Chapter 8 Structures of writing

In the Cambridge Checkpoint tests, you will be asked to write in different

structure the way
a writer writes, the
formats, for different purposes, for different audiences and in different
words they use and styles. Read the questions carefully so that you understand exactly what
how they use them you are being asked to do and then use what you know about the
different types of writing. Also take the time to create a plan in the space
that is provided in the test.

Narrative writing
On Paper 2, the fiction paper, you might be asked to write a story or
narrative based on the main theme of the narrative in the reading insert,
or you might be asked to continue the narrative from the point at which
the material in the reading insert finished.

Try this
Let’s make sure you understand the features of narrative writing.
narrative a story or
an organised and Read the following list of statements about creative/narrative writing and
coherent account of decide which are true and which are false.
a series of connected
events Statement True or false?
The purpose of a narrative or story is to persuade the
reader to do something.
A narrative or story should be clearly and logically
organised in paragraphs.
The purpose of a narrative or story is to provide the
reader with information.
A narrative or story can be written in the first or third
person.
The purpose of a narrative or story is to entertain and
engage the interest of the reader.
A narrative or story uses subheadings.

A successful narrative or story should include some

direct speech.
Nothing actually happens in a narrative or story – it
only contains description.
A successful narrative or story needs a strong
opening and ending.
You do not need to plan your narrative or story before
you start writing it.

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 CHAPTER 8 STRUCTURES OF WRITING

TOP TIPS Engaging the interest of your reader

When you introduce In order to engage the interest of your reader, it is a good idea to include
a character, create a some of the following techniques in your opening paragraph:
picture of what they
are like so that the l direct speech
reader wants to know l an exclamation or a question
more about them. You l a description of an interesting character
might include details
l an intriguing statement
of what the character
looks like, does, l an atmospheric scene setter
wears and so on. l a sound effect.

Try this
Read the following story openings and, using the list of techniques above,
decide whether you think they are successful narrative openings or not.

The day was bitterly cold. A chill wind swirled mercilessly through the
dry leaves and the skies were grey and blurred with the threat of snow.

1 Can you find any interesting descriptive words (adjectives) here? If so,
write them down.

2 What effect does the writer want to create by describing the weather
in this way?

Alexandra Smith. My enemy. Blonde and petite with a perfect button

nose and pearly white teeth which could turn on a wide smile that
never quite reached her icy blue eyes. There she stood, hands on
hips, in her brand new jacket and expensive boots, eyeing me coldly.

3 Can you find any interesting describing words (adjectives) here? If so,
write them down.

4 What impression of this character does the writer want to give

the reader?

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 Narrative writing

5 What do the phrases ‘turn on a wide smile that never quite reached
her icy blue eyes’ and ‘she stood, hands on hips’ tell the reader about
this character?

I was walking along the street one day when Alonso asked me if I
would like to join his gang.

6 Can you find any interesting details in the opening? If so, write them down.

7 What would you do to improve this opening?

Why did I do it? Why didn’t I stay on the outside where I belonged?

8 What does this opening tell the reader about the character and
feelings of the narrator?

‘I hate you! I hate you!’

I can still hear her voice now, twenty years later, and the emotions of
guilt and regret still overpower me just as they did then …

9 What does this opening tell the reader about the character of the narrator?

10 Does this opening use any other effective techniques? If so, write
them down.

11 What sort of mood is created by this opening?

mood the feeling
that a writer is trying
to create by using
certain words

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 CHAPTER 8 STRUCTURES OF WRITING

setting the place or Try this

location where an
event takes place Using the techniques you have been learning about in this section, write
a successful opening paragraph for a story about a time when you broke
the rules.
Complete this answer on a separate piece of paper.
Now look back at what you have written.
Underline any interesting words that you have used.
What impression do you want to give the reader about the character/
setting you have created?

TOP TIPS Try this

Start a sentence with
an -ing or an -ed Now practise beginning sentences in different ways by rewriting the
clause. For example: following short paragraph. You may include more detail and description
to make it more interesting.
Glancing Complete this answer on a separate piece of paper.
furtively behind,
he …
I went out and locked the door behind me. I ran down the street
Racing ahead of because I didn’t want to miss the bus. I caught the bus, luckily,
the others, she but I couldn’t find a seat. I stood for the whole journey and
… I gazed out of the window at the gloomy, grey pavement and
people trying to protect themselves against the rain. I felt glad
Numbed by the to be inside the bus!
recent tragic
news, she …

Creating an atmosphere

Try this
Look at this opening paragraph about a holiday.

