WATER CONSERVATION AND RAIN WATER HARVESTING BCV654A

MODULE 1- WATER COSERVATION AND ITS IMPORTANCE

The original source of water is precipitation from the atmosphere. The water available on the earth may
occur in all three stages as gas, liquid or solid. Temperature is the main factor in deciding the state of
water. As a liquid, the water forms hydrosphere. About 75% of the Earth’s surface is covered by the
hydrosphere. The process of saving water for future utilization is called conservation of water.
As the world faces an increasingly critical need to address climate change, the impact that water
conservation has on a sustainable environment is undeniable. Groundwater is the primary source of
freshwater that caters to the demand of ever-growing domestic, agrarian and industrial sectors of the
country. Over the years, it has been observed that the necessity for the exploitation of groundwater
resources for various everyday needs, like toileting, bathing, cleaning, agriculture, drinking water,
industrial and ever-changing lifestyles with modernization is leading towards tremendous water wastage.
Though many technological devices are being developed to minimize the water wastage, the impact will
be greater if every individual contributes to water conservation by minimizing or optimizing groundwater
usage for daily activities. Today, water conservation at individual level has become very critical.
Our water resources are depleting each year. Additionally, we cannot generate artificial water and must
depend on water sources available on our planet earth. Due to population boom and excessive need of
water to suit our ever-expanding modern lifestyle, water scarcity is felt all over the world. This has given
rise to major concerns over water conservation.
In this context, adopting rainwater harvesting and recharging groundwater is one of the simplest and best
measures in conserving water globally. This practice can efficiently be implemented in lieu of traditional
water supplies that are currently on the verge of tapping out.
RAINWATER HARVESTING
Rainwater harvesting is a simple strategy by which rainfall is gathered and stored for future usage. The
process involves collection and storage of rainwater with help of artificially designed systems, that runs
off natural or man-made catchment areas e.g. rooftop, compounds, rocky surface, hill slopes or artificially
repaired impervious/semi-pervious land surface. The collected rainwater from surfaces on which rain falls
may be filtered, stored and utilized in different ways or directly used for recharge purposes. Rainwater
Harvesting is unrestricted from any kind of impurity, with relatively less storage cost and no maintenance
cost involved except for periodical cleaning.
With depleting groundwater levels and fluctuating climate conditions, this measure can go a long way to
help mitigate the adverse effects rising water scarcity. Reserving rainwater can help recharge local
aquifers, reduce urban flooding and most notably, ensure water availability in water-scarce zones.

Dhanashree N Nerlikar, Dept of Civil Engineering. VVIT Bangalore

WATER CONSERVATION AND RAIN WATER HARVESTING BCV654A

Need for water conservation.

1. Better life style requires more fresh water.
2. Agriculture and Industrial activities require more fresh water.
3. As the population increases the requirement of water is also more.

Water is a precious resource for growth and prosperity. Major sources of fresh water are surface water
and ground water. Surface water depends on rainfall and groundwater can’t be drawn beyond its
recharge rate. Making the most efficient use of our limited and precious resources is essential. Thus there
is growing awareness to conserve water.

Agriculture is a major user of water and there is greater emphasis in water conservation in agriculture.
Now-a-days quantity of available freshwater including groundwater is becoming short in supply even for
domestic and drinking purposes. High standards of living in urban areas demand greater water supply.
With rapid increase in industrial growth, the requirement of freshwater for industries is also increasing.
Industries can play a major role by conserving water and recycling the treated wastewater to reduce the
demand of freshwater.
Water conservation not only helps in reducing the expenditure on procuring water but also reduces
wastewater volume. This wastewater needs to be treated before it leaves the industry premises. Every
citizen as well as institutions and industries should use water judiciously. They can also help in
augmenting the freshwater resources.
Rainwater harvesting is one such movement where involvement of all the people is needed. With the
surfaces around houses and buildings being cemented, particularly in cities and towns, rainwater, which
runs off from terraces and roofs drains into low lying areas or drained into sewers without percolating
into the soil. Thereby, precious rainwater is squandered. Therefore, roof water harvesting in residential
and industrial areas can be used to augment the freshwater resources.
What is Monsoon?
• The word “monsoon” is derived from the Arabic word “mausim,” meaning “season.”
• The term “monsoon” refers to a seasonal wind pattern characterised by
significant changes in wind direction and associated precipitation.

