SCIENCE

Notes on the Nervous System

Overview

● The nervous system consists of 100+ billion neurons.

● Functions:
○ Communication within the body.
○ Collecting, interpreting, and sending messages.
● Divisions:
○ Central Nervous System (CNS)
○ Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
○ Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)

Structural Classification

1. Central Nervous System (CNS):

○ Includes brain and spinal cord.

○ Acts as the command center.
○ Interprets sensory input and sends instructions.
2. Peripheral Nervous System (PNS):

○ Located outside the CNS.

○ Connects CNS to different body parts.
○ Made of nerves extending from the brain and spinal cord.
○ Cranial nerves: Carry signals to/from the brain.
○ Spinal nerves: Carry signals to/from the spinal cord.

Function & Importance

● The nervous system regulates and communicates throughout the body.

● Works with the endocrine system to maintain homeostasis.
● Major components:
○ Brain, spinal cord, nerves, ganglia.
○ Includes nerve tissue, blood, and connective tissue.
● Controls mental activity, including thought, learning, and memory.
● Sensory receptors help us stay aware of our internal & external environment.

Nerve Tissue Overview

● Definition: Specialized tissue found in the central and peripheral nervous systems.
● Components:
○ Neurons – Main functional units that transmit impulses.
○ Neuroglia (Glial Cells) – Supporting cells that protect and nourish neurons.

Structure of a Neuron
1. Dendrites – Receive signals from other neurons.
 2. Soma (Cell Body) – Contains the nucleus and organelles.
3. Axon – Long fiber that transmits signals away from the cell body.
4. Node of Ranvier – Gaps between myelin sheath that speed up nerve impulses.
5. Axon Terminal – Sends signals to the next neuron or muscle.
6. Schwann Cells – Produce myelin in the peripheral nervous system.
7. Myelin Sheath – Fatty layer that insulates the axon and increases signal speed.
8. Nucleus – Controls cell activities.

Functions of Nerve Tissue

● Receives stimuli from the environment.
● Transmits impulses to the spinal cord and brain.
● Processes information in the brain.
● Sends responses to muscles and organs via nerves.

Types of Nervous Tissue

1. Sensory Neurons – Carry information from sensory organs to the CNS.
2. Motor Neurons – Transmit signals from the CNS to muscles and glands.
3. Interneurons – Connect sensory and motor neurons for processing.

Location of Nervous Tissue

● Central Nervous System (CNS) – Brain and spinal cord.
● Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) – Nerves outside the CNS.

Nervous Tissue and Nervous System - Summary Notes

Nervous Tissue

● Definition: Specialized tissue in the central and peripheral nervous system.

● Components:
○ Neurons: Transmit impulses.
○ Neuroglia (Glial Cells): Support and protect neurons.
● Function: Conduct nerve impulses, control body functions, and communication.

Structure of a Neuron

● Dendrites: Receive signals.

● Soma (Cell Body): Contains nucleus.
● Axon: Transmits signals.
● Myelin Sheath: Insulates axon, speeds up impulses.
● Schwann Cells: Produce myelin in PNS.
● Nodes of Ranvier: Gaps in myelin sheath aiding signal transmission.
● Axon Terminal: Sends signals to next neuron or muscle.
Nervous System

● Central Nervous System (CNS)

○ Brain: Controls thoughts, emotions, movements.
○ Spinal Cord: Transmits signals between brain and body.
● Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
○ Nerves: Connect CNS to body.
○ Ganglia: Clusters of nerve cell bodies.

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) - Summary Notes

Overview:

● The Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) includes all parts of the nervous system
outside the brain and spinal cord.
● Connects the CNS to the rest of the body.
● Involves cranial nerves, spinal nerves, peripheral nerves, and neuromuscular
junctions.
● Although anterior horn cells are part of the CNS, they are often discussed in
relation to the PNS because they are part of the motor unit.

Function:

● Transmits signals between the CNS and the body.

