conation of factors causing the accident.

On-the-scene reconstruction of a traffic accident relates accident causation to direct causes for
summary police action and to direct, mediate and early causes for ongoing studies of high
frequency accident locations and future research and analysis.

H. Chain of Events in a Vehicular Accident. For the purpose of reporting, traffic accident may
usually be described well enough as a single occurrence but when accident is investigated,
attention is directed to particular stages of the occurrence. In fact, an accident may be usually
defined as a series of an expected events leading to damage or injury. One event usually leads
to another so that the series can be spoken of as a "chain of events." These events are
described and illustrated below:

1. Perception of Hazard. It is seeing, feeling, or hearing and understanding the usual or

unexpected movement or condition that could be taken as sign of the accident about to
happen.
2. Start of evasive action. It is the first action taken by a traffic unit to escape from a
collision course or otherwise avoid a hazard.
3. Initial Contact. The first accidental touching of an object collision courses or otherwise
avoids a hazard.
4. Maximum Engagement. It is greatest collapse or overlap in a collision. The force
between the traffic unit and the object collided with are greatest at maximum
engagement.
5. Disengagement. It is the separation of a traffic unit in motion from an object with which it
has collided. The force between the object ceases at this time.
6. Stopping. This is when the traffic unit / s involved come to rest. It usually stabilizes the
accident situation.
7. Injury. It is receiving bodily harm. This event does not necessary occur after the accident
but within any of the chain of events. It may also happen right after the evasive action
taken by the drivers involved or during the initial contact.
8. Other events that may occur during an accident.

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a. Point of Possible Perception. The place and time of which the hazard could
have been perceived by a normal person. It precedes actual perception and is
the beginning of perception delay.
b. Point of no Escape. It is that place and time after or beyond which the accident
cannot be prevented by the traffic unit under consideration.
c. Perception Delay. The time from the point of possible perception to actual
perception.
d. Final Position. It is the place and time when objects involved in an accident finally
come to rest without application of power.

K. Five (5) Levels of Activity in Accident Investigation. In the investigation of traffic

accidents, the police are guided by the following stages or levels of investigation:
1. Reporting. This stage involves basic data collection to identify and classify a
motor vehicle, traffic and persons, property and planned movements involved.
2. At-Scene Investigation. This level involves all action taken by the investigator at
the scene of the crime or accident.
3. Technical Preparation. This involves delayed traffic accident data collection and
organization for study and interpretation.
4. Professional Reconstruction. This involves efforts to determine from whatever
information is available, how the accident happened.
5. Cause Analysis. This last level usually involves final analysis on the causes of
accident which are bases for the prevention of similar accident.

L. Steps Taken by the Police during Traffic Accident Investigation. Like in any other
forms of police investigations, the traffic investigators follow chronological steps in
responding and investigating traffic-related accidents to insure gathering of thorough
information.
1. Step One. Upon Learning of the Accident.
a. Ask first: When did the accident happen? Exactly where was it? How bad was
it? Did you see the accident happened? and Where can you be reached?
b. Decide whether to go to the scene: Will scene have been cleared by the time
of arrival? Is it in investigator’s area? and Should headquarters be informed or
consulted?
c. Then find out, if necessary: Is traffic blocked? Has ambulance been called?
Has wrencher been called? and Was fire apparatus called?
2. Step Two. Start for the Scene. With two-way radio, you can do two things while
on the way.
a. Choose Best Approach. Consider: Time; possible traffic jams; possible route
of driver involved; and probable situation at scene.
b. Drive Safely. Get there safely; if you get involved in Accident yourself, then
other units must be used
c. Be Alert for Cars Leaving the Scene: As possible witnesses or hit and run
drivers; and record registration numbers of any likely looking vehicles.

d. Get Equipment Ready for Use. So far as practical on The way.

e. Look for Conditions confronting a driver approaching Scene: Low visibility view
obstructions; and traffic control devices.
f. Note Hazards to approaching Traffic: Drop helper to Direct traffic if necessary;
and look for physical evidence. Has it guarded until it can be examined,
collected or Located?
3. Step Three. Upon Arrival at the Accident Scene.
a. Select parking place carefully: Is it safe? Will it block traffic?; and Can headlight
illuminate scene?
b. Care for injured: Stop arterial bleeding; call for help if necessary; help injured
from cars safely; protect injured from exposure; and ask for emergency
assistance from bystanders from anywhere.
c. Look over bystanders and others: Look for drivers; look for possible witnesses;
look for volunteers who will help you; and get them under control.
d. Have Emergencies Under Control: Have spilled gasoline guarded; look for fire
and electrical hazards; look for traffic hazards; put out flares; ask helper to