About Monsoon in India

• The Indian Monsoon is a critical climatic phenomenon characterised by seasonal wind shifts that
bring heavy rains to the Indian subcontinent.
Dhanashree N Nerlikar, Dept of Civil Engineering. VVIT Bangalore
WATER CONSERVATION AND RAIN WATER HARVESTING BCV654A

• The Southwest Monsoon typically begins in June, bringing moisture-laden winds from the
Indian Ocean, and continues until September.
• The Northeast Monsoon, occurring from October to December, affects south eastern India.
Features of Monsoon in India
Some key features of the Monsoon in India are:
• Seasonal Rainfall – The Monsoon in India is characterised by heavy rainfall, primarily between
June and September.
• Two Main Phases – It consists of the Southwest Monsoon (June to
September) and the Northeast Monsoon (October to December).
• Geographical Influence – The monsoon in India is influenced by the Himalayas, the Thar
Desert, and the Indian Ocean, which affect wind patterns and rainfall distribution.
• Diversity in Rainfall – Different regions receive varying amounts of rainfall,
with coastal areas and the Western Ghats experiencing heavy precipitation, while some interior regions
may receive less.
• Monsoon Winds – The monsoon winds are characterised by a shift in wind direction, bringing
moisture-laden winds from the southwest.

Monsoon in India
The Indian summer monsoon typically lasts from June-September (Fig. 58d), with large areas of western
and central India receiving more than 90% of their total annual precipitation during the period, and
southern and northwestern India receiving 50%-75% of their total annual rainfall.

1. Types and Behavior of Monsoon

1. Southwest Monsoon (June–September):
South-west monsoon lasting from July to September. The season is dominated by the humid
southwest summer monsoon, which slowly sweeps across the country beginning in late May or
early June. Monsoon rains begin to recede from North India at the beginning of October. South
India typically receives more rainfall.
• The southwest monsoon in India extends from June to mid-September. During the hot summers,
the Thar Desert and adjoining areas of the northern and central Indian subcontinent heat up
considerably.
• This causes low pressure over the north and central Indian subcontinent.
• The sudden onset of monsoons is an important feature of southwest monsoons.
Dhanashree N Nerlikar, Dept of Civil Engineering. VVIT Bangalore
WATER CONSERVATION AND RAIN WATER HARVESTING BCV654A

• With the onset of monsoons, the temperature falls drastically, and the humidity level rises.
o It is a rainy season for most parts of India. Hence, this season is also known as the Hot-
Wet Season
o Mechanism:
▪ Caused by the differential heating of land and water, creating low-pressure areas
over the Indian subcontinent and high-pressure areas over the Indian Ocean.
▪ Moisture-laden winds from the southwest (Indian Ocean) bring rain.
o Behavior:
▪ Accounts for nearly 75% of India's annual rainfall.
▪ The onset is marked by heavy showers in Kerala (around June 1).
▪ Uneven distribution can lead to droughts in some areas and floods in others.
2. Northeast Monsoon (October–December):
The Northeast Monsoon is a rainy season in India that occurs from October to December. It brings
rainfall and cooler temperatures to the southern part of the country.
The northeast monsoon (NEM) season of October to December (OND) is the chief rainy season
for this subdivision with 48% (442.8 mm) of its annual rainfall realised during this season and
hence its performance is a key factor for this regional agricultural activity.
• During October and November, the sun’s movement towards the south shifts monsoon troughs
or low-pressure systems towards the south.
• It results in the weakening of the trough over the Northern Plains.
• Also, the withdrawal of southwest monsoon winds results in the development of a high-pressure
system over that area, i.e., cold winds that swipe down from the Himalayas and Indo-Gangetic
Plains towards the vast Indian Ocean.
• By the beginning of October, monsoons had withdrawn from the Northern Plains.

What it brings
• Rainfall: The Northeast Monsoon brings rainfall to states like Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Andhra
Pradesh, Rayalaseema, and South Interior Karnataka
• Cooler temperatures: The Northeast Monsoon brings cooler temperatures along with rainfall
• Replenished water resources: The Northeast Monsoon helps replenish water resources
• Cyclonic depressions: The Northeast Monsoon can cause cyclonic depressions with heavy rains
What it's characterized by
• Cold, dry air mass
Dhanashree N Nerlikar, Dept of Civil Engineering. VVIT Bangalore
WATER CONSERVATION AND RAIN WATER HARVESTING BCV654A

• Moisture over the Pacific Ocean

• Vast cloudiness
• Rains and showers
How it's influenced
• The Northeast Monsoon is influenced by global climate parameters, such as ENSO, IOD, and
MJO
• El Nino, positive IOD, and MJO in phases 2-4 are generally associated with good northeast
monsoon
• La Nina and negative IOD do not augur well for the northeast monsoon
o Mechanism:
▪ Caused by the retreat of the southwest monsoon and reversal of wind direction.
▪ Dry winds from land pick up moisture from the Bay of Bengal, causing rain over
Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, and parts of Karnataka.
o Behavior:
▪ Contributes to the post-monsoon rainfall, especially in southeastern coastal
regions.

