Chapter 9

Linear Momentum and Collisions

 Momentum Analysis Models
• Force and acceleration are related by Newton’s second
law.
• When force and acceleration vary by time, the situation
can be very complicated.
• The techniques developed in this chapter will enable you
to understand and analyze these situations in a simple
way.
• Will develop momentum versions of analysis models for
isolated and non-isolated systems
• These models are especially useful for treating problems
that involve collisions and for analyzing rocket propulsion.

Introduction
 Thought Experiment
• An archer stands on frictionless ice and fires an arrow.
What is the archer’s velocity after firing the arrow?
– Motion models such as a particle under constant acceleration
cannot be used.
• No information about the acceleration of the arrow
– Model of a particle under constant force cannot be used.
• No information about forces involved
– Energy models cannot be used.
• No information about the work or the energy (energies) involved
• A new quantity is needed – linear momentum.

Section 9.1
 Linear Momentum
• The linear momentum of a particle or an object that can be modeled
as a particle of mass m moving with a velocity v is defined to be the
product of the mass and velocity:
p  mv
• The terms momentum and linear momentum will be used interchangeably in
the text.
• Linear momentum is a vector quantity.
– Its direction is the same as the direction of the velocity.
• The dimensions of momentum are ML/T.
• The SI units of momentum are kg · m / s.
• Momentum can be expressed in component form:
px = m vx py = m vy pz = m vz

Section 9.1
 Momentum and Kinetic Energy
• Momentum and kinetic energy both involve mass and
velocity.
• There are major differences between them:
– Kinetic energy is a scalar and momentum is a vector.
– Kinetic energy can be transformed to other types of energy.
• There is only one type of linear momentum, so there are no similar
transformations.
• Analysis models based on momentum are separate from
those based on energy.
• This difference allows an independent tool to use in
solving problems.

Section 9.1
Newton’s Second Law and Momentum
• Newton’s Second Law can be used to relate the momentum of a
particle to the resultant force acting on it.
dv d  mv  dp
F  ma  m  
dt dt dt
with constant mass
• The time rate of change of the linear momentum of a particle is equal
to the net force acting on the particle.
– This is the form in which Newton presented the Second Law.
– It is a more general form than the one we used previously.
– This form also allows for mass changes.

Section 9.1
 Conservation of Linear Momentum
• Whenever two or more particles in an isolated
system interact, the total momentum of the system
remains constant.
– The momentum of the system is conserved, not
necessarily the momentum of an individual particle.
• Avoid applying conservation of momentum to a single
particle.
– This also tells us that the total momentum of an
isolated system equals its initial momentum.

Section 9.2
 Conservation of Momentum, 2
• Conservation of momentum can be expressed mathematically in
various ways:
ptotal = p1 + p2 = constant
p1i + p2i = p1f + p2f
– This is the mathematical statement of a new analysis model, the isolated
system (momentum).
• In component form, the total momenta in each direction are
independently conserved.
p1ix + p2ix = p1fx + p2fx p1iy + p2iy = p1fy+ p2fy p1iz + p2iz = p1fz + p2fz
• Conservation of momentum can be applied to systems with any
number of particles.
• The momentum version of the isolated system model states whenever
two or more particles in an isolated system interact, the total momentum
of the system remains constant.

Section 9.2
Forces and Conservation of Momentum
• In conservation of momentum, there is no statement
concerning the types of forces acting on the particles of the
system.
• The forces are not specified as conservative or non-
conservative.
• There is no indication if the forces are constant or not.
• The only requirement is that the forces must be internal to
the system.
– This gives a hint about the power of this new model.

Section 9.2
Conservation of Momentum, Archer
Example Revisited
• The archer is standing on
a frictionless surface (ice).
• Approaches:
– Motion – no
• No information about
velocities, etc.
– Newton’s Second Law – no
• No information about F or
a
– Energy approach – no
• No information about work
or energy
– Momentum – yes

Section 9.2
 Archer Example, 2
• Conceptualize
– The arrow is fired one way and the archer recoils in
the opposite direction.
• Categorize
– Momentum
• Let the system be the archer with bow (particle 1) and the arrow
(particle 2).
• It is not an isolated system in the y-direction because the
gravitational force and the normal force act on it.
• There are no external forces in the x-direction, so it is isolated in
terms of momentum in the x-direction.
– Apply the isolated system (momentum) model in terms of
momentum components in the x-direction.