One day I went to the beach with my family. I enjoyed myself

and I remember the sea was blue and the sand was golden.

HINT This story opening is clearly underdeveloped and does not grab the
Atmosphere means
reader’s attention.
the mood of a place or What three things do you think the writer could do to make the
situation e.g. exciting, paragraph more interesting to read?
sad

Write your own opening to a story with the title ‘A Memorable Holiday’.
Complete this answer on a separate piece of paper.

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TOP TIPS
Use repetition for effect, for example:

The streets were full … the square was overcrowded … the city
was overflowing.
He inched forward nervously; he stood on the edge of the diving
board; he waited.

This will also create tension for the reader.

Also think about the punctuation you might use and its effect. What effect
do the ellipses (…) and semicolons (;) have here?

Try this
Read this story opening which tells of an embarrassing moment.

When I was eight I had the star role in the school concert but
my costume was too long and I fell over on stage in front of
everyone. A boy pointed to me and laughed. Then the audience
all stared at me and joined in, pointing and laughing at me. I
could tell the teacher was annoyed with me.

This piece of writing can be improved to make it more entertaining to read.

Rewrite the opening by using the skills you have learnt so far.
You could use direct speech, an exclamation, a sound effect or an
intriguing statement.
Complete this answer on a separate piece of paper.

TOP TIPS Try this

Read like a writer.
Be like a magpie; Look at the following prompts and write an opening for each one, using
when you are the techniques you have studied so far.
reading, collect good
examples of: l Write about a time when you felt proud of yourself.
l Write about a time when you helped someone.
l sentence
l Write about a time when you felt left out.
structures
l words and Complete this answer on a separate piece of paper.
expressions
l special effects.
When you have finished, read over what you have written and think
about how you might improve your writing.
Adapt them for your
own stories. Remember that in the test, there is nothing wrong with crossing out
words to improve your writing and earn a higher mark.

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TOP TIPS Consider the following points when you try to improve your work.
If you want to show
the passing of time in Why How
your story, it can be a To correct my mistakes Correct spelling, punctuation and grammar
good idea to use errors. Check for paragraphs.
flashbacks to explain
To create the best impression Add more detail where necessary.
past events quickly.
For example: To achieve a higher mark Use interesting vocabulary, similes, metaphors
and effective verbs.

It had all come

flooding back …
Structuring your story
It hadn’t always The fabulous five-part plan is the most commonly used structure in
been like this … storytelling. It is used in novels, plays, films and TV programmes.
1 Gripping opening
2 Introduction of a problem
flashback a scene 3 Complication
that goes back to
events in the past
4 Crisis or climax
5 Resolution
Use this simple but effective structure to help shape and organise your
structure the way
ideas are organised narrative plot.
narrative a story; It may help you to visualise the structure as a pyramid like this.
an organised and Crisis or climax
coherent account of
a series of connected
events
Complication
plot storyline

Introduction of a problem

Gripping opening Resolution

The five-part-plan pyramid

Try this
Produce a five-part plan for each of the following. You might want to
think ‘outside the box’ for some of these. Write down any ideas or first
thoughts you may have. Write about a time when you:
a volunteered for something
b felt you had let someone down
c had to overcome a challenge.
You can write your plan as a scatter diagram, a flow chart, a timeline or
a series of boxes or ideas linked by arrows. Use whatever method works
for you.
Now try writing one of these stories, using the information from your plan.
Complete this answer on a separate piece of paper.

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 Narrative writing

Try this
Read this opening to a story about a time when the writer received some
unexpected news.

I turned my head and caught the velvet blackness of the night

sky staring at me through my window. The relentless rain spat
against the glass zigzagging as it wound a path down the window
pane. Outside, the street was empty. All I could hear was the
angry rain pounding off the concrete slabs and the fierce wind
bellowing an aggressive symphony in my ear.

l How do you think the story could develop?

l What could happen next?
Try planning and writing the whole story.
Complete this answer on a separate piece of paper.

Creating characters
Creating interesting and memorable characters is often the key to writing
a great story and achieving high marks. To do this, it is a good idea to
use some of the following: adjectives, effective verbs and adverbs, similes
and metaphors.
Remember that the words and actions you choose can give the reader
clues about a character’s personality and situation by suggesting it rather
than saying it.

Try this
Read this description of a character from The Hundred Thousand
Kingdoms by N.K. Jemisin.

