EMMANUEL JOHN INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

237 M.H. Del Pilar St., LA Bldg. 11th Avenue. Grace Park Caloocan City
 Studying a language like English is an adventure. You
will discover many things as you develop communicative
skills in reading and writing. Though at times it may seem
like some topics and techniques may be easy to grasp, there
will be moments that you will be mystified by some ideas
before you learn them.
Filipino students carry the burden of such a great
expectation: to acquire the necessary knowledge and skills
to navigate and succeed in an increasingly globalized,
demanding, and changing environment. One such challenge
is to maintain a high level of competence and confidence in
using English. Why so? English is the language of the
globalized world. It is used in education, business, and
intercultural communication. Communicating successfully in
English involves knowing how to read and write efficiently in
various contexts and circumstances.
  LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1. To know how to apply an effective reading strategies
in comprehending a text.
2. To appreciate the importance of using context clues.
3. To identify the type of context clues and write a
sentences using denotation and connotation in words.

 Reading is an activity that challenges our beliefs, inspires our

imagination, and expands our understanding of the world.
 Reading involves a complex interaction between the text and
the reader. The reader's interpretation is shaped by his or her
prior knowledge, experiences, and attitudes.
 Reading is an indispensable skill that requires continuous
practice, development, and refinement.
 Doesn't the act of reading amaze you?
The fact that you are able to decipher the written symbols on
this page, get meaning from, and put meaning into them, is
no small wonder.
But reading is not just a matter of knowing what is written in
the book. To read intelligent means you are able to read
actively and critically.

But have you really considered just how many skills you actually
apply when you read something? Take a moment and write down
on the blanks below as many actions as possible that can be
associated with reading.
Let us try to better appreciate what it means to read
by studying a poem.

JABBERWOCKY

The word inside the oval is taken from the title of Lewis Carroll's
poem. Examine this unusual word. Upon reading this title, can you
guess what the' poem will be about? What associations do you
have with the word? Write them beside the lines. You will go back
to these later.
 Jabberwocky
BY LEWIS CARROLL

’Twas brillig, and the slithy toves

Did gyre and gimble in the wabe:
All mimsy were the borogoves,
And the mome raths outgrabe.

“Beware the Jabberwock, my son!

The jaws that bite, the claws that catch!
Beware the Jubjub bird, and shun
The frumious Bandersnatch!”

He took his vorpal sword in hand;

Long time the manxome foe he sought—
So rested he by the Tumtum tree
And stood awhile in thought.

And, as in uffish thought he stood,

The Jabberwock, with eyes of flame,
Came whiffling through the tulgey wood,
And burbled as it came!
 One, two! One, two! And through and through
The vorpal blade went snicker-snack!
He left it dead, and with its head
He went galumphing back.

“And hast thou slain the Jabberwock?

Come to my arms, my beamish boy!
O frabjous day! Callooh! Callay!”
He chortled in his joy.

’Twas brillig, and the slithy toves

Did gyre and gimble in the wabe:
All mimsy were the borogoves,
And the mome raths outgrabe.

"Jabberwocky" is a nonsense poem written by Lewis Carroll

about the killing of a creature named "the Jabberwock". It
was included in his 1871 novel Through the Looking-Glass,
and What Alice Found There, the sequel to Alice's Adventures
in Wonderland.
 VOCABULARY CHECK

Your knowledge of grammar, specifically the

parts of speech, can help you make better sense of
the poem. Look back at the unfamiliar words of the
poem. Some of these are nouns, verbs, adjectives,
and adverbs. Choose 5 words and place them in the
chart below. Try to decipher the meanings of these
words.

Unfamiliar Parts of Similar- Possible

word from Speech sounding meaning
the poem word in
English
1. Slithy Adjective Slimy,sly,slit Description
hery for a slimy
animal
2.

3.

4.

5.
 WHAT IS READING?

Reading is a cognitive process of decoding symbols to derive

meaning from a text. It is always an interaction between the
text and the reader.
We read to gain and share information and ideas, whether for
academic, personal, or professional purposes.
Reading is also a skill that can be improved through
consistent practice. In order to comprehend the text, we
apply many skills simultaneously while we read:
1. Identifying the author's purpose.
2. Grasping the main ideas of the text.
3. Locating important details.
4. Using to understand unfamiliar words.
5. Answering specific questions.
6. Analyzing the text's points.
7. Critiquing the text.

These, and more, are some of the strategies that we can use
to help us become better readers.
 DEFINING READING
 But what is reading, anyway? Reading is a cognitive
process of decoding symbols to derive meaning from a text. It
is away-an interaction between the text and the reader. We
read to gain and share information and ideas, whether for
academic, personal, or professional purposes.
 Reading so a skill that can be improved through
consistent practice.
 In order to comprehend the text, we apply many skills
simultaneously while we read: identifying the author's
purpose, grasping the main ideas of the text, locating
important details, using to understand unfamiliar words,
answering specific questions, analyzing the text's points, and
critiquing the text.
 APPLYING EFFECTIVE READING
STRATEGIES

Below are some reading strategies that you can use to increase
your understanding of the text.

Getting an Overview of the Text

At times, it may be a good idea to survey the text as a
whole before delving deeper into each part. Whenever you
want to get the gist of the text's content, you use previewing,
skimming, and scanning.

1. Previewing
It means looking at the readily visible parts of the text,
like titles and subtitles, and also visuals and graphs, pictures,
and charts. Previewing helps familiarize you with the contents
of the selection and focus on-the important information in
the text. To preview the text properly, first identify your
purpose for reading. Next, examine the Cities and subtitles of
the text. Afterward browse the introduction and the
conclusion of the text.
2. Skimming and scanning
The text means you look for the main point of the
reading and identify the ideas that develop it. Skimming
effectively means physically moving your eyes rapidly along
 the page and tracing your finger along the lines of the text to
speed up your reading.

Using Context Clues

Context clues are words, phrases, and sentences that surround
an unfamiliar word that can help you recognize the meaning of an
unknown word because the text gives you information about it
thus, you can study how a word is used in a sentence and discover
an approximate definition. Getting the meaning of unfamiliar
words through context clues is a very useful process, because this
allows you to read more fluently and increases your vocabulary.
The most common types of context clues are the following:
1. Synonyms are used when the text has words or phrases
that are similar in meaning to the unknown word. Though their
meanings are similar, they are not exactly the same because a
word may have different associations with it. Synonym clues may
be signaled by the following words: "like" or "as."
2. Antonym is a word that reveals the opposite meaning in
relation to the unknown word. When you see words like
"instead," "in contrast," "unlike," "however," "even though," "on
the contrary," and "conversely," these usually precede antonyms
because these are used to show contrasting ideas.