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direct traffic; keep bystanders off roadway; and request help from headquarters
if needed.
e. Locate drivers: Consider possibility of hit and run accident; and need to alert
headquarters.
f. Measure location of short lived evidences.
g. Arrange for clearing roadway.
h. Delay removal of vehicles except to aid injured.
4. Step Four. When Emergency is Under Control.
a. Preliminary questioning of drivers: Who was driving each vehicle?; Note
unpremeditated statement; and look for signs of nervousness, confusion and
intoxication.
b. Gather clues for identifying hit and run cars: Question other witnesses
especially bystanders in hurry to go; and if needed, get signed statement at
once from why who may be hard to find later.
c. Examine drivers’ conditions: Get specimen for chemical Test; and question
about trip plan for possible fatigue.
d. Question drivers carefully: Check license and record data from it; verify and
identify address; check registration and record data; verify ownership and
correct address; and Get step by step account of what driver saw and did.
e. Position and condition of vehicles: Note lights and light switches; note gear
position and tires; mark position of vehicles if it must be removed; and look for
unusual thing inside the vehicles.
f. Form preliminary opinion as to how accident occurs.
g. Photography: Photograph skid mark and location of vehicles; and mark skid
mark location for later measurement.
h. Record place to which injured persons or damage vehicles were or will be
taken.
5. Five. After Getting Short-live Evidence.
a. Get additional evidence: Make test skids; decide whether proof of violation is
sufficient for arrest; if so, make arrest or issue citation; get additional formal
statements, from witnesses remaining at the scene; and have road clear if traffic is
obstructed.
b. Suggestion to drivers, if necessary: How much accidents can be avoided in the
future; and tell drivers what reports they must make and dismiss them.
c. Approach the scene by path of each traffic unit involved. Look for: View
obstructions; traffic control devices, etc.; probable points of perception; and road
surface conditions.
d. Complete examinations of vehicles.
e. Locate key event of accident.
f. Make additional photographs of: Vehicle damage; view obstruction; pavement’s
conditions; and control devices, and general view, etc.
g. Establish exact location of accident and record it. H. Measure for scale diagram if
location is hard to reach.
h. Measure for scale diagram if location is hard to reach.
i. Review notes of evidence or testimony: Get additional facts at scene; and identify
all notes with places and time.
j. Clean up location or arrange to have it done.
k. Report to headquarters by radio or telephone. Nowadays, the cellular phone is a
ready alternative in reporting to police headquarter.
6. Six. After Leaving the Scene:
a. medical report on injured persons from doctor or Hospital.
b. Question drivers or witnesses: At hospital or home if not adequately questioned;
and take needed additional statements.
c. Notify: Relatives of dead or injured; and/or Owner of vehicles.
d. Have specimens analyzed if were taken for chemical or laboratory test.
e. Have photograph developed; get prints if needed for Report
f. Complete the report of the accident: Have copies made if necessary; file report
and copies; and complete factual data on investigation report if not completed at
scene.

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g. Decide whether analysis of accident is warranted by the time available for

making it.
h. Reconstruction of the accident: Estimate speeds of vehicles involved; draw scale
diagram; analyze angle of collision; get technical help if necessary; and
summarize opinions.
i. Present case summary to a lawyer.
j. Complete report or investigation.
k. Submit to superior for approval.
l. Inform other Agencies or departments of at the scene which needs attention for
safety. Any condition
7. Step Seven. If Case Goes to Court:
a. Find out what the prosecutor wants further to develop evidence.
b. Return to the scene if necessary for the following: Additional photographs of
general scene and long-lived evidence; measure for scale diagram for use in
court; and Locate additional witnesses and review their testimony.
c. Locate also, if necessary: Relatives and friends who confirm activities before the
accident; technicians who developed pictures, made chemical tests, etc.; and
expert who can help.
d. Have enlargement made of any photo needed in court.
e. Enlarge scale diagram made for court use.
f. Pre-trial conference with prosecution witnesses to review testimony.
g. Insure that subpoenas are issued.
h. Testify in court.
i. Organize papers and file permanently, if necessary, for future reference.
j. Insure that the disposition of case is recorded in drivers’ record and other reports.
K. The Traffic Accident Report. In the preparation of the traffic accident investigation
report, the officer of the case must consider the following:
1. Uniform traffic Accident Reporting System.
2. Preparation of Traffic Accident Report:
a. By a competent, bonafide traffic accident investigator.
b. Requirements for an investigator in the submission of report such as evidence
gathered, diagrams, sketches as well as sworn statements of witnesses.
c. Traffic Accident Investigation Report will be accomplished in five (5) copies for:
The Court or Prosecutor’s Office; TRAFCOM (TMG) or Traffic Division; the
Investigator; the Insurance company of Party-involved #1; and the Insurance
Co. of Party-involved #2.