Face like the moon, pale and somehow wavering. I could get the gist
of his features, but none of it stuck in my mind beyond an impression
of astonishing beauty. His long, long hair wafted around him like black
smoke, its tendrils curling and moving of their own volition. His cloak
– or perhaps that was his hair too – shifted as if in an unfelt wind. […]
The madness still lurked in his face, but it was a quieter madness now,
not the rabid-animal savagery of before. Something else – I could not
bring myself to call it humanity – stirred underneath the gleam.

Pick out and write down the adjectives in this description and think
about what they tell the reader about the personality of the character.
Think about the verbs used. For example, what does the verb ‘lurked’
suggest about the character?
Complete this answer on a separate piece of paper.

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 CHAPTER 8 STRUCTURES OF WRITING

Remember that the way a character speaks also reveals their personality.
Instead of only writing ‘he said/she said’, make sure your use of verbs
is interesting and precise. For example, you could use ‘he bellowed’ or
‘she whispered’.

Try this
How many different words or synonyms can you think of for the word ‘said’?
Make a list of at least ten alternatives and decide what the words might
suggest about the way a character is feeling.
For example, the verb ‘grumbled’ might suggest the character is
depressed, fed up or unhappy, and the word ‘yelled’ might suggest the
character is feeling scared, excited or enthusiastic.
Complete this answer on a separate piece of paper.

Body language is also important when creating and describing a

character as the way a character moves and behaves can suggest how
that character is feeling.

Try this
Look at the table below. For each description of body language, decide
what you think are the most likely feelings. An example has been done
for you.

Description of body language Most likely feelings

Looking down and not making Embarrassed/shy/guilty
eye contact

Eyes wide open and staring

Folding arms and frowning

Growing redder in the face

Hands behind head with elbows

stretched out

Raising eyebrows and

shaking head

Shrugging shoulders

Tapping foot or fingers

Pointing at a person while talking

Winking

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 Writing a specific type of text for a particular purpose and audience

HINT Writing a specific type of text for a particular

Remember to suggest
not tell in your writing. purpose and audience
On Paper 1, you will be asked to write a specific type of text (for example,
a letter, a speech or a report) and also for a specific purpose and
audience. To write effectively you need to identify the reason for writing
(purpose) and the people who will read it (audience). When you have
done this, you will be able to think about the appropriate tone (register)
and the type of words you will use (style).
TOP TIPS
Before you start a
piece of writing, ask
Try this
yourself ‘What am I
trying to do?’ It will Read this piece of writing by a student.
usually be one of the
following: Do you ever wonder why teachers hate mobile phones?
l Persuade Because they can’t use them? Or maybe they hate the way
l Give information we brandish them around? Well, I’m not going to keep you
l Entertain guessing. Teachers, like many of our elders, are not up to date
l Express an with twenty-first-century technology. So, when we can text,
opinion
l Ask someone to
phone, look up information on the internet and play games, they
take action become jealous. Great, isn’t it?
Sometimes you I must say that it ’s a huge blessing on our part to see people
will be doing a who are senior to us struggling to get to grips with these
combination of these
simple devices. I mean, what is so difficult about pressing a
things.
few buttons?
Mobile phones are the best thing ever invented. What is wrong
with them? They are perfect! All we need now is for them
to make you dinner and do your homework (just kidding, Mrs
Smith) and we won’t have to lift a finger ever again!
Now I would like you to decide whether mobile phones are a
blessing or a curse, but I hope that with my points you will say it is
a blessing.
Thank you for listening.

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 CHAPTER 8 STRUCTURES OF WRITING

1 What type of writing do you think the student was asked to produce?
How can you tell?

2 What do you think the student was asked to do? (What is the purpose?)

3 Who do you think the student’s intended audience is? How can you tell?

4 What sort of register or tone has the student used? Find some
examples to prove this.

Writing a speech
The purpose of a speech is to persuade your audience to agree with your
point of view.
In order to do this, you will use persuasive techniques.

Try this
Read through the persuasive techniques in the table below. Fill in the
right-hand column to explain the effects of the techniques.

Persuasive technique Effect

Rhetorical questions

Persuasive/emotive/
dramatic language

Facts/information/statistics

Direct address

Expert opinion

Superlatives

Tripling/repetition

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 Writing a speech

Try this
Look at this extract from Animal Farm by George Orwell. Identify and
explain the effects of any persuasive techniques used here.
Complete this answer on a separate piece of paper.