3. Examples are specific details in a text that are used to

clarify the meaning of a word.
 4. Explanations and Definitions may be given as clues to
describe an unknown term. When phrases like "because" or "that
is" follow a word/ these may be explanations. Meanwhile,
definitions may follow an unfamiliar word. Terms like "is," defined
as," and "refers to" are used with definitions.

5. Situation in which a word is used can also be helpful in

determining the meaning of that word. The meaning of a word
may change depending on its context, or how and where it is
used.

Using Connotation and Denotation

Another way of improving your comprehension of a text is
trying to understand the different meanings that particular words
can have. Words only make sense to us if we understand what
they mean.
Two ways of describing the meaning of a word are called
denotation and connotation.
Denotation is the basic, precise, literal meaning of the word
that can be found in a dictionary
Connotation, meanwhile, is the positive, negative, or neutral
feelings, attitudes, ideas, or associations with a word,/These
shades of meaning are affected by social overtones, emotional
meanings, or cultural implications.
 To illustrate the difference between denotation and
connotation, compare the following meanings of the words
"father" and "daddy".
Father
Denotation: a male parent.
Connotation: -association: positive
-feelings: love and respect
Daddy
Denotation: a male parent.
Connotation: -association: positive
-feelings: love, familiarity, childhood

 LEARNING ACTIVITY (A)

Direction: Identify the type of context clues used for each of the
following sentences.
1. I saw a man vaping his e-cigarette. He was inhaling and exhaling
the vapor from the device.
2. Contactless payment technologies, unlike traditional modes of
payment, make use of smart cards to connect wirelessly to e-
readers for more efficient payment.
3. Signing an online petition, sharing a status message, or liking a
post are increasingly regarded as actions falling under
slacktivisms, a digital form of activism with little involvement.
4. Some parents are anti-vax—that is, anti-vaccinations— because
they believe these chemicals may trigger autism in students.
5. Some people like making duck faces, or pressing their lips
together in the shape of a duck's bill, when they take selfies.
6. "Watch this video to discover the meaning of life!" "This
beggar's response will restore your faith in humanity!" and "See
how one woman made a million pesos from her living room" are
types of headlines called clickbaits.
7. Advances in neuromorphic technology have excited many
scientists. These systems that mimic the human nervous system
show much promise in the field of medicine.

 LEARNING ACTIVITY (B)

Direction: Write a sentence for each word in the-series that
follows, making sure your details reinforce each word's
connotations.
1. Stroll, trudge, loiter
2. Turmoil, anarchy, hubbub
3. Tour, pilgrimage, vacation
4. Enemy, antagonist, opponent
5. Dress, attire, vestment
 LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1. To explain critical reading as looking for ways of thinking.
2. To identify claim of fact, policy, and value explicitly or
implicitly made in a written text.
3. To write a 200 word critique of your chosen text on the
basis of its claim, context, and properties as a written
material.

Critical reading is an active and reactive process.

Critical reading is the foundation of good writing.
Analyzing a writer's claims helps us become critical thinkers.
Analyzing claims helps us appreciate diverse perspectives on
a topic.
Good claims are always backed up by reliable evidence.
 Every day, you encounter many instances that require critical
thinking. For example, advertisements on television promise
99.9% of cavities, germs, or pimples will be removed by a certain
product.
News from the radio accuses a certain politician of corruption.
An article on the Internet headlines that a certain celebrity has
died—even though the celebrity is very much alive.
You are bombarded with a ton of information from all sorts of
media that, at times, it becomes tempting just to accept
everything that comes your way.
But it is dangerous to believe everything you are told without
questioning any aspect. This is precisely why critical thinking,
especially as applied to reading, is a necessary skill to develop.

LET’S PRACTICE!
Direction: List five personal traits which you think a critical reader
should embody.
CHARACTERISTICS OF A CRITICAL READER
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
 DEFINING CRITICAL READING
Whenever you read something and you evaluate claims, seek
definitions, judge information, demand proof, and question
assumptions, you are thinking critically. This type of reading goes
beyond passively understanding a text, because you process the
author's words and make judgments after carefully considering
the reading's message.
But why should you read critically?
Reading critically means you are thinking critically. This shows
that you do not simply accept the message on the page.
 You bring-to your reading your own experience and
perspective, and use these to separate yourself from the text
and judge for yourself what you consider important, logical,
or right.
 Some techniques to help you develop
Critical Reading skills:

1. KEEPING A READING JOURNAL

Have you ever kept a diary? If you did, you must have felt
free while expressing whatever was on your mind. This is
because there are no rules in keeping a diary; you write for
yourself.
A reading journal is similar to keeping a diary, except you are
writing your feelings and ideas in reaction to your reading
assignment. This process allows you to develop your
impressions of the text and connect them to your personal
experiences. This allows you to better relate to the essay and
understand the author's ideas.
When keeping a reading journal, it is best to have a separate
notebook for this purpose. Include the titles of the reading
assignments you are responding to and add dates to your
entries.
Make it a habit to reread your entries so you can see how
your ideas and writing have evolved. Keep in mind that your
teacher and classmates may read your work so only write
about what you feel comfortable sharing.
2. ANNOTATING THE TEXT
Annotating the text simply means making notes on your copy
of the reading.
This includes highlighting or underlining important passages
and writing notes, comments, questions, and reactions on the
margins. By doing this, you are entering into a dialogue with
the author and not just passively reading the text. It is usually
best to annotate the text after you have read it more than
once to ensure that you understand it properly:
3. OUTLINING THE TEXT
Creating a rough outline of the text will also be helpful in
getting to understand it more critically.
By locating the thesis statement, claims, and evidence, and
then plotting these into an outline, you can see how the
writer structures, sequences, and connects his or her ideas.
This way you will be able to better evaluate the quality of the
writing.
4. SUMMARIZING THE TEXT
Summarizing the text is similar to outlining, in that you need
to get the gist. A summary consists of getting the main points
of the essay and important supporting details.
  Summarizing is a useful skill because you can better
understand the reading if you can recognize and differentiate
major and minor points in the text.