Factors Affecting Monsoon in India

The monsoon climate arises from the shifting patterns of pressure and wind belts. Indian monsoon has its
origin, and its mechanisms are related to the following factors:
® ITCZ (Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone)
® Tibetan Plateau
® Jet Streams
® Somali Jet
Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ)
® The Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ), also called the Equatorial convergence zone, is a low-
pressure belt of converging trade winds and rising air that encircles the Earth near the Equator.
® The ITCZ shifts north and south seasonally with the Sun. Over the Indian Ocean, it undergoes especially
large seasonal shifts of 40°–45° of latitude.
® In June, the ITCZ moves pole wards towards the Tropic of Cancer. However, it extends North over
India (as far as 30° N) northwards of the Himalayan Mountains.
o This is due to the intense heating of the land mass that takes place over India.
Dhanashree N Nerlikar, Dept of Civil Engineering. VVIT Bangalore
WATER CONSERVATION AND RAIN WATER HARVESTING BCV654A

o This intense heating and the movement of the ITCZ create low pressure over northern
India.
® Meanwhile, the Indian Ocean heats up slowly, creating a zone of relatively high pressure (a subtropical
anticyclone) off India’s southern coastline.
® Also, the winds blow from High to Low pressure. Air moves south-westerly
from the sea to India in the north and northeast.
o Here, it is deflected towards the right by the Coriolis force as the Earth spins.
This low pressure draws in warm, unstable air from the Indian Ocean, laden with water vapour, bringing
heavy rain to India.
o The uplift of this air over the foothills of the Himalayas and intense convection of the
landmass further increase rainfall.
o In January, the ITCZ and the subtropical jet stream move southwards over the Equator
and towards the Tropic of Capricorn.
o At the same time, the continental landmass at the centre of Asia
around Mongolia and the Himalayas experiences intense cooli ng as the Northern Hemisphere points
away from the Sun.
® The intense cooling creates an area of high pressure in northern India, and the low pressure of the ITCZ
is found to the south of India.
o The winds blow from the Northeast, away from the high-pressure cell
over northern India, bringing dry conditions to most of the Indian subcontinent as they travel over land.

Tibetan Plateau
The Tibetan Plateau affects the monsoon in two ways:
o As a mechanical barrier, and
o As a high-level heat source.
The Tibetan Plateau, along with the Himalayas, is an enormous block of highland that acts as a formidable
barrier and a heat source.
o In summer, Tibet’s air is 2°C to 3°C warmer than the air over the adjoining regions,
hence the heat source.

® As a mechanical barrier, it causes the advancement of the Subtropical westerly jet stream to the south
of the Himalayas, bifurcating it into two parts—one branch in the north of the Himalayas and the other in
the south of it by November.
Dhanashree N Nerlikar, Dept of Civil Engineering. VVIT Bangalore
WATER CONSERVATION AND RAIN WATER HARVESTING BCV654A

o As a high-level heat source, the Tibet Plateau gives birth to a temporary jet called the
Tropical Easterly Jet, which originates from the Tibet Plateau and travels over the Indian
subcontinent and Indian Ocean.

Jet Stream
® Jet streams are narrow, strong wind bands that generally blow from west to east across the globe.
o They are found at heights ranging from 11 to 13 km above the surface of the Earth.
® In the Northern Hemisphere, the mean position of the jet stream ranges from 20°N to 50°N latitude,
while the polar jet stream is found between 30° and 70°N latitude.
o These streams are driven by substantial temperature differences between adjacent air
masses.
® There are four major jet streams, which, despite being discontinuous at times, circulate the globe at
middle and polar latitudes in both hemispheres .
o Rather than moving in a straight path, the jet stream exhibits a wavelike flow.
Impact of Monsoon in India
The Monsoon in India has significant impact on various sectors:
® Agriculture – The Monsoon in India is vital for crop production in India. It provides the
necessary water for planting and growing crops such as rice, wheat, and pulses.
o A good monsoon in India ensures abundant harvests, while a poor monsoon can lead to drought and
crop failures.
® Water Resources – Monsoon rains replenish rivers, lakes, and reservoirs,
crucial for drinking water, irrigation, and hydroelectric power generation.
o Adequate rainfall helps in maintaining the balance of water resources across the country.
® Economy – The performance of the monsoon season influences the overall economy, particularly
in rural areas.
o It affects food prices, agricultural incomes, and rural employment. Good monsoon conditions can
boost economic growth, while adverse conditions can strain economic resources.
® Health – The monsoon season can impact public health, with increased risks
of waterborne diseases, such as cholera and dengue fever, due to stagnant water and poor sanitation.
o Proper management of water and sanitation is essential to mitigate health risks
o
o .® Infrastructure – Heavy rains can lead to flooding, which impacts infrastructure such as roads,
bridges, and buildings.
Dhanashree N Nerlikar, Dept of Civil Engineering. VVIT Bangalore
WATER CONSERVATION AND RAIN WATER HARVESTING BCV654A

o Effective drainage systems and infrastructure maintenance are crucial

to minimise damage and disruptions caused by monsoon rains.
® Environment – The monsoon season maintains ecological balance by supporting diverse
ecosystems, replenishing soil moisture, and sustaining plant and animal life.
o However, extreme weather events can also cause environmental degradation and habitat loss.