‘Now, comrades, what is the nature of this life of ours? Let us face it:
our lives are miserable, laborious, and short. We are born, we are
given just so much food as will keep the breath in our bodies, and those
of us who are capable of it are forced to work to the last atom of our
strength; and the very instant that our usefulness has come to an end,
we are slaughtered with hideous cruelty. No animal in England knows
the meaning of happiness or leisure after he is a year old. No animal in
England is free. The life of an animal is misery and slavery: that is the
plain truth.
‘But is this simply part of the order of nature? Is it because this land
of ours is so poor that it cannot afford a decent life to those who dwell
upon it? No, comrades, a thousand times no!’

Try this
Your school or college wants to raise money for charity.
You have the chance to speak in assembly to persuade your school/
college to support a charity of your choice.
Write your speech.
Here are some ideas you might want to think about:
HINT l Information about the charity
In your opening l Why it is a good charity to support
paragraph, remember l Some ideas about how to raise the money
to introduce yourself l Why students should get involved
and state the purpose
of your speech. Complete this answer on a separate piece of paper.

Try this
Now you are going to practise your skills.
Read this question.
A lot of older people do not use social media or the internet, either
because they don’t see any value in them, or because they are afraid of
modern technology.
You have been asked to give a speech to a group of older people to
persuade them to use computers and the internet. Write your speech.
l Identify the important words in the question.
l Decide what your purpose, audience, register and style will be.
l Spend five minutes writing a plan to help you complete this task.
Complete this answer on a separate piece of paper.

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 CHAPTER 8 STRUCTURES OF WRITING

Try this
Read this extract from a student response to the previous task.

I understand many old people don’t use computers or the

internet either because they don’t see any value in them or
because they are afraid of modern technology. However,
modern technology won’t bite or eat you up, so what ’s the
point in being frightened of them? On the other hand modern
technology like computers and the internet have numerous
amounts of benefits out there for people to discover. You can
go on Facebook for keeping in touch with distant relatives and
friends. No matter where you stand, you’ll find the distance
is not the problem. You will still be able to have a ‘hello’ from
them. Computer and the internet make everything closer.

What three pieces of advice would you give this student to help improve
this answer?

Try this
Look at these opening sentences to speeches on different topics.

Tonight I am going to talk to you about why keeping a pet is a

good thing.
This speech is about how you can improve your fitness levels and
why exercise is important.
I am going to talk to you today about why it is important that all
students study a science subject in school or college.

Rewrite each opening sentence so that it will have a greater impact on

the audience. You can add more details or information as well.
Then choose your best sentence and write the next three or four
paragraphs of the speech.
Complete this answer on a separate piece of paper.

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 Writing a formal letter

Writing a formal letter

formal letter a TOP TIPS
serious letter written Always remember to show that you understand the format of the task and
to someone in a that you know what you are doing by using the special features of the form
position of authority you have been asked to use.
Always aim to set your writing out correctly.

Here is the layout for a formal letter.

Your address in the top-
right-hand corner – use a 2 Happy Street,
capital letter for each word
Happy Town,
in the address
Happyville
HPY 123

Date written in full and

4 March 2022
not abbreviated
The Principal
The address of the person
who will read your letter, International School
lower down on the
left-hand side Singapore

Begin with ‘Dear Sir/

Dear Sir or Madam,
Madam’ and finish with
‘Yours faithfully’ – capital
Y but lower case f. If you
begin with the name of the
person (for example, ‘Dear
Mr Chen’), end with ‘Yours
sincerely’ – capital Y but
lower case s

Yours faithfully,
Sign your name and then
Lucy Langdon
print it underneath
Lucy Langdon

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 CHAPTER 8 STRUCTURES OF WRITING

TOP TIPS
When you write a letter, you may find it helpful to plan your ideas using the
abbreviation RDA:
Reason for the letter – this should be made clear in your opening paragraph
where you introduce yourself and state why you are writing the letter.
Detail/development – this is the main part of the letter, in which you make all
of your points and arguments.
Action – this is your final paragraph in which you explain what you want your
letter to achieve.

The purpose of a formal letter is to give the reader information, and often
to persuade them to agree with your ideas or point of view as well. So,
you will need to use many of the same persuasive techniques that you
would use for a speech.

Try this
Consider this task.
The headteacher or principal of your school or college has decided to
remove the subject of music from the curriculum. Write a persuasive
letter to the headteacher/principal giving your views about this proposal.
Read the tips in the box below and then write your letter.
Complete this answer on a separate piece of paper.