5. QUESTIONING THE TEXT

Questioning the text involves asking specific questions on
points that you are skeptical about.
These may be topics that do not meet your expectations or
agree with your personal views/Alternately, you should also
take note of things that you found impressive.

The following may be asked:

What type of audience is addressed?
What are the writer's assumptions?
What are the writer's intentions?
How well does the writer accomplish these?
How convincing is the evidence presented?
How reliable are the sources?
Are they based on personal experience, scientific data, or
outside authorities?
Did the writer address opposing views on the issue?
Is the writer persuasive in his/her perspective?
 IDENTIFYING AND ANALYZING CLAIMS

Determining Explicit and Implicit Information

Critical reading also means that you are able to distinguish
the information that is clearly stated (explicit) in the text
from ideas that are suggested (implicit). This will help you
make inferences about what you read.
Defining Claims
Whenever you read something, you find yourself looking for
the writer's point or position regarding the chosen topic. That
point is also known as the claim or the central argument or
thesis statement of the text.
This claim is what the writer tries to prove in the text by
providing details, explanations, and other types of evidence.
As such, it is usually found in the introduction or in the first
few paragraphs of the text.
The claim is the most important part of the text. The quality
and complexity of the reading depend on the claim, because
the claim defines the paper's direction and scope, The claim is
a sentence that summarizes the most important thing that
 the Writer wants to say as a result of his/her thinking,
reading, or writing.

The following are the characteristics of good claims:

1. A claim should be argumentative and debatable. When a writer
makes a claim, he/she is making a case for a particular perspective
on the topic. Readers expect to be able to raise objections to your
claim, and they can only raise objections if the claim is something
that can be reasonably challenged. Claims that are only factual or
based on opinion are not debatable.
2. A claim should be specific and focused. If the claim is
unfocused, the paper will be too broad in scope and will lack
direction and a clear provided. It may also lead to
overgeneralizations and vague assertions.
3. A claim should be interesting and engaging. It should hook the
reader, who may or may not agree with you, to encourage them
to consider your perspective and learn something new from you.
4. A claim should be logical. It should result from reasonable
weighing of support provided.
Here are some questions to help you determine the writer's
claim while you are reading a text:
What is the author's main point?
 What is the author's position regarding it?

Types of Claim
1. CLAIMS OF FACT
It stated a quantifiable assertion or a measurable topic.
 They assert that something has existed, exists, or will exist
based on data.
They rely on reliable sources or systematic procedures to be
validated.
 Claims of fact usually answer a "what“question. When
determining whether something is a claim of fact, the
following questions are useful:
Is this issue related to a possible cause or effect?
Is this statement true or false?
How can its truthfulness be verified?
Is this claim controversial or debatable?
2. CLAIMS OF VALUE
It asserts something that can be qualified.
They consist of arguments about moral, philosophical, or
aesthetic topics.
 These types of topics try to prove that some values are more
or less desirable compared to others.
They make judgments, based on certain standards, on
whether something is right or wrong, good or bad, or
something similar.
 Claims of value attempt to explain how problems, situations,
or issues ought to be valued. To discover these explanations,
you may ask the following questions:
Which claims endorse what is good or right?
What qualities should be considered good?
Which of these values contend with others?
Which ones are more important, and why?
Whose standards are used?
What are some concrete examples of such values?
3. CLAIMS OF POLICY
It stated that specific actions should be chosen as solutions to
a particular problem.
You can easily identify a claim of policy because they begin
with “should” “ought to”, or “must”.
Claims of policy because they defend actionable plans, usually
answer "how" questions. The following questions will be
useful in evaluating a claim of policy:
Does the claim suggest a specific remedy to solve the
problem?
Is the policy clearly defined?
Is the need for the policy established?
 Is the policy the best one available?
For whom? According to whose standards?
How does the policy solve the problem?

Identifying the Context of Text Development

Being a critical reader also involves understanding that texts
are always developed with a certain context.
Context is defined as the social, cultural, political, historical,
and other related circumstances that surround the text and
form the terms from which it can be better understood and
evaluated.
Knowledge of the text's context helps in appreciating the
text's message more deeply.
In discovering a reading's context, you may ask questions like:
When was the work written?
What were the circumstances that produced it?
What issues does it deal with?
Another important technique in analyzing the context of a
text's development is defining its intertextual link to another
text.
Intertextuality is the modeling of a text's meaning by another
text.
 It is defined as the connections between language, images,
characters, themes, or subjects depending on their
similarities in language, genre, or discourse.

Hypertext is a relatively new way of reading a text online.

Traditionally, reading was viewed as a linear process, where
you read from the beginning until the end.
However, the advent of the Internet and technology has
created new ways of reading and processing a text, which
includes hypertext.
Hypertext is a nonlinear way of showing information that
connects topics on a screen to related information, graphics
videos, and music - information is not simply related to text.
 This information appears as links and is usually accessed by
clicking.
 The reader can jump to more information about a topic,
which in turn may have more links.
 This opens up the reader to a wider horizon of information or
to a new direction.
 Critical Reading as Reasoning
Assertions are declarative sentences that claim something is
true about something else.

4 COMMON TYPES OF ASSERTION

1. FACT
This is a statement that can be proven objectively by direct
experience, testimonies of witnesses, verified observations,
or the result of research.
EXAMPLE:
The sampaguita's roots are used for medicinal purposes,
such as an anesthetic and a sedative.
  This statement is a fact because it can be directly
verified by experience or reliable research reports.
2. CONVENTION
A convention is a way in which something is done, similar to
traditions and norms.
Conventions depend on historical precedent, laws, rules,
usage, and customs.
EXAMPLE:
The sampaguita belongs to the genus Jasminum of the
family Oleaceae.
 This statement is a convention because it is based on
a classification system made up by scientists and is
acceptable to the scientific community.
3. OPINION
Opinions are based on facts, but are difficult to objectively
verify because of the uncertainty of producing satisfactory
proofs of soundness.
Opinions result from ambiguities; the more ambiguous a
statement, the more difficult it is to verify.
EXAMPLE:
The popularity of sampaguita flowers is most evident in
places of worship.
 The above statement is an opinion because it is
based on an observation that needs to be proven by
studies and repeated observation; there are too
 many factors involved that makes explicit judgment
difficult.
4. PREFERENCE
Preferences are based on personal choice; therefore, they are
subjective and cannot be objectively proven or logically
attacked.
EXAMPLE:
Sampaguitas are the most beautiful and most fragrant of
all flowers.
 This statement is a preference because it says a lot
about the type of flowers that the writer likes,
instead of objectively comparing the qualities of
sampaguitas to that of other flowers.