Monsoon Prediction and Management

® Weather Forecasting – Advances in meteorology enable accurate monsoon onset, intensity, and
duration predictions, which are crucial for planning and preparedness.
® Technology and Methods – Utilizing satellite imagery, radar systems, and
climate models enhances the accuracy of weather forecasts and monitoring of monsoon patterns.
® Government Initiatives – Various government programs and agencies work to improve monsoon
forecasting, flood management, and disaster response to mitigate the impact of adverse weather
conditions.
® Policies and Schemes – Implementing policies and schemes to improve water management,
agricultural practices, and infrastructure development helps address the challenges of monsoon
variability.
® Adaptation Strategies – Developing and implementing adaptation strategies,
such as rainwater harvesting and resilient agricultural practices, assists communities in coping with the
effects of the monsoon.
® Agricultural and Urban Planning – Effective planning for agriculture and
urban development, including improved drainage systems and crop management, is essential to mitigate
the impact of monsoon-related disruptions.

Rainfall Characteristics and Distribution:

The characteristics of rainfall are the amount, the intensity, the duration, the frequency or return period,
and the seasonal distribution.

® The amount is of course important to the overall hydrologic cycle and replenishment of the soil
water, and the amount is an accumulation or product of the intensity times the duration. For example, the
amount may be the same for a high intensity short duration rainfall as it is for a low intensity long duration
rainfall.

Dhanashree N Nerlikar, Dept of Civil Engineering. VVIT Bangalore

WATER CONSERVATION AND RAIN WATER HARVESTING BCV654A

® However, the intensity and duration can have a large influence on whether the rainfall infiltrates
or becomes surface runoff. Higher rainfall intensity produces larger size raindrops which have more
impact energy, and thus higher intensity storms can damage delicate vegetation and bare soil. High
intensity storms can literally displace soil particles, causing soil crusting or starting the soil erosion
process. High intensity storms may also overwhelm the soils ability to infiltrate the rainfall at the same
rate, causing infiltration-excess runoff.

® The duration refers to the length of time rainfall occurs. A high intensity rainfall for a short
duration may affect tender seedlings, but it will not likely have much effect on soil erosion and runoff.
Rainfall of longer duration can significantly affect infiltration, runoff, and soil erosion processes.

® The frequency, or more specifically, the return period refers to how often rainfall occurs at a
particular amount or intensity and duration. For example, rainfall return periods are referred to as 100
year-1 hour rainfall or 100 year-24 hour rainfall to define the probability that a given amount will fall
within a give n time period.

® The seasonal distribution of rainfall refers to the time of year when various rainfall amounts
occur. The seasonal distribution determines when surface runoff or deep percolation are most likely to
occur or if irrigation is needed. Since the seasonal distribution of rainfall varies in different parts of the
country, practices used or recommended in one part of the country may not necessarily be appropriate in
another. For example, tillage practices to conserve moisture in Western Kansas are not likely necessary
in New York. Or applying anhydrous ammonia in the fall in the upper Midwest may be appropriate,
whereas following this same practice in the Northeast often leads to substantial nitrate leaching and little
fertility benefit to the next year's crop.

Rainfall Distribution: The 4 zones of rainfall throughout India are categorized below.
Insufficient Rainfall Zone (less than 50cm of rainfall): This rainfall zone is found
in Andhra Pradesh, some regions of Karnataka as well as regions of Maharashtra, Ladakh, and a vast area
of Rajasthan. Jaisalmer is an area in Rajasthan that counts for receiving the least rainfall in India.
Low Rainfall Zone (50cm – 100cm of rainfall): This rainfall zone is found in Maharashtra, some areas
in Gujarat, some places in Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana,

Dhanashree N Nerlikar, Dept of Civil Engineering. VVIT Bangalore

WATER CONSERVATION AND RAIN WATER HARVESTING BCV654A

and sparsely in Western Uttar Pradesh.