HIT-AND-RUN INVESTIGATION
Rationale.
The objective of the investigation of a motor vehicle accident involving the flight of one of the
participants is twofold: First, responsibility for the collision must be determined; and second, the
identity of the driver of the vehicle who fled the scene must be established.
This lesson covers the latter of these objectives, the identification of the driver who left
the scene without complying with the legal requirement of stopping, giving aid and identifying
himself to the other participants.

A. Hit-and-run Cases Defined. Evading responsibility is a term commonly applied to a traffic

accident in which a driver fails to comply with any of the duties required by Sec. 55 of RA
4136. Further, it states that no driver of a motor vehicle concerned in a vehicle accident shall
leave the of the accident without aiding the victim, except under any of the following
circumstances, as discussed earlier in this book: If the driver is in imminent danger of being
seriously harmed by any person or persons by reason of the accident; if the driver reports the
accident to the nearest officers of the law; or if the driver has to summon a physician or nurse
to aid the victim.

B. Reasons of Apprehending and Prosecuting Hit-and-Run Drivers. Hit-and-run drivers

must be apprehended and the proper charges must be filed against them because of the
following reasons:
1. Injury might have been lessened or death prevented if the driver had promptly sought
help instead of leaving the accident scene;

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2. Streets would not be safe if motorists could flee accident scenes without accepting
responsibility. Unless the negligent Driver is found, accident victims cannot get
compensation for injuries and property damage;
3. Public knowledge that the police usually apprehend and convict hit-and-run drivers
deters other drivers who might otherwise be inclined to evade responsibility by
committing this serious offense; and
4. Since leaving the scene of an accident is not socially acceptable, the police secure
increased public support for the entire traffic control program by prompt apprehension
and successful prosecution of these offenders.

C. Two Important Considerations. In any investigation of this kind of accident, two basic
considerations must be kept in mind. These are:
1. The driver who flees the scene of an accident is not necessarily the driver responsible
for the accident. His reasons for flight are often more important than the simple evasion
of responsibility. He may be wanted for another crime, or intoxicated, or without a valid
license, etc.

2. The hit-and-run driver often will report the damage to his own vehicle as having been the
result of another hit-and-run accident in which some “other mysterious driver” fled
without identifying himself. Similarly, it is not unusual for the hit-and run driver to
abandon his vehicle and then report it stolen as a means of covering up his involvement
in the accident.
As stated earlier, the basic objective of these investigations is the identification of the driver who
fled the scene. The discovery and arrest of the driver, once identified generally comes after the
location and recovery of the vehicle.
However, the mere recovery of the vehicle does not always Immediately establish the identity of
the driver.

D. Elements of Hit-and-Run. To attain the objective of identifying and apprehending the hit-
and-run driver, as the investigator:
1. You must prove suspect was driving the vehicle at the Time of the accident. Even if you
have witnesses to prove This, get evidence to disprove his alibi.
2. Suspect was involved in an accident resulting in death, personal injury or damage to
property.
3. Suspect failed to stop, give aid or information as to his identity to other person (s)
involved, to police or to anyone at the accident scene; or failed to take reasonable steps to
notify the owner of damaged property other than a vehicle. Do not overlook the possibility
of a simulated second accident to explain damaged caused by the first accident.
4. Suspect had knowledge of the accident.
a. Physical evidence may prove the vehicle figured in the accident.
b. Extent of damage to vehicle. Extensive damage to vehicle would preclude allegation of
lack of knowledge. If suspect refrained from using his vehicle for several days since the
accident, this would also indicate the guilt.
c. Guard against claims that the vehicle was stolen to evade responsibility.
4. The Hit-and-Run Operator. The personality of the hit-and Run driver may be one of the
following:
1. Three categories based upon possible psychological explanations for their motivation
of flight:
a. Apprehensive- panic-drive, fearful driver: intoxicated Drivers; without license; no
insurance; his companion in the car is not his/her mate; stolen car; stolen goods in
car; leaving scene of another crime; and fleeing crime scene or wanted for crime
b. Projectionist- projects guilt. This type of sits as judge and jury, tried the case
himself, finds the other driver at fault refuses to be a party to the accident and drives
off as offended person.
c. The sneak operator. This type involves minor property-damage-only accidents like
one that smashes a C. fender and smashes grillwork in his daily occupational
activities and chalks up his action as the calculated risk shared by all vehicle owners
who place their vehicles on the roadway.
2. Classes of Hit-and-Run Drivers. They could be: Drunk drivers; criminals fleeing from
the scene of the crime; improperly licensed drivers or drivers with no license or with