Formulating Counterclaims
To be an effective critical thinker it is not enough just to be
able to identify claims and assertions.
The ability to analyze an argument is essential to
understanding the text more deeply, but understanding the
claim is not the only facet of the argument.
You must also learn how to analyze the counterclaims and
evidence provided by the text.
Being able to recognize and formulate counterclaims in
reaction to an argument is a characteristic of a good critical
reader.
 Counterclaims are claims made to rebut a previous claim.
They provide a contrasting perspective to the main argument.

By being able to locate and provide counterclaims to an

argument, you show a deep competence and familiarity with
the writer's topic.
It shows that you are examining you have thoroughly
considered the topic, and are willing to engage different
viewpoints from your own, thus remaining objective.
It also helps you clarify what your personal position is on the
topic.
The following questions will help you formulate a
counterclaim:
What are the major points on which you and the author
can disagree?
What is their strongest argument?
What did they say to defend their position?
What are the merits of their view?
What are the weaknesses or shortcomings in their
argument?
Are there any hidden assumptions?
Which lines from the text best support the counterclaim
you have formulated?
 Determining Textual Evidence
To better evaluate the author's argument, you should be able
to determine the evidence from the text.

Evidence is defined as the details given by the author to

support his/her claim.
 The evidence provided by the writer substantiates
the text. I
 t reveals and builds on the position of the writer and
makes the reading more interesting.
 Evidence is crucial in swaying the reader to your
side.

Evidence can include the following:

Facts and statistics (objectively validated information on
your subject);
 Opinion from experts (leading authorities on a topic,
such as researchers or academics);
Personal anecdotes (generalizable, relevant, and
objectively considered).
The following are some questions to help you determine
evidence from the text:
What questions can you ask about the claims?
Which details in the text answer your questions?
What are the most important details in the paragraph?
What is each one's relationship to the claim?
How does the given detail reinforce the claim?
What details do you find interesting? Why?
What are some claims that do not seem to have support?
What kinds of support could they be provided with?
What are some details that you find questionable? Why
do you think so?
Are some details outdated, inaccurate, exaggerated, or
taken out of context?
Are the sources reliable?
The following are the characteristics of good evidence:
Unified
Relevant to the central point
Specific and concrete
Accurate
Representative or typical.
 LEARNING ACTIVITY
Direction: Imagine that you are an editor for your school
paper. Your teacher has given you the freedom to choose an
article about our society and government. You are tasked to
review your chosen article. Your critique should consist of
200 words that evaluate the basis of its claim, context, and
properties as a written material.
 LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1. To distinguish between and among techniques in
selecting and organizing information.
2. To define Pre-writing and determining the writing
situation.
3. To write an essay about the most important benefit
of Pre-writing.

How do you feel whenever you see a blank piece of paper

or a blank computer screen? More often than not, you might
feel terrified at the thought of needing to fill up all that space
 Defining Pre-Writing
The first stage of the writing process is pre-writing, which
pertains to different techniques that help you discover ideas
before writing the first draft of a paper.
During pre-writing, you use a variety of strategies to find out
things that interest you about a topic or new ways of thinking
about it.
It also helps you identify what else you need to know about a
topic.
These are valuable and time-saving because determining a
focus early in the writing process will help you effectively plan
and execute your research and writing.
In the pre-writing stage, it is important to refrain from
critiquing your ideas while they have not yet been fully
formed.
You should approach it with a relaxed and open state of
mind.
The pre-writing stage allows you to communicate with
yourself so you can discover what to communicate to your
readers.

Determining the Writing Situation

The pre-writing stage begins with knowing the kind of paper
that you will be required to write.
What are you being asked to do? Look at key words in the
instructions. You might be tasked to do a variety of things
when writing including, analyzing a text, comparing your
ideas with the author's ideas, summarizing the selection, or
proposing a solution to an issue. Also, consider how long the
paper should be.
The next thing to do is to determine the writing situation, or
the context of your assignment. The context can be clarified
by initially thinking about the purpose and audience of your
paper.
The first consideration is determining your purpose. This is
the reason why you are writing. When you think about your
purpose, you begin to make decisions about form, content,
 length, organization, support, and tone. Purpose in writing is
answered by these questions:
1. What do you want to accomplish?
2. Why are you sending this message?
To write effectively, it is a always best assume that you are
writing to be read.
Your audience is your target reader.
You must recognize who your readers are and anticipate their
expectations, background, and knowledge of the topic if you
are to tailor-fit your writing to their tastes.
Identifying your audience helps you determine how you want
them to respond to your writing, and thus helps you write
with that in mind.
Your readers will feel more involved and you will have a
clearer appreciation of your purpose.
o Here are some questions to help you analyze your
audience:
Who is most likely to read my work? Will I have
multiple audiences? 0
What are their age, sex, and educational
attainment?
Why would they be reading my work?
Does the assignment give me an idea of who the
audience should be?
What would they find interesting about it?
Why should they be concerned about my opinion?
What do I want them to learn from my work?
 How much do they already know about my
topic?
What do they need to know?
How do I want to influence them?
What are their political, cultural, and religious
beliefs?
Will they act on what I want them to do?
What questions would they have for me?
The topic is the subject or the specific issue that your paper
will discuss.
It is always best to limit your topic, because if you write about
a broad subject, your essay will lack focus.
 After you have thought about your purpose, audience, and
topic, it would be good to consider the tone you plan to use.
This refers to the attitudes and feelings you want your
writing to reflect toward your purpose, topic, audience, and
yourself.
These are manifested point-of-view (first, second, or third),
sentence sentences), and chosen and denotation).