Medium Rainfall Zone (100cm – 200cm of rainfall): The various zones of abundant rainfall in India
are geographically separated from each other. First, the Western Ghats have a thin strip that runs North-
to-South across the Ghats’ entire length. The frequency of rainy seasons rises as one travels South. For
example, the North has 4 rainy periods between June and September whereas the Midlands have 5 rainy
months ranging from June to October.
High Rainfall Zone (200cm – 300cm of rainfall): The most notable rainfall occurs on the West side, in
the Western Ghats, including the sub-Himalayan areas of the upper East along Meghalaya’s slopes. The
North-Eastern region and also the windward portion of the Central Highlands receive an average of 400cm
of rain every year. Rain in the Brahmaputra Valley and its surrounding hills experience less thanATER
200cm of rainfall. This zone includes locations that receive 200cm-300cm of rain each year. This zone is
primarily found in Eastern India.
Onset and withdrawal effective rain
"Onset and withdrawal of effective rain" refers to the period when significant rainfall begins to occur in
a region (onset) and when it subsequently diminishes to a point where it is no longer considered substantial
for agricultural or ecological purposes (withdrawal), essentially marking the start and end of the rainy
season in a particular area; this is often determined by considering factors like rainfall intensity, soil
moisture levels, and evapotranspiration rates, not just the presence of rain itself.
Definition: While the "onset" is usually marked by the first sustained period of substantial rainfall, the
"withdrawal" is when rainfall drops below a certain threshold, allowing for a transition to drier conditions.
Importance for agriculture: Knowing the onset and withdrawal dates is crucial for farmers to plan
planting and harvesting schedules, as it indicates when crops can be effectively watered by natural rainfall.
Factors affecting determination:
® Rainfall intensity: Not just the presence of rain, but the amount of rainfall per day is considered.
® Soil moisture: How much water is already stored in the soil plays a role in determining when effective
rain starts and ends.
® Evapotranspiration: The rate at which water evaporates from the soil and plants can impact the
effectiveness of rainfall.
Example: In India, the monsoon season is considered the period of effective rain, with the onset occurring
around June in the southern part of the country and gradually progressing northwards, while withdrawal
starts in September from the northwest and moves south.

Dhanashree N Nerlikar, Dept of Civil Engineering. VVIT Bangalore

WATER CONSERVATION AND RAIN WATER HARVESTING BCV654A

Rainfall in India
1. Characteristics of Rainfall
• Intensity: Often intense but short-lived, leading to water runoff.
• Seasonality: Concentrated during the monsoon months (June–September).
• Variability: Inter-annual variations due to El Niño, La Niña, and Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD).
2. Distribution of Rainfall
• High Rainfall (>200 cm/year):
o Northeastern states (e.g., Cherrapunji and Mawsynram, the world's wettest places).
o Western Ghats (e.g., Goa, Kerala, Karnataka's coastal regions).
• Moderate Rainfall (100–200 cm/year):
o Central and northern plains.
• Low Rainfall (<50 cm/year):
o Rajasthan's Thar Desert and parts of Gujarat.

Onset and Withdrawal of Effective Rains

• Onset:
o Begins in early June in Kerala, advancing northward.
o Dependence on factors like sea surface temperatures, jet streams, and the Intertropical
Convergence Zone (ITCZ).
• Withdrawal:
o Starts in September from northwestern India, retreating southward by December.
o Brings clearer skies, lower humidity, and falling temperatures.

Dry Spells and Wet Spells

Dry Spells:
• Periods of insufficient or no rainfall during the monsoon.
• Impacts: Reduced crop yields, water stress, and increased risk of droughts.
• Dry spells and wet spells are sequences of days with different amounts of precipitation. Critical
dry spells are extreme dry spells that can lead to droughts.
• A sequence of days with little or no precipitation
• Can contribute to the intensity and duration of droughts
• Can lead to lower river flows and higher water residence
• Can increase the risk of wildfires and agricultural losses

Dhanashree N Nerlikar, Dept of Civil Engineering. VVIT Bangalore

WATER CONSERVATION AND RAIN WATER HARVESTING BCV654A

Wet Spells:
• Extended periods of continuous rainfall.
• Impacts: Flooding, waterlogging, and damage to infrastructure and crops.
• A sequence of days with precipitation above a certain threshold
• Can contribute to the total number of rainy days and seasonal rainfall accumulation
• Can lead to saturated soils and increase the risk of flooding
• Can impact agriculture and water-borne diseases

Critical Dry Spells:

• phases of crop growth (e.g., flowering and grain filling) where inadequate water can result in
significant yield Specific losses.
• Extreme dry spells that can lead to droughts
• Can have negative effects on food production and water security

Analysis of dry and wet spells

• The analysis of dry and wet spells can help with sustainable hydro- environmental
management and planning
• The analysis can help identify regional differences in dry and wet spell characteristics
• The analysis can help identify changes in the timing, duration, and occurrence of dry and wet spells
Water Loss from Soil
Types of Water Loss:
1. Evaporation: Water loss from the soil surface due to heat.
2. Transpiration: Water loss through plant stomata.
3. Percolation: Movement of water through the soil profile to deeper layers.
Factors Affecting Water Loss:
• Soil type and texture.
• Vegetation cover.
• Temperature and wind speed.
Measurement:
• Instruments like lysimeters, tensiometers, and soil moisture probes help measure soil water
content.