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revoked or expired license; drivers who fear publicity and prosecution; ignorance of the
accident; driver who flees in panic; drug addicts; insurance or financial reasons; and or
juveniles.
F. Preliminary Steps in Hit-and-Run Investigation. The following usually serve as the
guideline for hit-and-run cases investigators:
1. Refer to checklist on Accident Investigation.
2. Obtain the best possible descriptions of the car and driver.
a. A good description may be obtained from partial descriptions given by witnesses.
b. Get the license plate and any unusual features of the vehicle.
c. Concentrate on the car’s description first.
d. Dispatch initial description and all subsequent information to the Headquarters and to
police agencies that may assist in spotting and stopping the suspect vehicle.
e. Broadcast descriptions of the suspected car and driver to all police units and offices.
f. Try to determine the damage to the fleeing car.
3. Appeal for information through local newspapers, radio, T.V., etc.
4. Carefully search the hit-and-run scene for physical evidence.
a. These may include broken glasses and fragments, hubcaps, paint scrapping from hit-
and-run car, other evidence such as dirt from subject car, radiator, ornament, etc..
b. Carefully preserve and label all evidence found at the scene.
c. Request laboratory study of evidence.
d. Watch out for the possible return of the hit-and-run driver to the scene of the accident.
This has been known to happen.
5. The Victim
a. Check his clothing; other parts of his body, tire marks, grease, paint chips, fragments,
and such things that might have been left on him by the suspect car.
b. If the victim is killed, get samples of uncontaminated blood from him at the morgue and
samples of hair, skin, etc..
c. Collect and preserve for laboratory examination, the clothes, shoes, and other items he
was wearing at the time of the accident.
G. Follow-up Investigation. The investigator should: During follow-up investigation,

1. Interview persons living along the route taken by the hit And-run driver; also operators of
filling stations and garages.
2. Canvass parking lots and other filling stations and garages.
3. Return to the accident scene at the same time on subsequent days and on the same day
of the following weeks to obtain additional witnesses such as delivery men operating on
scheduled routes.
4. Follow-up phone calls to garages and dealers of auto parts.
5. Continue appealing for information through the press, radio and TV.
H. Search for Suspect Car. If it is located and recovered:
1. Look for physical evidence, such as latent fingerprints, pieces of clothing, marks,
damaged parts, hair, blood, etc. which will identify the car as that involved in the hit-and-
run accident.
2. Search the undercarriage of the suspect car. Determine also if there is indication of
disturbance in the grease or dirt adhering to it.
3. Make a careful investigation for replaced parts.
J. Interview of Suspect. When the suspect is apprehended:
1. Obtain a signed statement if you can.
2. Get a full account of suspect’s whereabouts and write it down just in case he refutes in
later.
3. Approach and apprehend the driver of the suspect car as soon as his identity and
whereabouts are ascertained.
4. Place the driver in a defensive position by properly directed questions upon apprehend.

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SKIDMARKS AS A TOOL IN TRAFFIC ACCIDENT INVESTIGATION

Concept

Skid marks. The sudden application of brakes which results in the locked wheel
condition places great pressure between the brake shoe and the brake drum that the frictional
force at this point becomes greater than the frictional force between the tire and the road
surface. When this condition exists, the wheels skid.
A. Skidmarks as a Tool in Traffic Accident Investigation. The following are the principles
underlying on skid marks: as tool in investigation.
1. Measurement of skidmarks gives idea on how fast the car which left these marks was
going prior to the accident.
2. Estimates of speed based on skidmarks may lead to convictions; or knowing how to
estimate speed correctly may help to keep an innocent person from being convicted.
For example, skidmarks 80 feet long were measured at an accident scene. A test skid
made 20 miles per hour showed 20 feet long skidmarks. It was argued in court that with
skidmarks 20 feet long from a speed of 20 miles per hour, the car must be going 80 miles
per hour to leave 80 feet skidmarks. The driver was unjustly convicted. His actual speed
was more nearly half of that, or 40 miles per hour.
B. Other Tire Marks. The investigators’ first job is to find out if The mark on the pavement is a
skid mark or another type of tire mark. Thus, he must familiarize himself with the following
marks that may be left by a motor vehicle on a road surface:
1. Centrifugal skid mark. A marking on a roadway left by a rotating tire and wheel of a
speeding vehicle on a curve when the speed of the vehicle is above the critical speed of
the curve and the centrifugal force entirely or partially overcomes the friction between the
mass of the vehicle and its tires and the surface of the roadway.
2. Impending skid marks. Marks caused by the forward rotation of the wheels being slower
than the forward movement of the vehicle. The shadowy beginning of a skid mark along
the approach path of the vehicle is the impending skid mark (a.k.a. as tire shadow marks),
while the darker markings are the skid marks which begins in the impending skid mark
and ends at the point of collision or final rest.
3. Yawn mark. A scuffmark made while a vehicle is yawning the mark made on the road by a
rotating tire which is slipping in a direction parallel to the axle of the wheel.
4. Skip mark. A braking skid mark interrupted at frequent regular intervals; the skid mark
made by a bouncing wheel on which brakes keep the wheel from turning. Compare with
gap skid.
5. Side Skid Mark (Scuff mark)-It is a roadway marking left by the tire and wheel of a vehicle
sliding sideways as a result of force other than centrifugal force
6. Gap skid. A braking skid mark which is interrupted by release and reapplication of brakes
or which terminates be release of brakes before collision.
C. Other Marks and Impression Left by a Motor Vehicle either on the Road Surface or on
the Other Motor Vehicle. When a motor vehicle overturned or collided with another object like
another motor vehicle, it sometimes impresses or leaves marks that may be used to identify the
motor vehicle, if it fled the accident scene. These impressions or markings are:
1. Ruts. A sunken track worn by a wheel, as in road; hence, a groove forming a path for
anything.