Section 9.2
 Archer Example, 3
• Analyze, cont.
– Total momentum before releasing the arrow is 0
– The total momentum after releasing the arrow is
p1f  p2f  0  m1v1f  m2 v2f
• Finalize
– The final velocity of the archer is negative.
• Indicates he moves in a direction opposite the arrow
• Archer has much higher mass than arrow, so velocity is much lower
• Notes
– The problem seems very simple, but could not be solved using
previous analysis models.
– Using the new momentum model made the solution quite simple.

Section 9.2
 Impulse and Momentum
• The momentum of a system changes if a net force from the environment
acts on the system.
• For momentum considerations, a system is non-isolated if a net force
acts on the system for a time interval.
dp
• From Newton’s Second Law, F 
• Solving for dp gives dp   Fdt dt
• Integrating to find the change in momentum over some time interval.
tf
Dp  pf  pi   Fdt  I
ti
• The integral is called the impulse, I , of the force acting on an object
over Dt.

Section 9.3
 Impulse-Momentum Theorem
• This equation expresses the impulse-momentum theorem: The
change in the momentum of a particle is equal to the impulse of the
new force acting on the particle.
Dp  I
– This is equivalent to Newton’s Second Law.
– This is identical in form to the conservation of energy equation.
– This is the most general statement of the principle of conservation of
momentum and is called the conservation of momentum equation.
• This form applies to non-isolated systems.
– This is the mathematical statement of the non-isolated system
(momentum) model.

Section 9.3
 More About Impulse
• Impulse is a vector quantity.
• The magnitude of the impulse is
equal to the area under the force-time
curve.
– The force may vary with time.
• Dimensions of impulse are M L / T
• Impulse is not a property of the
particle, but a measure of the change
in momentum of the particle.

Section 9.3
 Impulse, Final
• The impulse can also be found by
using the time averaged force.
I   FDt
• This would give the same impulse
as the time-varying force does.

Section 9.3
 Impulse Approximation
• In many cases, one force acting on a particle acts for a short time, but
is much greater than any other force present.
• When using the Impulse Approximation, we will assume this is true.
– Especially useful in analyzing collisions
• The force will be called the impulsive force.
• The particle is assumed to move very little during the collision.
• pi and pf represent the momenta immediately before and after the
collision.

Section 9.3
 Impulse-Momentum: Crash Test
Example
• Conceptualize
– The collision time is short.
– We can image the car being
brought to rest very rapidly
and then moving back in the
opposite direction with a
reduced speed.
• Categorize
– Assume net force exerted on
the car by wall and friction with
the ground is large compared
with other forces.
– Gravitational and normal
forces are perpendicular and
so do not effect the horizontal
momentum.
Section 9.3
 Crash Test Example, 2
• Categorize, cont.
– Can apply impulse approximation
– The car’s change in momentum is due to an impulse from the
environment.
– Therefore, the non-isolated system (momentum) model can be
applied.
• Analyze
– The momenta before and after the collision between the car and
the wall can be determined .
– Find
• Initial momentum
• Final momentum
• Impulse
• Average force

Section 9.3
 Crash Test Example, 3
• Finalize
– The net force is a combination of the normal force on
the car from the wall and nay friction force between
the tires and the ground as the front of the car
crumples.
– Check signs on velocities to be sure they are
reasonable

Section 9.3
 Collisions – Characteristics
• The term collision represents an event during
which two particles come close to each other and
interact by means of forces.
– May involve physical contact, but must be generalized
to include cases with interaction without physical
contact
• The interaction forces are assumed to be much
greater than any external forces present.
– This means the impulse approximation can be used.