Using Pre-Writing Strategies

Writers use a variety of ways to find their writing topic—
brainstorming, clustering or mapping, and free writing.
Go ahead and experiment with them, and pick the one that
suits you best.
Just keep in mind that your writing topic should be:
 1. One that interests you, so that you can be passionate,
personal, and comfortable when writing about it.
2. One that you know so well that you can be credible and
convincing to your audience with your message.

Brainstorming
It is one of the better and more popular methods of discovering
your writing topic.

The aim of a brainstorming exercise is not to produce a

logical flow of ideas but to provide yourself with as many
choices for your topic as possible.
After listing down all your ideas, browse through them and
pick the one that best appeals to you, or the one that you
know best.
You will be surprised at how broad your selection of topics
can be, about how much you actually already knew.
You can also try to connect your ideas, and see what
meaning you can create.
 Clustering or Mapping
It is another technique that you can use to find your writing
topic.

Start by writing a word or phrase at the center of the page

and encircle it, this becomes your main topic.
Then, think of other words and phrases related to that
main topic, write them down, encircle them, and draw
lines connecting them to the main topic.
These become your subtopics. From there, you can branch
off the subtopics with other supporting ideas, or you can
think of new subtopics related again to the main topic.
Just make sure that each word or phrase you write down is
connected to the word or phrase that suggested it.
When you are done drawing your cluster, browse through
all' the ideas and pick one that you would like to talk
about.
If you want to expand on your chosen idea, you can also
use the words and phrases you wrote around it.
The beauty of this pre-writing method is that it teaches
you how to dissect an idea, or how to develop it further.
 Free writing
It uses the force of narration to draw a stream of connected
ideas out of the writer's mind.
It is writing down your thoughts nonstop, in the exact order,
language, and form in that you think them.
The good thing about this pre-writing method is that it
maintains some coherence between a writer's thoughts.
Writing fast can also get you writing down thoughts you did
not see coming.
The rules of grammar, punctuation, capitalization, and style
do not matter here; run with your words to catch that subject
you have always itched to talk about.
You will be amazed at how much distance your writing mind
will cover with this exercise.
To get a better grip of free writing, read on the sample
composition below. Notice how it abandons proper writing
form and style to quickly get as many ideas across as possible.
I've been to Trinoma Mall in North Avenue Quezon City yes it was constructed by the
Ayalasjust like the Glorietta and Greenbelt malls in Makati I like Trinoma better than SM North
EDSA because it's nearer to my home in Mindanao Avenue plus it's connected to the MRTso
 The only things you will ever need for journal writing
are:
Your favorite pen
A nice clean notebook
The drive to keep on writing.
The drive to write is the most important, because a
journal is no good to a person who does not write at all.
To start the habit, you will need to schedule journal
writing during a particular time of the day that you are
free.
It can be that 15-minute morning wait for the school
bus to pick you up, the school lunch hour, or the 20
minutes before your sleeping time.
  LEARNING ACTIVITY
Direction: Create an essay about the following topics and
discuss how you will modify your purpose and tone to match the
audience specified below.
1. The benefits of having a pet (first grade children, parents,
people who prefer cleanliness)
2. The reason why it is more fun in the Philippines (foreign
tourists, local tourists, tourism officials)
3. The advantages of commuting (people who drive cars,
government officials, regular commuters)
 LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1. To evaluate a thesis statement by knowing the
characteristics of an effective one.
2. To write an effective thesis statement.

A thesis statement is the controlling idea of our essay.

An effective thesis statement includes a specific subject and
our opinion on that subject.

DEFINING THE THESIS STATEMENT

A thesis statement is the central idea of an essay, around
which all other ideas revolve.
It is not just the most important idea; it also controls the
essay by determining what you should or should not include
in your work. In one sentence, reveals and summarizes you
intend to develop and defend.
The thesis statement reflects your purpose for writing. It is
main point and your stand, directing the entire flow of your
writing should be clear that the thesis statement is not the
subject or topic itself, but an interpretation of the topic.

FORMULATING A THESIS STATEMENT

The thesis statement comes as a result of pre-writing.
It is the product of thinking about your seeking evidence, and
looking for relationships between these.
Ask the following questions to help you find out a thesis
statement:
What main idea does most of my pre-writing support?
What are the relationships that exist among my ideas?
Which aspect of the topic seems to be given the most
detail?
Where does my stand seem to be the most consistent?
What is the focus of the most interesting and significant
points of my pre-writing?
What ideas should I do more research on?
 Whatever thesis statement you come up with initially is called
a working thesis statement, an argument containing your
stand and that you intend to prove with evidence in the
essay.
 It is called such because you may have to adjust your thesis
statement depending on your research and writing.

CHARACTERISTICS OF AN EFFECTIVE
THESIS STATEMENT
1. Responds to the assignment by following instructions.
Going back to the instructions can assure you that your thesis
statement is relevant and addresses what your teacher has
prescribed. It can also refocus your argument if needed.
2. Expresses the main idea in one to two sentences.
A thesis statement should be comprehensive yet concise
because be spending the rest of the paper proving your point.
3. Focuses on a specific issue
Your thesis statement should be sufficiently narrowed based
on the boundaries of the assignment, and should only discuss
one or a few related issues so that your paper remains
focused and you do not ramble or leave some parts
undeveloped.
4. States a stand on the topic
A thesis statement must reveal your attitude toward the
topic.
Your attitude will show how you intend to interpret or discuss
the issue, and this is what differentiates you from other
writers who may be writing about the same topic.

5. Says something meaningful by answering the questions: "So

what?" “How?” “Why?”
A good thesis statement shows why the reader should care
about your work.
The significance of your paper Is clear to the reader if your
thesis statement is able to answer the question, "So what?"
Next, your thesis statement should be able to substantiate
your claims by providing the reader evidence, or an idea of
how you intend to support your stand is usually answerable
by addressing 'how" and “why."
6. Previews the rest of the essay by being placed in the
introduction.
A thesis statement is usually placed in the introduction so
that the reader knows reading your essay.
7. Reflects a tone and point-of-view appropriate to the identified
purpose and audience.
 Your thesis statement should consider the writing situation
you find yourself in.