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 TRAFFIC MANAGEMENT AND ACCIDENTAL INVESTIGATION WITH DRIVING (CDI4)

2. Gouge. A groove made by a hard part of a motor vehicle to another car after side
sweeping each other or it may be left. On a road surface by a motor vehicle which
overturned then Slid on the road surface.
3. Paint Strips. When a vehicle collided with other object, It sometimes transfers its paint to
the other object.
D. Skidmarks as Evidence in Accident Cases. Skidmarks will: Aid in determining the speed
prior to the accident or collision; show if the vehicle was traveling in the wrong side of the road;
indicate if the driver failed to observe the right of way; and also show if the driver did not obey a
traffic signal.
E. Skidmarks Do Not Show All of the Speed. Skidmarks Never show all of the speed of a car
before the accident happened. They show only how far the car would have had to slide to stop
in the distance shown by skidmarks.
Evidence of Additional Speed. A car is somewhat going faster and often faster is
calculated from skidmarks because in addition to losing speed is sliding the distance shown by
the skidmarks, the car losses some of its speed on one or more of the following ways:
1. Sliding with one or more wheels before any skidmarks begin to appear. Dark clear
skidmarks do not appear until the tires have slid far enough to get hot enough to smear
rubber or scar on the pavement. This is less true on such materials as gravel and dirt.
2. Braking without skidding. Cases that the motor vehicle does not skid particularly: before
sliding begins; during gaps; and after marks and before the car comes to rest.
3. Dragging the car as it hits some object.
4. Damaging other cars or objects.
5. Sliding other cars or objects along the way
6. Vaulting or bouncing up into the air.
F. How to Estimate the Approximate Speed of Motor Vehicle in Case Skid Mark is not
present? In many accidents Of course, other evidence of terrific speed is the WRECKAGE
(EXTENT OF DAMAGE), but there are no skid marks at all because brakes were not put on
hard enough to lock the wheels. The following guides the investigator:
1. When brakes are put on just before contact of vehicles, the skid marks maybe only two
or three feet long and therefore, show a speed of only five or six miles per hour. While
the wreckage tells that total speed may have been ten times as great.
2. In accident in which most of the speed is lost in skidding, the speed calculated from
skidmarks may come close to showing how fast the car was actually going. Accidents
involving pedestrians are the most common ones of this kind.
3. In any accident in which great damage was done will skidmarks show more than small
part of the speed, often a very minor part of it; but if the skidmarks have been rightly
identified and measured, it can be said that the car was going faster than the speed
calculated from the skidmarks, much faster if there was considerable damage.
G. Things that Determine Skidding Distance. How far a car will take to skid or slide to stop
when all four wheels are locked depends on many things. Three of these factors are important,
and you must consider them in every estimate of speeds based on skidmarks: Speed itself is by
far the most important; slipperiness of the pavement; and grade or slop of the road whether road
up or down.
H. Other Factors that Affect the Skidding. Every driver knows, of course, that it takes much
longer to stop on pavements that are slippery, and that he can stop more quickly on an upgrade
than downgrade road.
Of many other factors on which distance depends, none has had a very great effect. Most of
them will affect a calculated speed by only a few miles per hour. They, therefore, have a little
effect on the speed calculated from the skidmarks usually not More than a couple of miles per
hour. Among those other factors are the following:
1. Brake Pedal Pressure. When wheels are actually sliding, additional brake pedal
pressure will not make the stop any quicker. Once the wheels have been locked and the