Section 9.4
 Collisions – Example 1
• Collisions may be the result of direct
contact.
• The impulsive forces may vary in
time in complicated ways.
– This force is internal to the
system.
– Observe the variations in the
active figure.
• Momentum is conserved.
 Collisions – Example 2
• The collision need not include
physical contact between the objects.
• There are still forces between the
particles.
• This type of collision can be
analyzed in the same way as those
that include physical contact.

Section 9.4
 Types of Collisions
• In an elastic collision, momentum and kinetic energy are conserved.
– Perfectly elastic collisions occur on a microscopic level.
– In macroscopic collisions, only approximately elastic collisions actually
occur.
• Generally some energy is lost to deformation, sound, etc.
– These collisions are described by the isolated system model for both energy and
momentum.
• There must be no transformation of kinetic energy into other types of energy
within the system.
• In an inelastic collision, kinetic energy is not conserved, although
momentum is still conserved.
– If the objects stick together after the collision, it is a perfectly inelastic
collision.

Section 9.4
 Collisions, cont.
• In an inelastic collision, some kinetic energy is lost,
but the objects do not stick together.
• Elastic and perfectly inelastic collisions are limiting
cases, most actual collisions fall in between these
two types .
• Momentum is conserved in all collisions

Section 9.4
 Perfectly Inelastic Collisions
• Momentum of an isolated system is conserved
in any collision, so the total momentum before the
collision is equal to the total momentum of the
composite system after the collision.
• Since the objects stick together, they share the
same velocity after the collision.
m1v1i  m2 v2i   m1  m2  vf

Section 9.4
 Elastic Collisions
• Both momentum and kinetic energy
are conserved.
m1v1i  m2 v2i  m1v1f  m2 v2f
1 1 1 1
m1v12i  m2 v22i  m1v12f  m2 v22f
2 2 2 2

• Typically, there are two unknowns to

solve for and so you need two
equations.

Section 9.4
 Elastic Collisions, cont.
• The kinetic energy equation can be difficult to use.
• With some algebraic manipulation, a different equation
can be used.
v1i – v2i = v1f + v2f
• This equation, along with conservation of momentum, can
be used to solve for the two unknowns.
– It can only be used with a one-dimensional, elastic collision
between two objects.
– Using this equation eliminates the need for using an equation
with quadratic terms (from the kinetic energy equation).
• Remember to use the appropriate signs for all velocities.

Section 9.4
 Elastic Collisions, final
• Example of some special cases:
– m1 = m2 – the particles exchange velocities
– When a very heavy particle collides head-on with a
very light one initially at rest, the heavy particle
continues in motion unaltered and the light particle
rebounds with a speed of about twice the initial speed
of the heavy particle.
– When a very light particle collides head-on with a very
heavy particle initially at rest, the light particle has its
velocity reversed and the heavy particle remains
approximately at rest.

Section 9.4
 Problem-Solving Strategy: One-
Dimensional Collisions
• Conceptualize
– Image the collision occurring in your mind.
– Draw simple diagrams of the particles before and
after the collision.
– Include appropriate velocity vectors.
• Categorize
– Is the system of particles isolated?
– Is the collision elastic, inelastic or perfectly inelastic?

Section 9.4
 Problem-Solving Strategy: One-
Dimensional Collisions
• Analyze
– Set up the mathematical representation of the
problem.
– Solve for the unknown(s).
• Finalize
– Check to see if the answers are consistent with the
mental and pictorial representations.
– Check to be sure your results are realistic.

Section 9.4
 Example: Stress Reliever
• Conceptualize
– Imagine one ball coming in
from the left and two balls
exiting from the right.
– Is this possible?
• Categorize
– Due to shortness of time,
the impulse approximation
can be used.
– Categorize the system as
isolated in terms of both
momentum and energy.
– Elastic collisions
Section 9.4
 Example: Stress Reliever, cont.
• Analyze
– Check to see if momentum is conserved.
• It is
– Check to see if kinetic energy is conserved.
• It is not
• Therefore, the collision couldn’t be elastic.
• Finalize
– Having two balls exit was not possible if only one ball
is released.