Dhanashree N Nerlikar, Dept of Civil Engineering. VVIT Bangalore

WATER CONSERVATION AND RAIN WATER HARVESTING BCV654A

Water loss from the soil: Water loss from soil can occur through evaporation,
transpiration, and infiltration.
• Evaporation
• Capillary action: Water can move upwards against gravity in compacted soil, which increases the
amount of water lost through evaporation.
• Soil condition: Looser soil with a crumb structure loses less water than
• compacted soil.
• Mulch: Loose mulches can reduce evaporative losses for a short time after irrigation.
Transpiration
• Plant type: The ratio of transpiration to evaporation varies by vegetation type.
• Factors: Transpiration is affected by solar radiation, relative humidity, carbon
dioxide levels, and more.
• Infiltration
• Water availability: Infiltration makes water unavailable to plants.
Evapotranspiration

Total water loss: Evapotranspiration is the sum of transpiration and

evaporative soil moisture loss.

• Reducing water loss

• Loosen the surface layer of soil to break the wick effect of capillary action.
• Use water absorbing geocomposite to minimize water loss.

Measurements and factors: Rainfall is typically measured in millimeters (mm) using a rain
gauge, which records the depth of precipitation at a specific location; key factors influencing rainfall
include latitude, altitude, proximity to oceans, wind patterns, and the presence of mountains, all of
which affect the formation and distribution of rain clouds.

Key points about measuring rain:

Unit: Rainfall is measured in millimeters (mm).
Instrument: A rain gauge is used to measure rainfall.
Types of rain gauges:
Standard rain gauge: A simple bucket-style gauge that collects rainwater and is manually read.
Tipping bucket rain gauge: An automated gauge where a small bucket tips over
when filled, electronically recording rainfall.
Optical rain gauge: Uses light sensors to measure rainfall.

Dhanashree N Nerlikar, Dept of Civil Engineering. VVIT Bangalore

WATER CONSERVATION AND RAIN WATER HARVESTING BCV654A

Factors affecting rainfall:

Latitude: Locations closer to the equator generally receive more rainfall due to increased solar
radiation and convection currents.
Altitude: Higher altitudes tend to receive less rainfall due to cooler temperatures
and less moisture available.
Ocean currents: Warm ocean currents can contribute to increased evaporation and rainfall over
nearby landmasses.
Wind patterns: Prevailing winds transport moisture from oceans inland,
influencing rainfall patterns.
Topography: Mountains can act as barriers, blocking rain clouds and creating rain shadows
on the downwind side.
Temperature: Warmer air can hold more moisture, leading to potential for heavier rainfall.
Atmospheric pressure: Areas with low pre ssure tend to experience rising air and more
precipitation.

Importance of rainfall measurement:

→ Agriculture: Farmers rely on rainfall data to plan crop selection and irrigation needs.
→ Water resource management: Monitoring rainfall is crucial for managing
water supplies and predicting potential droughts.
→ Climate studies: Rainfall data is essential for understanding climate patterns and change

Hydrological Cycle
The hydrologic cycle describes the perpetual processes of motion, loss and recharge of the earth’s
water. The never-ending exchange of water from the atmosphere to the oceans and back again is
known as the hydrologic cycle. The processes can be visualized as shown in Figure below. This cycle
is the source of all forms of precipitation (hail, rain, and snow), and thus of all water. The water from
rivers, ponds, ocean and soil evaporates while water stored in plants transpires to form clouds which
store the water in the atmosphere. The vapour in the clouds condenses to result in precipitation. Like
all other phenomena in nature, this cycle also derives
its energy from the sun. Explanations of various terms used in the figure are given below.
Components:
1. Evaporation and Transpiration: Solar energy drives water evaporation and transpiration from
plants.
2. Condensation: Water vapor forms clouds.
3. Precipitation: Rain, snow, or hail.
4. Runoff: Excess water flows over the land to rivers and streams.
5. Infiltration: Water percolates into the ground, replenishing aquifers

Dhanashree N Nerlikar, Dept of Civil Engineering. VVIT Bangalore

WATER CONSERVATION AND RAIN WATER HARVESTING BCV654A

i. Evaporation: Solar energy falling on earth heats up the surface water molecules.
These energized water molecules break free from water surface to evaporate and rise as invisible
vapour in the atmosphere.

ii. Transpiration: All the plants emit water vapour through leaves. This process is named as
transpiration. Actively growing plants transpire more vigorously. It could be as high as 5 to 10 times
the water it can hold. It is physiological requirement of the plant.