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 TRAFFIC MANAGEMENT AND ACCIDENTAL INVESTIGATION WITH DRIVING (CDI4)

car is sliding, the brakes have done all they can in slowing the car and the grab of the
pavement on the tires is what determines how fast the car will slow down.
2. Weight of the Car. Makes a great difference in stopping Distance before the wheel’s
lock, but once they have locked, it makes a very little difference. It is true that it takes
much greater pressure to lock the wheels on a vehicle when it is heavily loaded than it is
empty. However, when the wheels are once looked, a greater weight of the vehicle,
which gives it greater momentum, also causes it to press harder on the road surface and
therefore, give it a corresponding greater drag from the pavement.
3. Tire Thread. On the most ordinary surfaces, a smooth tire and one with a deep tread
pattern will stop the car in about the same distance. On some other surfaces, particularly
on ice, a smooth tread is better because it distributes the weight over a greater area.
4. Air Pressure. Makes a very slight difference in stopping Distance. On ice, for example,
soft tire will distribute the weight a little more and give somewhat better traction.
5. Tire Material. There is a slight difference between tires made of synthetic and those
made of natural rubber.
6. Road Surface. Of surfaces such as mud, snow, and on Ice, tires equipped with chains
have a better road-gripping capacity. On some hard pavements, however, chains may
decrease road-gripping capacity.
7. Direction of Slides. Makes a slight but unimportant difference. A tire will lengthwise
except in materials so soft that it plows or sinks.
8. Temperature of the Air and the Road Surface. Make some difference. In general, on
ordinary pavements, hot weather produces longer stopping distance. This is not
necessarily on ice and snow.
9. Against Head Wind. A car will slide a little farther from given speed with a tall wind than
against a head wind, but this is not a matter of great importance.
I. Speed Estimates. For most ordinary purposes, you do not have to consider those minor
factors in establishing speeds from skidmarks. Because the minor factors are neglected, we
cannot calculate speeds precisely. We only estimate them. Some of the minor factors would
tend to give a higher speed and others a lower speed, and they would partly balance or cancel
out.
Sometimes all of the factors tend to give a high estimated speed. In this connection, the
skidmarks do not show all of the speed and therefore, the probable actual speed is still greater
than your estimate.
J. Facts Needed. Good estimate of speed is based on certain facts that come from
observations and measurements at the scene of the accidents. The accuracy of the
estimate depends upon the accuracy of these observations and measurements.
(1) Length of Skidmark. Consider the following:
a. Be sure they are skidmarks – not just tire marks.
b. Did all wheels’ slide or just some of them? It makes little difference if tire is
sliding forward or sidewise.
c. Are there any gaps in the skidmarks? Be sure there are gaps caused by a
release of brake pedal pressure and not skids caused by bounced.
d. What is the length of each skidmarks around any curves? It may not make
straight from beginning to the end in the shortest line. You may want to consider
two separate lengths for each Skid mark. One of these is based on the part of
the Skid mark you can positively identify. It Gives you speed which will be
minimum beyond reasonable. Doubt. The other is a possible skidmark which
will give you a more likely speed. The first is all you can use in court, the second
is often much useful in figuring out just what did happen in the accident.
e. Use the length that the wheel’s skid, not the tire slid. Dual tires which leave two
marks are considered as one Wheel, and the Skid mark length is counted if
either tire on the wheel leaves this mark. F. There are two ways of figuring the
length of a slide if all on the same kind of pavement. These are:
(1) Straight Line. A slide is considered straight if both rear-wheel skidmarks do not go
off to one side of the front wheel skidmarks.
(a) Use the length of the longest Skid mark left by any wheel minus gaps in it. This
method is possible because all wheels slide about the same distance. We know

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 TRAFFIC MANAGEMENT AND ACCIDENTAL INVESTIGATION WITH DRIVING (CDI4)

that the brakes definitely have been applied throughout the entire distance of the
longest Skid mark.
(b) If one wheel does not slide as far as the others, still it was about to slide when the
others began. The drag on the pavement by this wheel is about the same just
before it begins to slide as when it is actually sliding. It may even be greater.
(c) Therefore, we are usually safe in saying that all wheels are dragging as much as
if there were sliding wheel skid applies to motorcycles, trucks, truck and trailer
combinations, and buses as well as ordinary motor vehicles.

(2) Spin. A slide is considered a spin if both rear wheel skidmarks do get off to one
side of the front wheel skidmarks.
(a) Take the length of each skidmarks minus gaps. Add the Skid mark length for all
wheels and divide the numbers of wheels.
(b) This method is necessary in the case of the spins because some of the wheels
slid much fartherThan others; one end of the car may practically stand still while
the other sweeps around it.
(c) Use this method only when there is about the same weight on front and rear
wheels; that is usually for ordinary cars, motorcycles, and light trucks with
trailers or heavily loaded trucks having duel tires on the rear wheels. Uneven
weight with a spin requires special calculations.
(d) This method gives you a figure for the sliding distance of the vehicle. It is not
necessary to compute it more accurately than to the nearest foot. For this length
you may have two figures, one a positive distance and one a possible distance.