● Controls voluntary and involuntary functions.
● Divided into:
1. Somatic Nervous System (SNS): Controls voluntary movements (skeletal
muscles).
2. Autonomic Nervous System (ANS): Regulates involuntary functions
(heart, smooth muscle, glands).

Key Components:

● Cranial nerves: Connect the brain to different body parts.

● Spinal nerves: Connect the spinal cord to limbs and organs.
● Peripheral nerves: Branches extending throughout the body.
● Neuromuscular junctions: Connection points between nerves and muscles.

Summary Notes: Nervous System, Homeostasis, and Feedback

Mechanisms
1. Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

● Includes all nerves outside the brain and spinal cord.

● Composed of cranial nerves, spinal nerves, peripheral nerves, and neuromuscular
junctions.
● Conducts information to and from the central nervous system (CNS).
● Works with the autonomic nervous system to regulate involuntary functions (e.g.,
heart rate, digestion).

2. Maintenance of Homeostasis

● Nervous System:
○ Controls and coordinates rapid bodily responses.
 ○ Detects and reacts to external environmental changes.
● Endocrine System:
○ Regulates long-term body processes via hormone secretion.
○ Adjusts nutrient concentration, kidney function, and electrolyte balance.

3. Negative Feedback Mechanism

● Essential for maintaining homeostasis.

● Compares current body conditions to set normal ranges.
● If a deviation occurs, corrective actions are taken.
● Example:
○ Holding breath → CO₂ levels rise → Nervous system signals for
inhalation → O₂/CO₂ balance restored.

4. Coordination & Regulation of Feedback Mechanisms

● The nervous system is the primary control system of homeostasis.

● Monitors body conditions via receptors (e.g., thermoreceptors for temperature,
mechanoreceptors for pressure).
● Sends signals to trigger responses to maintain normal function.
● Helps in survival by enabling quick reactions to environmental threats (e.g., detecting
pain, escaping danger).

Summary Notes: Nervous System & Homeostasis

1. Nervous System Overview

● Central Nervous System (CNS): Brain & spinal cord; controls integration &
processing.
● Peripheral Nervous System (PNS): Cranial & spinal nerves; communication
between CNS & body.
● Sensory (Afferent) Division: Sends sensory information to CNS.
● Motor (Efferent) Division: Sends motor commands from CNS to muscles & glands.

2. Motor Division Subsystems

● Autonomic Nervous System (ANS): Involuntary control of organs, smooth muscles,

glands.
○ Sympathetic Division: "Fight or flight"; mobilizes body systems.
○ Parasympathetic Division: "Rest & digest"; conserves energy, maintains
housekeeping functions.
● Somatic Nervous System: Voluntary control of skeletal muscles.

3. Nervous System & Homeostasis

● Detects and responds to internal/external environmental changes.

● Uses electrical impulses to send signals to the brain.
● Brain instructs effectors (muscles, glands) to restore equilibrium.
● Works through negative feedback loops to maintain stability.
Summary Notes: DNA Structure & Function
1. What is DNA?

● DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid) is a long molecule carrying genetic instructions.

● Functions like a recipe book for proteins in the body.
● The genome is made of DNA and determines biological traits.

2. Structure of DNA

● DNA has a double-helix shape (twisted ladder).

● Made of two strands running in opposite directions (anti-parallel).
● Each strand has a 5’ (five prime) end and a 3’ (three prime) end.

3. DNA Components

● Handrails (backbone): Made of nucleotides (deoxyribose sugar + phosphate

group).
 ● Steps (rungs): Made of nitrogenous bases.
● Four DNA bases:
○ Adenine (A) pairs with Thymine (T)
○ Cytosine (C) pairs with Guanine (G)
● Base pairs are held together by hydrogen bonds.

4. DNA Replication

● Strands separate for DNA replication.

● One strand serves as a template for a new complementary strand.