Section 9.4
 Example: Stress Reliever, final
• For a collision to actually
occur, both momentum and
kinetic energy must be
conserved.
– One way to do so is with
equal numbers of balls
released and exiting.
– Another way is to have
some of the balls taped
together so they move as
one object.

Section 9.4
Collision Example – Ballistic Pendulum
• Conceptualize
– Observe diagram
– The projectile enters the pendulum,
which swings up to some height
where it momentarily stops.
• Categorize
– Isolated system in terms of
momentum for the projectile and
block.
– Perfectly inelastic collision – the bullet
is embedded in the block of wood.
– Momentum equation will have two
unknowns
– Use conservation of energy from the
pendulum to find the velocity just after
the collision.
– Then you can find the speed of the
bullet.

Section 9.4
 Ballistic Pendulum, cont.
• A multi-flash photograph of a ballistic
pendulum.
• Analyze
– Equations for the momentum and
conservation of energy with
kinetic and gravitational potential
energies.
– Solve resulting system of
equations.
• Finalize
– Note different systems involved
and different analysis models
used.
– Some energy was transferred
during the perfectly inelastic
collision.
Section 9.4
 Two-Dimensional Collisions
• The momentum is conserved in all directions.
• Use subscripts for
– Identifying the object
– Indicating initial or final values
– The velocity components
• If the collision is elastic, use conservation of
kinetic energy as a second equation.
– Remember, the simpler equation can only be used for
one-dimensional situations.

Section 9.5
 Two-Dimensional Collision, example
• Particle 1 is moving at velocityv1i
and particle 2 is at rest.
• In the x-direction, the initial
momentum is m1v1i.
• In the y-direction, the initial
momentum is 0.
 Two-Dimensional Collision, example
cont.
• After the collision, the momentum in
the x-direction is m1v1f cos q  m2v2f
cos f
• After the collision, the momentum in
the y-direction is m1v1f sin q  m2v2f
sin f
– The negative sign is due to the
component of the velocity
being downward.
• If the collision is elastic, apply the
kinetic energy equation.
• This is an example of a glancing
collision.

Section 9.5
 Problem-Solving Strategies – Two-
Dimensional Collisions
•Conceptualize
– Imagine the collision.
– Predict approximate directions the particles will move after the collision.
– Set up a coordinate system and define your velocities with respect to
that system.
• It is usually convenient to have the x-axis coincide with one of the initial
velocities.
– In your sketch of the coordinate system, draw and label all velocity
vectors and include all the given information.
•Categorize
– Is the system isolated?
– If so, categorize the collision as elastic, inelastic or perfectly inelastic.

Section 9.5
 Problem-Solving Strategies – Two-
Dimensional Collisions, 2
• Analyze
– Write expressions for the x- and y-components of the momentum of
each object before and after the collision.
• Remember to include the appropriate signs for the components of the
velocity vectors.
– Write expressions for the total momentum of the system in the x-
direction before and after the collision and equate the two. Repeat for
the total momentum in the y-direction.
– If the collision is inelastic, kinetic energy of the system is not conserved,
and additional information is probably needed.
– If the collision is perfectly inelastic, the final velocities of the two objects
are equal. Solve the momentum equations for the unknowns.
 Problem-Solving Strategies – Two-
Dimensional Collisions, 3
• Analyze, cont.
– If the collision is elastic, the kinetic energy of the
system is conserved.
• Equate the total kinetic energy before the collision to the total
kinetic energy after the collision to obtain more information
on the relationship between the velocities.
• Finalize
– Check to see if your answers are consistent with the
mental and pictorial representations.
– Check to be sure your results are realistic.

Section 9.5
 Two-Dimensional Collision Example
• Conceptualize
– See picture
– Choose East to be the positive x-
direction and North to be the
positive y-direction.
• Categorize
– Ignore friction
– Model the vehicles as particles.
– Model the system as isolated in
terms of momentum.
– The collision is perfectly inelastic.
• The vehicles stick together.