MORE GUIDELINES ON WRITING THESIS

STATEMENTS
You can make your thesis statements more effective if you keep
the following guidelines:
1. Avoid making overly-opinionated stands.
2. Avoid making announcements
3. Avoid stating only facts

 LEARNING ACTIVITY
Direction: Get an old essay of yours from another subject. Go
back to what you have written and locate your thesis
statement, if you provided one. Write it below If you did not
have one before, read the contents and create a new one.
Write it on the blank below. What do you think are the
 strengths of your thesis statement? How can it be improved?
How will your new thesis statement change your paper?

THESIS STATEMENT:

COMMENTS:

 LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1. To create a reading and writing outlines.
2. To define writing and reading outline.
3. To use a topic and sentence outline in selecting and
organizing information.
 An outline reveals the coherence and complexity of an essay.
Outlining efficiently requires the ability to locate the main
ideas of the text.
Outlining well involves knowing how to distinguish ideas
according to their level of importance in the text.
You can only outline something if you understand it.

DEFINING AN OUTLINE
An outline is a summary that gives the essential features of a
text.
It shows how the parts of a text are related to one another as
parts that are of equal importance, or sections that are
subordinate to an idea.
TWO KINDS OF AN OUTLINE
1. Reading Outline
It is used to get the main ideas of a text that is already
written.
It helps you understand the text's structure more critically
because you will have to find the text's thesis statement and
support.
 You will better understand how a writer connects and
sequences the information in the reading.
2. Writing Outline
It is a skeletal version of your essay.
It is used as a guide-to organize your ideas.
It is usually done before you write the first draft of your
essay.

CREATING A READING OUTLINE

A reading outline is highly structured.
Below are some steps that you can follow in creating a
reading outline:
1. Read the entire text first. Skim the text afterward. Having an
overview of the reading's content will help you follow its structure
better.
2. Locate the main idea or thesis of the whole essay.
Look at the title of the text.
Look for heading, if any.
Look for information that answers the question, "What is the
text talking about?"
3. Look for key phrases in each paragraph of the essay.
4. Locate the topic sentence of each paragraph.
5. Depending on the length of the text, look at the topic sentences
and group those with related ideas together. See if they describe
a process or are examples.
6. To logically organize information, the contents of the reading
are arranged according to levels.
A level refers to the number of ranks in the hierarchy of
information in the reading.
Provide a general group name for each group of topic
sentences.
These will be the main divisions of your outline, or the first
level. Label these with Roman numeral. The topic sentences
be the Subtopics or the second level. Label these with capital
letters.
7. Evaluate the supporting details provided. These will be the third
level of your outline Label these with Arabic numerals.
8. Go back to the text after you have finished your outline. Check
whether you have followed its sequence closely and that you have
not missed any important Information.

SAMPLE OUTLINE
For your further understanding and Study, below is a sample
outline. The outline came from a short text entitled “The Spanish
Legacy." written by a local historian named Bonifacio Sibayan.
The text talks briefly about how the Spanish influenced Philippine
languages and Philippine life in the old times.

Purpose: To inform
Audience: High school students aged 12-17 years old
Tone: Light and educational
Point of View: Third Person Point of View
Thesis Statement: In the old times, the Spanish bore such a great
influence over Philippine languages and Philippine life.
l. The Spanish used Philippine native languages to Christianize
the natives.
A. The friars discovered that it was easier to preach the
Good News in the natives' own languages.
B. It was easier for priests to learn the native language
and preach in it, than for the natives to learn Spanish and
learn Christianity in it.
ll. The Spanish mixed terms from their own language with the
Philippine native languages.
A. The Spanish retained certain key concepts in their own
language because these terms did not have equivalents
in the native languages. They also did this so the natives
could not equate these terms with their pagan beliefs.
 1. These concepts include: God, Holy Trinity, Holy
Ghost, Virgin Mary, the Pope, grace, sin, cross, hell,
Holy Church, Sunday, and the names of the
Sacraments.
2. These words can be found in the first book to be
published in Tagalog, named the Doctrina Christiana.
This book was published in 1593.
B. This was the beginning of the marriage of Spanish and
the Philippine languages that came under the Spanish
Christian influence.
C. This allowed that common people' to start learning
Spanish not only in religion but also at home and in
everyday life.
Ill. The Spanish, and a minority of Filipinos, also used the
Spanish language in the domains of higher education,
government, and law.
A. Very few Filipinos learned Spanish well.
1. The University of Santo Tomas only conferred
2,169 degrees from 1634 to 1865.
2. Toward the end of the Spanish regime, only 2.46%
of an adult population of 4.65 million spoke Spanish.
B. The few Filipinos who did learn Spanish (referred to as
illustrados) were the same people who exerted an
 enduring influence in the domains of Philippine
education, government, and law.
C. Spanish was an official language of the Philippines up
until 1986.

CREATING A WRITING OUTLINE

It is one thing to use an outline to better understand a
finished piece of writing by another person, but have you
ever thought of using one to better understand and write
your own essay?
The thought of planning your own draft is not all that inviting
to many. They would rather rough it in the writing, and then
fix everything in the end.
But what if you get lost in the middle of writing? Without a
proper guide, it is possible that you may never reach the end
of your first draft.
All that lost time and effort will only get you burning with
frustration.
When you learn how to create a writing outline, you will
understand how outlines can direct drafts, making writing
much easier and more manageable.
You will also love that feeling of seeing your ideas flow
smoothly from point to point, and better appreciate your
thesis when it looks cleaner and more coherent as a whole.
 A writing outline, again, is basically a skeletal overview of
your draft, which contains your fundamental points and the
different ideas that support them.
In its use, an outline works like a map; it shows you where
each of your ideas is placed in your writing; how all of them
fit together; and how each leads to the central idea of your
writing.
 It also determines the boundaries of your draft; how much of
your subject you will need to cover without lacking or
exceeding in details.
Below are the parts of a formal outline.
Similar to a reading outline, the main ideas are written
beside Roman Numerals.
Supporting ideas under each main idea are Written
beside capital letters and indented.
Specific details under each detail are written beside
Arabic numbers and are further indented.
l. MAIN IDEA
A. Subsidiary idea or supporting idea to I
B. Subsidiary idea or supporting idea to I
 1. Subsidiary idea to B
2. Subsidiary idea to B
a) Subsidiary idea to 2
b) Subsidiary idea to 2
ll. MAIN IDEA
A. Subsidiary or supporting idea to Il
B. Subsidiary or supporting idea to Il
C. Subsidiary or supporting idea to Il
List of suggestions in creating your outline
The list can be a model for you to follow for the time being,
and then later on you can develop your own guide to
outlining.
Determine what your purpose is for writing the thesis,
which your reading audience is, and what point of view
and tone you would like to assume in delivering your
message.
Begin your outline with a thesis statement. Keep in mind
that it should encompass everything in your outline.
Review your notes. Remove any idea that does not
support your thesis or does not conform to your chosen
writing purpose, audience, point of view, and tone. Add
in any new ideas as necessary.
Group together similar ideas and name each group with a
heading that also serves as a main topic supporting your
thesis. Remember that the key to outlining is
distinguishing between main ideas and supporting ideas.
Label all the main topics with Roman numerals. Note
that they will be your outline's first level. Make sure your
main topics are logically sequenced.
Identify subtopics and classify them under the correct
main topics. Label these subtopics with uppercase
letters. Note that they will be your outlines second level.
Identify supporting points (such as illustrations and
examples) and classify them under the correct subtopics.
Indent and label them with Arabic numbers. Note that
they will be your outline's third level.
Identify particular details (such as statistics, quotes, and
other secondary information) and classify them under
the correct supporting points. Indent and label them with
lowercase letters. Note that they will be your outline's
fourth level.
Check your outline for unsupported evidence. Omit it, or
add in new supporting details as necessary.
Re-examine all your main topics, subtopics, supporting
points, and particular details to see that they all develop
your thesis, and are logically sequenced. Also check that
all levels in the outline have parallel wording and
grammatical structure.
Show your proposed outline to a number of people such
as your teacher, your classmates, your friends, or even
 your family. Get feedback from them on what to improve
in your outline.

