Teaching Notes

Chapter 1: What are Arguments?.................................................................................... 3

§4: Certainty and uncertainty in indicators, and proper grammatical usage .................... 3
§4: “Because” and “because of this” ........................................................................... 6
§4.4: Premise indicators that point backwards ............................................................. 6
Chapter 2: Complex Arguments ..................................................................................... 7
§3: Teaching tip – audience adaptation and formal and informal writing ......................... 7
§5: Tracking cohesion in arguments .......................................................................... 10
§7: Teaching tip – group activity creating written arguments from formal arguments ..... 13
Chapter 3: Deductive Arguments ................................................................................. 15
§3: Teaching tip – creating valid arguments ................................................................ 15
§3.2: Teaching tip – understanding conjunctions ........................................................ 16
§3.3: Teaching tip – ‘some’ in everyday conversation ................................................... 18
§4: Clarifying ‘affirming the consequent’ and ‘denying the antecedent’ arguments and
understanding their terminology ............................................................................... 18
§4: Understanding the scope of ‘and’ and ‘or’ in a statement ....................................... 19
§5: Teaching tip – clarifying invalid forms that use exclusive ‘or’ statements ................. 21
§7.1 Teaching tip – practicing logical equivalence....................................................... 22
§7.3 Double negation and slang ................................................................................ 22
§7.4: Teaching Tip: double negatives and double negation .......................................... 22
§10.1: Teaching tip: turning ‘if’ clauses into ‘if’ statements .......................................... 23
§10.4: Teaching tip: familiar occurrences of necessary and sufficient conditions ......... 24
§10.4: Writing necessary conditions as sufficient conditions (and vice versa)............... 24
§10.5: Teaching tip: the conditions of happiness ........................................................ 25
Chapter 4: Inductive Arguments ................................................................................... 25
§2.1: Negative expressions of probability ................................................................... 25
§2.1: Teaching tip – understanding probability through context .................................... 25
§2.2: Teaching tip – understanding validity and invalidity, and strength and weakness ... 25
§Exercise 5.1: Teaching tip – understanding deductive and inductive arguments .......... 26
 §Exercise 6.3: Teaching tip – evaluating additional premises ....................................... 26
§3: Enthymemes or ‘hidden’ premises ....................................................................... 26
§Exercise 7.2: Teaching tip – creating cogent and uncogent arguments ........................ 28
§Exercise 9: Teaching tip - making predictions, generalizations, and analogies ............. 28
§Exercise 16.3: Teaching tip – create your own arguments........................................... 28
Chapter 5: Fallacies .................................................................................................... 28
§2: Fallacies and intentions behind arguments .......................................................... 28
§3.3.1: Teaching tip – appeals to false authority ......................................................... 29
§4.2.1: Teaching tip – appeals to tradition .................................................................. 29
§4.3.1: Teaching tip – appeals to emotion .................................................................. 30
§5.2: Circularity and ‘begging the question’................................................................ 30
§5.3: Teaching tip – slippery slope arguments ............................................................ 30
§6.2: Appeals to ignorance: law and science.............................................................. 30
§6.3: Teaching tip – false causes ............................................................................... 31
§6.3.1: False causes: correlation and causation ........................................................ 31
§9: Teaching tip – reviewing all fallacies ..................................................................... 31
Chapter 6: Counter-arguments .................................................................................... 32
§3.2: Steelmanning arguments ................................................................................. 32
§5.1: Anticipating objections to clarify positions ........................................................ 32
§5.3: Teaching tip – anticipating objections ................................................................ 32
Chapter 1: What are Arguments?

§4: Certainty and uncertainty in indicators, and proper grammatical usage

It may be helpful for some students to review the grammar of different premise and
conclusion indicators.

Premise indicators

Premise indicators can be used (i) with a noun or (ii) with a clause (a group of words with a
subject and a verb).

(i) With a noun

Premise indicators that can be used with a noun include:

• because, as follows from, owing to, due to, in light of, as indicated by, considering,
assuming, presuming, supposing, given

Of these premise indicators, some express more certainty than others. For example,
indicators like “because”, “as follows from”, “owing to”, “due to”, “in light of”, “as indicated
by”, and “considering” suggest more certainty, or that the premise is known or likely to be
true. Examples help to demonstrate:

• Because of his efforts, he deserves our admiration.