Section 9.5
 Two-Dimensional Collision Example,
cont.
• Analyze
– Before the collision, the car has the total momentum in the x-
direction and the truck has the total momentum in the y-direction.
– After the collision, both have x- and y-components.
– Write expressions for initial and final momenta in both directions.
• Evaluate any expressions with no unknowns.
– Solve for unknowns
• Finalize
– Check to be sure the results are reasonable.

Section 9.5
 The Center of Mass
• There is a special point in a system or object, called the
center of mass, that moves as if all of the mass of the
system is concentrated at that point.
• The system will move as if an external force were applied
to a single particle of mass M located at the center of mass.
– M is the total mass of the system.
• This behavior is independent of other motion, such as
rotation or vibration, or deformation of the system.
– This is the particle model.

Section 9.6
 Center of Mass, Coordinates
• The coordinates of the center of
mass are
m x i i m y i i
xCM  i
y CM  i
M M
m z i i
zCM  i
M
– M is the total mass of the
system.
• Use the active figure to
observe effect of different
masses and positions.

Section 9.6
 Center of Mass, Extended Object
• Similar analysis can be
done for an extended
object.
• Consider the extended
object as a system
containing a large number
of small mass elements.
• Since separation between
the elements is very small, it
can be considered to have a
constant mass distribution.

Section 9.6
 Center of Mass, position
•The center of mass in three dimensions can be located by its position vector, rCM
– For a system of particles,
1
rCM  
M i
mi ri
• ri is the position of the ith particle, defined by

– For an extended object,

ri  xi ˆi  y i ˆj  zi kˆ
1
rCM   r dm
M

Section 9.6
 Center of Mass, Symmetric Object
• The center of mass of any symmetric object of
uniform density lies on an axis of symmetry and on
any plane of symmetry.

Section 9.6
 Center of Gravity
• Each small mass element of an extended object
is acted upon by the gravitational force.
• The net effect of all these forces is equivalent to
the effect of a single force Mg acting through a
point called the center of gravity.
– If g is constant over the mass distribution, the center
of gravity coincides with the center of mass.

Section 9.6
 Finding Center of Gravity,
Irregularly Shaped Object
• Suspend the object from
one point.
• Then, suspend from another
point.
• The intersection of the
resulting lines is the center of
gravity and half way through
the thickness of the wrench.

Section 9.6
 Center of Mass, Rod
• Conceptualize
– Find the center of mass of
a rod of mass M and length
L.
– The location is on the x-
axis (or yCM = zCM = 0)
• Categorize
– Analysis problem
• Analyze
– Use equation for xcm
– xCM = L / 2
 Motion of a System of Particles
• Assume the total mass, M, of the system remains
constant.
• We can describe the motion of the system in
terms of the velocity and acceleration of the center
of mass of the system.
• We can also describe the momentum of the
system and Newton’s Second Law for the system.

Section 9.7
Velocity and Momentum of a System of
Particles
• The velocity of the center of mass of a system of
particles is
dr 1
v 
CM
CM
 m v i i
dt M i

• The momentum can be expressed as

M vCM   mi vi   pi  ptot
i i

• The total linear momentum of the system equals

the total mass multiplied by the velocity of the
center of mass.
Section 9.7
Acceleration and Force in a System of
Particles
•The acceleration of the center of mass can be
found by differentiating the velocity with respect to
time.
dvCM 1
aCM    mi ai
dt M i

•The acceleration can be related to a force.

M a  F
CM i
i

•If we sum over all the internal force vectors, they

cancel in pairs and the net force on the system is
caused only by the external forces.
Section 9.7
Newton’s Second Law for a System of
Particles
• Since the only forces are external, the net
external force equals the total mass of the system
multiplied by the acceleration of the center of
mass:
F ext  MaCM

• The center of mass of a system of particles of

combined mass M moves like an equivalent
particle of mass M would move under the influence
of the net external force on the system.