TWO KINDS OF GENERALLY ACCEPTED

OUTLINES

1. Scratch Outline
It is a simple list of ideas that take the form of words and
phrases.
2. Sentence Outline
It uses sentences to define the subject matter.

 LEARNING ACTIVITY
Direction: Select a short reading assignment in any of your
other subjects. After, create a reading outline of that
assignment, applying the guidelines you have learned from
this lesson.
 LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1. To describe a written text as connected discourse.
2. To identify the properties of a well-written text.
 Well-written essays are the result of careful planning and
organization.
Writing good paragraphs will help us stay on track when we
draft and revise our paper.
Good paragraphing improves your reader’s understanding of
your work.
“For me, a paragraph in a novel is a bit like a line in a
poem. It has its own shape, its own music, its own
integrity.”
- PAUL AUSTER

DEFINING PARAGRAPHS
A paragraph is a group of sentences that deals with one
particular idea.
Paragraphs are defined by the point that they support, the
controlling idea, and not just by how long they are.
This is the fundamental rule in writing paragraphs: only one
idea should be discussed per paragraph.
Put together, paragraphs are used as building blocks in
organizing longer pieces of text into prose.
They basically function in order to introduce a new idea,
develop an old one, compare and contrast information, or
provide readers with a pause.
IDENTIFYING THE PARTS OF A PARAGRAPH:
THE TOPIC SENTENCE
A topic sentence tells the reader the main idea of your
paragraph.
It reveals what you generally plan to propose, argue, or
explain.
When it is part of a longer essay, the topic sentence contains
a main point that supports the thesis statement.
Think of the topic sentence as a mini thesis statement for the
paragraph.
A topic sentence can be explicit, or clearly states the ideas
that will be elaborated on in the paragraph.
A topic sentence is implied if there is a clear controlling idea
of what the paragraph is about.
A good topic sentence reveals your attitude toward the
subject. It is helpful to include details like facts and examples
that turn the topic sentence into something more specific and
concrete.
IDENTIFYING THE PARTS OF A PARAGRAPH:
SUPPORTING DETAILS
Every paragraph needs supporting details to elaborate on the
topic sentence.
These supporting details may range from facts, examples, or
instances.
 Good supporting details expound on the main idea and act as
adequate support; they are specific and stem from the
general idea established by the topic sentence.
How much detail you should include in a paragraph depends
on your purpose and the topic sentence.
MAKING YOUR PARAGRAPHS EFFECTIVE
Now that you have identified the parts of the paragraph, the
following characteristics will help you develop your
paragraphs into more effective ones.

1. The first characteristic of an effective paragraph is unity.

Unity simply means that all of the sentences in the paragraph
are related to the topic sentence.
The whole paragraph should begin and end with one focus
only.
Each of the details should have a clear and consistent
connection to the topic sentence.
2. The second characteristic of an effective paragraph is adequate
development.
The topic sentence in the paragraph should be elaborated on
using concrete evidence, different examples, relevant facts,
and specific details.
 Having specific details helps your readers become interested
in your topic, understand your message, and convince them
of the validity of your topic sentence.
3. The third characteristic of an effective paragraph is coherence.
This means that the sentences are arranged in a logical
manner, making them easily understood by the reader.
Coherence is achieved when ideas flow smoothly within and
between paragraphs.
Paragraph can become more coherent through the use of
logical order and signal devices.
The details of a paragraph can be organized according to
chronological, spatial, or emphatic order.
When a paragraph's arrangement is in chronological order,
the details are arranged in the order in which they happened.
Spatial arrangement is when the sentences of a paragraph
are arranged according to geographical location, such as left
to right, up to down, etc.
Emphatic order is when the information found in a paragraph
is arranged to emphasize certain points depending the
writer's purpose.
You can also achieve coherent paragraphs through the use of
signal devices, or words that give readers an idea of how the
points in your paragraph are progressing.
The following are examples of signal devices:
1. Transitions (these are words and phrases that connect one idea
to another)
 Time (first, immediately, afterward, before, at the same
time, after, earlier, simultaneously, finally, next, in the
meantime, later, eventually, then, meanwhile, now,
subsequently, etc.)
Sequence (moreover, furthermore, next, also, finally,
last, another, first, second, third, besides, additionally,
etc.)
Space (above, next to, below, behind, beside, etc.)
Illustration (for instance, specifically, for example,
namely, in this case, to illustrate, etc.)
Comparison (similarly, also, in the same way, still,
likewise, in comparison, too, etc.)
Contrast (but, despite, however, even though, yet, on
the other hand, although, on the contrary, otherwise,
conversely, etc.)
Cause and Effect (because, as a result, consequently,
then, so, since, etc.)
Conclusion (thus, therefore, in conclusion, in short, etc.)
2. Repetitions (repetitions of main ideas keep continuity and
highlight important ideas)
3. Synonyms (these are words similar in meaning to important
words or phrases that prevent tedious repetitions)
4. Pronouns (words that connect readers to the original word that
the pronouns replace)
5. Parallelism (using similar sentence structures)
  LEARNING ACTIVITY
Direction: Write four sentences of supporting details for each
of the given topic sentences.
1. Many memes on the Internet are actually socially relevant.
A.
B.
C.
D.