iii. Condensation: The water vapours from evaporation and condensation rise. As temperature falls
at higher levels, the water vapour cools and eventually condenses with tiny dust particles present in
atmosphere as nuclei. These nuclei grow and agglomerate into clo uds. These clouds are mobile and
are driven by air currents in the atmosphere.

iv. Precipitation: If these clouds further rise in atmosphere, they get supersaturated
with water and that water falls down as rain. If the temperature of surrounding is too low, then hail or
snow fall results. All these forms of water getting condensed and falling on earth is called precipitation.
The rainfall is more near the mountain ranges because they cause the clouds to rise in air.

v. Run off: Excessive precipitation or snowmelt during summer result in flow of water in streams to
rivers or ponds. This visible flow of water on land surface depends on topography of watershed and is
called run off. We will discuss watershed in next section.

vi. Infiltration: As the land surface is permeable, part of the precipitation or run off will infiltrate
through the surface downwards. This infiltration water reaches the groundwater.

vii. Groundwater: Depending on geology of soil below the surface, the infiltration water is stored as
ground water. This groundwater is brought to surface by digging wells for our use. Sometimes, the
Dhanashree N Nerlikar, Dept of Civil Engineering. VVIT Bangalore
WATER CONSERVATION AND RAIN WATER HARVESTING BCV654A

groundwater can flow into streams or into ocean. Groundwater hydrology is the science that studies
the storage and dynamic movement of groundwater.

Importance and issues related water status scenario of water in Karnataka: source,
geological distribution, and quality.

Karnataka is considered one of India's most water-stressed states, facing significant water scarcity due
to limited water resources, over-exploitation of groundwater, and uneven distribution of rainfall, with
a large portion of the state classified as drought- prone; while the state has potential for surface water,
it can only utilize a fraction due to limitations in harnessing west-flowing rivers, leading to a situation
where only around 40% of available water can be economically used.

Key points about Karnataka's water situation:

Limited water availability: Karnataka has access to around 6% of India's surface water, with seven
major river basins, but the majority of this water is not fully utilizable.

→ Groundwater overdraft: A significant portion of Karnataka's water needs

are met by groundwater, which is heavily over-exploited in many areas.

→ Uneven distribution: The west-flowing rivers contribute a large portion of the state's
surface water, while the east-flowing rivers are utilized more extensively due to better
accessibility.

→ Impact on cities: Bengaluru, the state capital, is particularly vulnerable to

water scarcity due to rapid urbanization and high water demand.

→ Interstate water disputes: Karnataka faces water disputes with neighboring states, notably
Tamil Nadu regarding the Cauvery river, further complicating water management.

Some important aspects of Karnataka's water situation:

→ Major river basins: Godavari, Krishna, Cauvery, west-flowing rivers, south Pennar, and
Palar.
→ Water utilization: Only around 40% of the state's potential water resources
can be utilized effectively.
→ Drought-prone areas: Large parts of the state are classified as drought- prone,
particularly in the north.

Dhanashree N Nerlikar, Dept of Civil Engineering. VVIT Bangalore

WATER CONSERVATION AND RAIN WATER HARVESTING BCV654A

Human Influence on the Water Cycle:

• Deforestation: Reduces transpiration and groundwater recharge.
• Urbanization: Increases runoff, reduces infiltration.
• Over-extraction: Leads to groundwater depletion.

Scenario of Water in Karnataka

Sources of Water in Karnataka:
1. Surface Water:
o Rivers: Cauvery, Krishna, Tungabhadra, Sharavathi.
o Reservoirs: Krishna Raja Sagara (KRS), Tungabhadra Dam.
2. Groundwater:
o Widely used for irrigation and drinking water, especially in semi-arid regions.

3. Groundwater Resources
The four sources of surface water are tanks, ponds, lakes, and rivers.
→ About 10,360 rivers and their tributaries with an average length of 1.6 km e xist in the nation.
India's river basins collectively have an estimated mean annual flow of 1,869 cubic km.
→ However, only about 690 cubic km (32%) of the available surface water can be used because
of topographical, hydrological, and other limitations.
→ The amount of rainfall within a catchment area and the size of the catchment area determine
how much water flows through a river. The Ganga, Brahmaputra, and Indus rivers in the nation
all have substantial catchment areas.
→ Rivers & Drainage System of India: The catchment areas of the Ganga, Brahmaputra, and
Barak rivers receive a disproportionately high amount of precipitation, accounting for 60% of
the country's total surface water resources despite covering only about one-third of its total area.
While the Brahmaputra and Ganga basins have yet to be developed, much of the annual water
flow in south Indian rivers like the Godavari, the Krishna, and the Kaveri has been utilized.
4. Rainwater:
o Uneven distribution, with coastal areas receiving more rain than interior regions.