Section 9.7
Impulse and Momentum of a System of
Particles
• The impulse imparted to the system by external forces is
  F dt  M  dv  Dp  I
ext CM tot

• The total linear momentum of a system of particles is

conserved if no net external force is acting on the system.
M vCM  ptot  constant when  Fext  0
• For an isolated system of particles, both the total
momentum and the velocity of the center of mass are
constant in time.
– This is a generalization of the isolated system (momentum)
model for a many-particle system.

Section 9.7
Motion of the Center of Mass, Example
• A projectile is fired into the air and
suddenly explodes.
• With no explosion, the projectile
would follow the dotted line.
• After the explosion, the center of
mass of the fragments still follows the
dotted line, the same parabolic path the
projectile would have followed with no
explosion.

Section 9.7
 Deformable Systems
• To analyze the motion of a deformable system,
use Conservation of Energy and the Impulse-
Momentum Theorem.
DEsystem  T  DK  DU  0
Dptot  I  mDv   Fext dt

– If the force is constant, the integral can be easily

evaluated.

Section 9.8
 Deformable System (Spring)
Example
• Conceptualize
– See figure
– Push on left block, it moves to
right, spring compresses.
– At any given time, the blocks
are generally moving with
different velocities.
– After the force is removed,
the blocks oscillate back and
forth with respect to the
center of mass.

Section 9.8
 Spring Example, cont.
• Categorize
– Non isolated system in terms of momentum and
energy.
• Work is being done on it by the applied force.
– It is a deformable system.
– The applied force is constant, so the acceleration of
the center of mass is constant.
– Model as a particle under constant acceleration.
• Analyze
– Apply impulse-momentum
– Solve for vcm

Section 9.8
 Spring Example, final
• Analyze, cont.
– Find energies
• Finalize
– Answers do not depend on spring length, spring
constant, or time interval.

Section 9.8
 Rocket Propulsion
• When ordinary vehicles are propelled, the driving force for the motion
is friction.
– The car is modeled as an non-isolated system in terms of momentum.
– An impulse is applied to the car from the roadway, and the result is a
change in the momentum of the car.
• The operation of a rocket depends upon the law of conservation of
linear momentum as applied to an isolated system, where the system is
the rocket plus its ejected fuel.
• As the rocket moves in free space, its linear momentum changes
when some of its mass is ejected in the form of exhaust gases.
– Because the gases are given momentum when they are ejected out of
the engine, the rocket receives a compensating momentum in the
opposite direction.
– In free space, the center of mass of the system moves uniformly.

Section 9.9
 Rocket Propulsion, 2
• The initial mass of the rocket plus all
its fuel is M + Dm at time ti and speed
v.
• The initial momentum of the system
is
pi = (M + Dm)v
• At some time t + Dt, the rocket’s
mass has been reduced to M and an
amount of fuel, Dm has been ejected.
• The rocket’s speed has increased
by Dv.
 Rocket Propulsion, 3
• The basic equation for rocket propulsion is
M 
v f  v i  v e ln  i 
 Mf 

• The increase in rocket speed is proportional to the speed

of the escape gases (ve).
– So, the exhaust speed should be very high.
• The increase in rocket speed is also proportional to the
natural log of the ratio Mi/Mf.
– So, the ratio should be as high as possible, meaning the mass of
the rocket should be as small as possible and it should carry as
much fuel as possible.

Section 9.9
 Thrust
• The thrust on the rocket is the force exerted on it
by the ejected exhaust gases.
dv dM
thrust  M  ve
dt dt

• The thrust increases as the exhaust speed

increases.
• The thrust increases as the rate of change of mass
increases.
– The rate of change of the mass is called the burn rate.

Section 9.9
 Problem Solving Summary – Non-
isolated System
• If a system interacts with its
environment in the sense that there is
an external force on the system, use
the impulse-momentum theorem.

Summary
 Problem Solving Summary – Isolated
System
• If there are no external forces, the
principle of conservation of linear
momentum indicates that the total
momentum of an isolated system is
conserved regardless of the nature of the
forces between the members of the
system.
• The system may be isolated in terms of
momentum but non-isolated in terms of
energy.

Summary
 Homework
• Chap.9: 2, 18, 19, 22, 24, 33, 38, 44, 45, 49, 51