2. A long commute to school has both advantages and

disadvantages.
A.
B.
C.
D.

3. Buying items from tiangges means settling for low-quality

materials.
A.
B.
C.
 D.

 LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1. To define revision and editing.
2. To know the essay revision checklist and steps in
editing your draft.
2. To identify the common editing symbols.
 Post-writing is both internal and external: it helps us discover
new meanings in our writing, and improve on communicating
our ideas more clearly through reorganizing, rewording, and
proofreading our work.
Post-writing strategies is applicable to all writing output.
Post-writing strategies give us the chance to know our
strengths and weaknesses as writers, and identify how to
improve on them.

Now, you have arrived at the final stage of the writing process:
post-writing.
This part entails looking over your draft critically, paying
attention to content, organization, and mechanics by using
techniques like revising, editing, and proofreading.
While revising, editing, and proofreading are among the last
things that you do when you finish writing a paper, they are
not always the easiest.
Post-writing is where the hard work of adding to, deleting
from, rewording, and reorganizing your essays happens.
Instead of being daunted by the task, you should take this as
an opportunity to improve your essay—after all; the post-
writing stage is an opportunity for you to discover new ideas
and better ways of communicating those insights.
 DEFINING REVISION AND EDITING

REVISION
Revision is the general process of going back through your
whole draft, from start to end, and improving on or clarifying
your writing subject's meaning.
This can include adding in, taking out, moving around, and
polishing certain parts of your draft to make it much more
understandable and easier for reading.
Revision focuses on the bigger picture of your draft so you
can resolve any significant issues on content that may have
otherwise been hidden while you were writing.
EDITING
Editing, sometimes known as proofreading, is the more
meticulous process of clarifying meaning by revising each
word and line of your draft.
 This includes you working on grammatical principles such as
subject-verb agreement, verb tense, noun and pronoun
usage, prepositions, sentence transitions, and verb tense; and
typographical matters such as punctuation, spelling, and
capitalization.
Note that while revision focuses on the bigger picture of your
draft, editing focuses on its finer details, making sure every
 word contributes precise meaning to your writing subject.
Furthermore, when writers proofread, they mark their drafts
by using editing symbols, which guide them in knowing what
to remove, correct, or improve on.

ESSAY REVISION CHECKLIST

It is likely that a lot of the questions you will see below, you
have already answered in the initial writing of your draft.
Do I have a big idea I want to express, an important message
to send out? Do I have an audience who will listen to me?
Who is my audience?
What is my purpose for writing? Have I achieved it?
What language and tone do I take in my writing? What point
of view and voice? Are all these appropriate to my purpose
for writing, and the audience I am speaking to?
Do I have enough credibility to speak on my chosen subject?
Can I back up all of my discussions on the subject with
confidence and sufficient knowledge?
 Does my draft make a central point? Have I defined the limits
of my draft well, so that only essential information is
included? Is the context of my draft established?
What form of writing does my draft take? Is it the best venue
for my ideas to be expressed?
Does the beginning of my draft draw the reader in? Does it
introduce my subject to the reader well?
Do my succeeding points support my beginning statements?
Does each idea connect to the next one? Do all the sections
of my draft move my discussions on the subject forward,
toward the conclusion?
Does the conclusion make the reader think? Does it answer
all the reader's questions on my subject?
Is the pace of my draft just right? Is it slow enough so the
reader is not left behind by my discussions? Is it fast enough
so the reader's interest still stays with me?
Does the draft read smoothly and coherently overall?
What are the strengths of my draft?
How can I make these stands out more?
What are the weaknesses of my draft? How can I improve on
these?
STEPS IN EDITING YOUR DRAFT
Once you have revised all the content of your draft to your
liking, you can now proceed to the final stage of the writing
process: editing.
Remember that editing (or proofreading) is revising your draft
line by line, word per word, according to proper grammar,
spelling capitalization, and punctuation.
While that is how the process goes, editing must be viewed as
your final preparations and changes on your draft before it
faces your readers.
To effectively get your message across to them in the best
way, you, as the writer, will need to be very concise in your
writing and make every word count.
Therefore, you will be required now to be more thorough
than ever in re-reading your drafts and spotting errors.
 Never make the mistake of editing your works before
revising the content.
To start the rewriting process by attacking grammar and form
first, and then content. It will never work, since there is no
use in editing a draft whose meaning was not even clear or
developed in the first place.
Always make sure that content is clear before you start
editing.
As in revising, you will also be required multiple re-readings
of your draft in editing, with each re-reading having a
different editing focus from the last, so you can spot errors
more accurately.
For example, take a first re-reading to check only for subject-
verb agreement and correct pronoun usage. Your second re-
reading will have you focus next on sentence fragments and
run-on sentences. Your third re-reading will focus on spelling,
 your fourth re-reading on punctuation, and so on and so
forth.
 You may need to make as many re-readings as you can to
minimize the risk of error in your draft.
This may take some time on your part, but rest assured there
is nothing more satisfying than turning in a final draft that
reads effortlessly.

COMMON EDITING SYMBOLS

Remember that writers usually note errors in their drafts by
marking them with editing symbols.
Though these symbols need not be used in the editing
process, they are very helpful because they give the writer an
idea of how the specific error should be corrected.
For your reference, below is a list of common editing
symbols. Study them at your own time and pace, and practice
using them on your drafts until you feel you have mastered
them already.
COMMON PROOFREADING SYMBOLS
COMMON PROOFREADING ABBREVIATIONS
 LEARNING ACTIVITY
Direction: Write an essay about “What are the advantages of
undergoing revision?”
Rodriguez, [Link] C., & Tiongson, [Link] A. (2016). Reading and Writing Skills First

Edition. Quezon City: Rex Bookstore

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[Link]

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