G. Unfortunately, many investigations are carelessly made. For example, investigators may:
(1) Fail to show whether all wheel slid
(2) Fail to include in the sliding distance a skid shown by a shadow as well as that
more clearly shown by the smear of the hot tire.
(3) Neglect to note whether they are gaps in any of The skidmarks.
(4) Show only an overall length without separate measurements for each wheel. This
usually includes the wheel base of the car with the result that the sliding distance
appears to be length longer than it really is.
(5) Fail to note whether the skidmarks are straight or A spin.
(6) Measure straight across from beginning to the end of a curve skidmarks rather
than around its length.
H. If the facts are not all there, assumptions should have to be made about the distance the car
slid. For legal purposes, you may assume only what may be true beyond reasonable doubt.
Hence, poor observations and measurements often leave you little value to go on.
I. Nevertheless, reasonable assumptions regarding conditions which more definitely observed in
investigations may be very helpful in coming to a conclusion about what probably happened.
2. Coefficient of Friction or Drag Factor. It is the measurement of the maximum frictional
resistance of pavements. It is equal to the force exerted when the wheels are skidding divided
by the weight of the car.
Slipperiness of surface must also be known in order to calculate speeds from skidmarks.
Slipperiness by a number, usually decimal less than 1.00. We tell what this When any object is
sliding, the surface it slid on puts a friction drag on sliding tire that slows the car. A slippery
movement creates a small friction drag and an abrasive pavement a big drag. If we divide the
amount of friction drag in pounds by the weight of the car in pounds, we get the number that
describes the slipperiness.
a. Principle of Computation. For example, the drag of the pavement on the sliding tires
of an automobile is 3, 000 lbs. The automobile weights 4, 000 lbs. The number
representing the slipperiness of the pavement, or its friction drag, is then 3,000
divided by 4,000 or 0.75.
(1) This friction drag factor or slipperiness number is called technically the
“COEFFICIENT OF FRICTION.” You can measure the drag factor of a pavement

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 TRAFFIC MANAGEMENT AND ACCIDENTAL INVESTIGATION WITH DRIVING (CDI4)

by making a test skid which tells how far a car slides on that pavement while
stopping from a known speed.

(2) The drag factor or coefficient of friction can be determined by use of a formula. If
we let “S” stand for the speed in miles per hour from which the test skid is made
and “D” the distance in feet that car slides in coming to stop, then the drag factor,
which we call “F”, the formula will be:
F= S2/30(D)
(3) The “30” is the formula because speed is given in miles per hour and the distance
in feet (transformation of feet per second to miles per hour). It is called a constant
because it stayed the same in all problems for which the formula is used.
(4) Thus, to find slipperiness number, F, we multiply this speed by itself and then
divided by 30 times the stopping distance. You do not need to carry the division
out more than two places to the right of the decimal point.
a. Applying the Principle of Computation. On a test to measure pavement
slipperiness, a car was stopped in 40 ft. from 30 miles per hour.
(1) Substituting these numbers for the letters representing them in the
formula, and doing the arithmetic involved, we have:
F= S^/ 30D = 30^/ 30(40) = 900 1,200 =0.75

(2) It is very important that the test skids to measure pavement slipperiness
be correctly made. unlikely to do it right without special experience.
(3) At least two skids are desirable. Compute the slipperiness separately for
each. Unless these are within 0.05 each other friction calculated from any of
several test skids made on the same paving. This is necessary if you want to
be sure beyond reasonable doubt of calculated speeds.
(4) Test skids using the same car that was in the accident are the best. They
thus take care of some of the minor factor such as the weight of the car, the
tire material, the tread pattern, tire pressure and therefore, make the
estimate more reliable.
3. Grade or slope (Gradient). This is the degree of inclination or declination of the road. It is
quicker to stop uphill than on level road and downhill road.
a. Grade is measured by a number usually less than 1.00. The measurement is the number
of the feet that the road rises or falls for each feet of the horizontal distance.
b. To find: divide the vertical rise or fall by the horizontal distance. It is not necessary to carry
these divisions more than two places to the right of the decimal.
c. Use this formula:

f= vertical distance/ vertical rise or fall.

d. Possible ranges of pavement Drag Factors for rubber tires. The drag factor or coefficient of
friction of a pavement of a given description may vary considerably because quite a
variety of road surfaces maybe described in the same way. Some of these variations are
due to the weight of the vehicles, air pressure in the tire; tread design, air temperature,
speed and some other factors.
4. Reaction Time. This is the distance traveled before applying the brakes. It is computed by:
a. Divide seconds in an hour (3,600) into feet in a mile (5, 280) = 1, 467
b. To determine distance, you will travel in one second, multiply 1.467 (1.47 or 1.50)
times the speed at which you are traveling.
c. Time to get foot off the accelerator and slam it on the brake is ¾ of a second on
the average. The age of the driver should be considered.
d. X speed = length in feet covered before brake works.