5. Discovery of DNA Structure

● Discovered by Francis Crick & James Watson with contributions from Rosalind
Franklin & Maurice Wilkins.

6. Genome Size

● Human genome consists of 3.2 billion base pairs.

● Genome size varies among different organisms.

Summary Notes: RNA Structure & Function

1. What is RNA?

● RNA (Ribonucleic Acid) is a nucleic acid involved in protein synthesis.

● It acts as a genetic code carrier in some viruses (instead of DNA).
● It is made of ribose nucleotides connected by phosphodiester bonds.

2. Structure of RNA

● Single-stranded molecule.
● Can be found inside or outside the nucleus.
● Composed of nucleotides (sugar, phosphate, and nitrogenous base).
● Four RNA bases:
○ Adenine (A) pairs with Uracil (U) (instead of Thymine in DNA).
○ Cytosine (C) pairs with Guanine (G).

3. Function of RNA

● Transcribes genetic information from DNA.

● Serves as an intermediate in protein synthesis.
● Some RNA molecules have direct roles in cellular metabolism.

4. RNA Synthesis (Transcription)

● DNA sequence is copied into single-stranded RNA by RNA polymerase.

● This process is called transcription.

Here’s a summarized version of your notes on DNA and RNA:

DNA & RNA Summary Notes

DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid)
 ● Structure: Double-stranded helix.
● Components: Nucleotides (phosphate group, sugar, nitrogenous base).
● Nitrogen Bases: Adenine (A), Thymine (T), Guanine (G), Cytosine (C).
● Base Pairing: A-T, G-C.
● Function: Stores genetic information, used as a template for RNA.
● Replication: DNA strands separate and serve as templates for new strands.
● Location: Mostly found in the nucleus.

RNA (Ribonucleic Acid)

● Structure: Single-stranded.
● Components: Nucleotides (phosphate group, ribose sugar, nitrogenous base).
● Nitrogen Bases: Adenine (A), Uracil (U) (instead of Thymine), Guanine (G),
Cytosine (C).
● Base Pairing: A-U, G-C.
● Function: Converts genetic information from DNA into proteins.
● Types of RNA:
○ mRNA (Messenger RNA): Carries genetic code from DNA to ribosomes.
○ tRNA (Transfer RNA): Helps in assembling amino acids into proteins.
○ rRNA (Ribosomal RNA): Structural component of ribosomes.
● Transcription & Translation: DNA → mRNA (transcription) → Protein
(translation).

Key Differences Between DNA & RNA

Feature DNA RNA

Structure Double-stranded helix Single-stranded

Sugar Deoxyribose Ribose

Bases A, T, G, C A, U, G, C

Function Genetic storage & replication Protein synthesis

Location Nucleus (mostly) Nucleus & cytoplasm

Notes on Protein Synthesis

Overview

● DNA stores genetic information and remains in the nucleus.

● RNA acts as a messenger, transferring information from DNA to ribosomes.
● Proteins are built based on the instructions in RNA and determine traits.

Steps in Protein Synthesis

1. Transcription (DNA → mRNA)

○
Occurs in the nucleus.
○
Enzymes read DNA and create mRNA (messenger RNA), which carries
genetic instructions.
2. Translation (mRNA → Protein)

○ Occurs in ribosomes in the cytoplasm.

○ Ribosomes read mRNA in sets of three nucleotides (codons).
○ Each codon corresponds to a specific amino acid.
○ Amino acids are linked together to form a protein.

Functions of Proteins

● Catalyze biochemical reactions (enzymes).

● Transport molecules (e.g., hemoglobin carries oxygen).
● Provide structural support (muscle, cartilage, skin, hair).
● Protect against infections (antibodies).
● Regulate cellular processes (hormones, signaling proteins).

Gene Expression

● Genes contain instructions for protein synthesis.

● Gene expression involves transcription and translation.
● The sequence of nucleotides in DNA determines the sequence of amino acids in a
protein.