Dhanashree N Nerlikar, Dept of Civil Engineering. VVIT Bangalore

WATER CONSERVATION AND RAIN WATER HARVESTING BCV654A

Geographical Distribution of Water:

• Southern Karnataka: Fertile plains with better water availability.
• Northern Karnataka: Drought-prone regions with water scarcity.
Water Quality Issues:
• Contamination: Pollution from industrial effluents, agricultural runoff, and sewage.
• Salinity: Coastal regions face saltwater intrusion

Influence of human activities on water cycle

Humans impact the water cycle in several different ways – directly and indirectly.
To start, humans directly change the dynamics of the water cycle through direct manipulation. This
includes building dams for water storage and withdrawing water from lakes and rivers for industrial,
agricultural, or domestic purposes.
Of course, humans indirectly impact the water cycle through actions that contribute to global
warming.

Hydroelectricity
→ Hydroelectricity involves changing the stored gravitational energy of water behind a dam into
electrical power for everyday use.
→ Hydroelectricity was initially considered an excellent solution for renewable energy as it is non-
polluting; however, it does affect the water cycle.
→ The mere act of damming rivers impacts how the water flow functions, including impeding fish
from flowing naturally through the waters, affecting the aquatic ecosystem.
→ This has a trickling impact on the lakes that typically connect to these rivers, which can put the
upstream and downstream water flow out of balance.
→ This can lead to a build-up of silt and affect the amount of water that the plants and animals
that rely on this water source get.

Deforestation
Trees play a significant role in the water cycle. Deforestation is an essential issue in the natural world
today. Deforestation is the removal of trees from their natural habitat for human use.

Trees release water into the atmosphere when they transpire, which produces humidity. This vapour
evaporates into the atmosphere before being turned into precipitation and re-released as rain.

Understanding this process, it’s clear how deforestation can harm the water cycle. With fewer trees,
the land and the air will become drier, affecting surrounding life that previously relied on a certain
humidity level. It may also create more run-off and leaching, increasing droughts and floods in certain
areas.

Irrigation
Irrigation is the artificial watering of the land. As the human population has grown, so has our need
for agriculture and, consequently, water to cultivate this agriculture.
The problem with using irrigation for soil moisture is that it displaces water from its natural source,
which then causes leaving or run-off where it used to be. It also introduces more salt into our water
systems.

Dhanashree N Nerlikar, Dept of Civil Engineering. VVIT Bangalore

WATER CONSERVATION AND RAIN WATER HARVESTING BCV654A

Climate change: climate change has one of the most significant impacts on the earth’s water cycle.
Human activity, such as burning fossil fuel, contributes to the Earth’s rising temperature. An increase
in temperature means an increase in evaporation and rapid melting of ice sheets, such as glaciers,
which causes sea levels to rise and impacts other critical processes of the water cycle.

Dhanashree N Nerlikar, Dept of Civil Engineering. VVIT Bangalore

WATER CONSERVATION AND RAIN WATER HARVESTING BCV654A

Surface Water Resources in Karnataka

Karnataka's primary surface water resources include rivers like the Cauvery, Krishna, and Tungabhadra,
with the majority of the state's surface water coming from west-flowing rivers, contributing around 60%
of the total surface water availability; the remaining portion is supplied by east-flowing rivers, all forming
seven distinct river basins within the state.
Major Rivers:
1. Cauvery: Lifeline for southern Karnataka, used for agriculture and drinking.
2. Krishna: Supports irrigation and power generation.
3. Tungabhadra: Important for agriculture in central Karnataka.
Reservoirs and Dams:
• Krishna Raja Sagara Dam: Supports irrigation and water supply.
• Tungabhadra Dam: A critical resource for central Karnataka.

Dhanashree N Nerlikar, Dept of Civil Engineering. VVIT Bangalore

WATER CONSERVATION AND RAIN WATER HARVESTING BCV654A

Importance and Issues of Water Resources

Importance of Water:
• Supports agriculture, drinking water, and industries.
• Hydropower generation.
• Ecosystem sustenance and biodiversity.
Issues:
1. Water Scarcity: Due to over-extraction, uneven rainfall, and inefficiency in water use.
2. Pollution: Industrial, agricultural, and domestic waste contamination.
3. Inter-State Disputes: Cauvery water-sharing conflict with Tamil Nadu.
4. Groundwater Depletion: Over-dependence on groundwater in semi-arid regions.
By addressing these challenges, adopting sustainable practices, and leveraging advanced technologies like
rainwater harvesting and water recycling, Karnataka can ensure water security and equitable distribution
for its population.

Dhanashree N Nerlikar, Dept of Civil Engineering. VVIT Bangalore