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 TRAFFIC MANAGEMENT AND ACCIDENTAL INVESTIGATION WITH DRIVING (CDI4)

5. Brake Tests. The brakes of the car can be tested when the test skids are made. If the brakes
are inadequate, the operator should be advised that he may attempt to demonstrate their
adequacy.
a. In most states (U, S.), a vehicle traveling at 20 mph must stop within the following
minimum distances: Two wheel brakes-foot pedal: vehicle should stop within 45 ft;
four-wheel brakes-foot pedal: vehicle should stop within 30 ft.; and hand brakes:
vehicle should stop within 75 ft.
b. Brake tests should not be conducted when the road surface is wet. Tests on wet
surfaces may result in personal injuries to bystanders or others concerned in the
tests. The vehicle should be examined to ascertain if it complies with legal safety
requirements and whether its braking system is in operating order.
c. Use of Decelerometers. These are devices which hold Their readings and indicate
on a clocklike face braking Efficiency of the car being tested.
K. Procedure followed by the Philippine National Police (PNP). Members of the PNP when
considering skid mark as evidence observe the following:
(1) The officer submits as evidence in a case the measurements of the skidmarks and
the Court interprets the facts in the light of other evidence: Some courts require the
assistance of an expert; measurements should be accomplished by two men; and
sketches and photographs with measurements indicated should be made soon
after the accident.
(2) Some police departments have their officers skid a vehicle to a stop from the legal
speed limit, if this can be done safely, and compare the skidmarks with those in the
accident.
(3) Some would draw conclusions from tests based on physical calculation.
(4) Measurement of Skidmarks
a. Should meet legal standards. Officers measuring the skidmarks and the
distances should verify each other’s measurements so that they can corroborate
each other’s testimony in court.
b. Evidence should be presented to show that the skidmarks were made by the
suspect car.
c. Witnesses should testify in court
APPENDICES
THE TEN (10) COMMANDMENTS OF TRAFFIC
1. KEEP RIGHT
2. OBSERVE ROAD COURTESY. by yielding to emergency Pedestrians, trains, vehicles with
right of way, vehicles ahead, large vehicles, uphill traffic, traffic momentum, straight traffic and
traffic signs.
3. VEHICLES SHOULD NOT BE PARKED NEAR INTERSECTION, CROSSWALK,
PEDESTRIAN LANES, FIRE STATIONS, FIRE vehicles, HYDRANT, AND PRIVATE
DRIVEWAYS
4. IF IN DOUBT, DO NOT OVERTAKE – In general, the overtaking lane is the lane to the left of
the overtaken vehicle going the same direction. The overtaken vehicle is the burden vehicle.
5. THE BUS STOP RULE-Buses queue up on single file in their order Of arrival. The lead bus
moves forward to the center of the column of buses lining-up on the bus stop zone, and remain
until the zone is filled up with buses, but not longer than three minutes. Any bus has the option
to move-out of the area anytime or bypass a bus stop. There shall be no doubling up at any
point in the bus stop zone.
6. TO PREVENT OR UNTANGLE TRAFFIC CONGESTION OR TRAFFIC JAM – Keep
opposing lanes and intersection open. In heavy, slow or stopped traffic, there shall be no
overtaking. In a construction, the vehicles should merge alternately.
7. OBSERVE THE TRAFFIC MANAGEMENT MEASURE – Like the busy yellow lane rule, bus
stop segregation scheme, truck ban, counter low-reversible lane, one way, car pool (at least
three passengers in EDSA), odd and even scheme and restraints on turning.

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8. THE PHILOSOPHY OF A PINOY DRIVER- Motorist should observe equity of the lead
vehicle, doctrine of the last clear chance, and the first-come first-served or rotunda rule.
9. ON PEDESTRIANS – Keep off roadway except to cross on crosswalk or pedestrian lane,
wait, embark, and alight at bus jeepney stop.
10. REMEMBER THE INTERNATIONAL DRIVING SAFETY REMINDER- SAFETY FIRST

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COURTESY OF CATHERINE M. KENIO, RCrim
INSTRUCTOR: NEMELYN D. PUMANTOC, RCrim