TOP TIPS
Remember to plan your letter.
Decide what your viewpoint will be – are you in favour of the proposal or
against it? Be consistent throughout the letter.
Write down a list of points to include in the letter. Then number them in
order from the strongest point to the weakest point. Aim to have about four
or five points.
Start with your strongest point, so you can make an immediate impression
on your reader, and finish with your second strongest point. Your ending
must also have impact if you want your letter to have an effect – you don’t
want it to trail off weakly.

TOP TIPS
Use this as a checklist to improve your work:
l Have you set it out as a formal letter?
l Have you used the correct tone? The letter should be polite and you
should make your points clearly and persuasively.
l Do you think you have included enough information and details in the
middle paragraphs to make your argument convincing?
l Have you used connectives at the beginnings of the paragraphs to
connect your ideas?
l Does the final paragraph clearly state what action you would like taken
as a result of your letter?
l Are there any improvements you want to make to your use of persuasive
techniques or your vocabulary?

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 Writing a report

Ending with impact

In the same way that your opening needs to make an impression,
the way you end your writing needs to have an impact as well.
Here are some possible techniques to make a final impact on
your reader.
l You could use a question to make the reader think about what they
have just read. For example, ‘Surely we can no longer ignore the
frightening reality of the situation?’
l You could end with a warning, suggesting what will happen if your
views are ignored. For example, ‘If we continue to feed our children
with calorie-loaded junk food, we run the risk of becoming the first
generation to outlive its children.’
l You could end on a positive, uplifting note, suggesting what will
happen if your views are acted upon. For example, ‘Our actions
could result in producing a future generation that is well motivated
and enthusiastic.’

Writing a report
When you write a report, it is important that you communicate clearly
and provide information. There is no need to write persuasively or include
persuasive techniques in a report. You need to be factual and polite, not
persuasive. Generally, you will be asked to write a report in relation to your
school/college or the wider community.

Try this
Read the following list of statements about report-writing and decide
whether each one is true or false.

Statement True or false?

Reports should be written in formal English.
A report should be clearly organised into logical
paragraphs.
The purpose of a report is to entertain the reader.
You need to end a report with ‘Yours sincerely’.
A report should be written in columns like a newspaper.
Subheadings should be used to make the different
sections clear.
A report should grab the attention of the reader.
The purpose of a report is to persuade the reader.

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TOP TIPS Try this

Planning your answer
is essential. Consider this question.
To help you organise Write a report for your headteacher/principal on ways in which your
your ideas, jot down school/college could be improved for students approaching important
a heading for your examinations.
report.
It might help you to make a quick plan, like the one below, to help you
Write down three or
focus on what you need to do.
four subheadings you
will use in your report. l Who is your audience? – headteacher/principal, who is busy and well
Write down a topic educated and already knows the school/college well
sentence to begin l What is your purpose? – to make clear what is wrong with the current
each paragraph under situation and suggest improvements that can be made to help
the subheadings. students preparing for important exams
l What is your register? – formal, polite standard English – no slang
What other ideas
could you include in l What is the format? – an organised report with paragraphs under
each section? subheadings, such as ‘Revision time’ and ‘Extra lessons’
Complete this answer on a separate piece of paper.

heading a line at the

top of an article or Try this
page in a newspaper
or magazine
Here are two different introductions to an answer to the question above.

format the way in

Example A
which something is From: Adil Pearson
arranged or laid out
on a page To: Mr Chen, Principal, Singapore International School
Purpose: to suggest ways in which the school can be improved for
students approaching examinations.
Introduction:
School Council members were asked by the principal to identify
the issues faced by students as they approach their Cambridge
International exams, and to suggest possible solutions. In my role
as a member of the Student Council, I have consulted other
students and these are my findings.

Example B
Here is my report to the Principal about what the school needs
to do to help students as they come up to their exams.

Which example do you think has the most appropriate introduction?

Explain why.

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 Writing a report

What three things could the student do to improve Example B?

Now, write your own answer to the question, remembering the following
features of writing an effective report.
l Begin with a clear title, stating for whom the report is written and
what it is about.
l Include a short introduction, making clear why you are writing the
report, the background to it, how you reached your conclusions and
where you found your information.
l Use separate subheadings for each topic as an effective way of
organising your material. Aim for about three or four subheadings.
l Include a conclusion in which you sum up your main points and
suggest what should happen next.
l Use a formal register with a respectful, calm tone.
Complete this answer on a separate piece of paper.

Check your understanding

1 Think of 2 things you should remember when writing a report.
2 Give 2 layout features of a formal letter.
3 Why does the opening of a speech need impact?
4 What are the 5 parts of a plan for a narrative?

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