• We need to hire more police officers, as follows from the recent increase in crime.
• Owing to her excellent performance, she will probably receive the prize.
• The commercial should be seen as a success, due to the rising sales numbers.
• In light of the new information, we ought to change our rules.
• She must be studying hard, as indicated by her excellent performance.
• Considering the success of his recent film, the actor will become a star.

On the other hand, other indicators suggest less certainty about the premise, or that
acceptance of the premise should be more tentative. These include “assuming” and
“supposing”. Consider the following:

• Assuming the ferry will depart Tuesday morning, he will arrive in the evening.
• He should be in a good mood presuming he ate breakfast.
• Supposing the reports are accurate, the situation should improve next year.

Finally, some premise indicators like “given” may suggest more or less certainty, depending
on the context. The first example below suggests more certainty about the premise, and the
second suggests less:

• Given recent problems I’ve been having printing, I need to finish the project early.
 • Given no changes to the schedule, they should accept the plan.

(ii) With a clause:

Premise indicators that can be used with a clause include:

• because, since, given that, on the grounds that, as, seeing that, inasmuch as,
assuming that, granted that

Again, some of these indicators suggest more certainty than others. These include:
“because”, “since”, “given that”, “on the grounds that”, “as”, and “seeing that”. Examples
include:

• Because winter came early this year, the price of fruit will probably increase.
• Since birds fly, they should not be kept in cages.
• Given that the bridge is being repaired, the road will be crowded.
• We shouldn’t write the report yet on the grounds that we don’t have all the
information.
• I should get another week to finish my work as I’ve been sick for the past week.
• Seeing that he’s only been playing the guitar for one year, we can’t expect him to
play like a professional.

On the other hand, the following indicators suggest less certainty: “inasmuch as”,
“assuming that”, and “granted that”. Examples include:

• Inasmuch as exercise contributes to health, you should exercise every day.

• Assuming that AI doesn’t compromise learning, it should be used in teaching.
• Granted that the President is elected again, the law will soon be changed

Conclusion indicators

Unlike premise indicators, a clause introduced by a conclusion indicator can be a

complete sentence. So for example, whereas the following are not complete sentences:

• “Because of his efforts.”

• “As indicated by her excellent performance.”
• “Given that the bridge is being repaired.”

the following are complete sentences:

• “He therefore he deserves our admiration.”

• “Accordingly, she must be studying hard.”
• “Hence, the road will be crowded.”
Conclusion indicators can thus be (i) used in sentences that do not include premises, (ii)
connected to premises in the same sentence using ‘and’, or (iii) connected to premises in
the same sentence using a semicolon or colon.

(i) In sentences that do not include premises.

• He’s only in elementary school now. Therefore, he can’t drive a car.

• There are no other women in the group. Consequently, she will get a lot of attention.

(ii) Connected to premises in the same sentence using ‘and’

• He’s only in elementary school now and therefore he can’t drive a car.
• There are no other women in the group and consequently she will get a lot of
attention.

(iii) Connected to premises in the same sentence using a semicolon or colon

• He’s only in elementary school; he can’t drive a car.

• She will get a lot of attention: there are no other women in the group.

It should be noted here that although both a semicolon and colon can be used in these
examples, a colon shows the connection between the premise and the conclusion more
directly or overtly.

Finally, it should be noted that some conclusion indicators can be used in the same
sentence as a premise without the use of ‘and’ or a semi-colon or a colon. These
conclusion indicators include “so”, “hence”, and “ergo”. For example:

• He’s only in elementary school so can’t drive a car.

• There are no other women in the group hence she will get a lot of attention.
• The weather forecast says it will rain ergo we should cancel the picnic.

Premise Indicator Exercises

Students can practice the grammar for premise indicators by using the following exercise.
Have students rewrite each sentence so that instead of using a clause the premise
indicator uses a noun. The first one is done as an example. Notice that students will need
to change the grammar in each case and possibly also the word order.

Example:

Seeing that the trip will only be five days long, our plans may be too busy.
 • In light of the trip being only five days long, our plans may be too busy.

a) Because she doesn’t have sisters or brothers, I think that person must be her
cousin.
b) As the population has been increasing, more stores will come to the city.
c) Assuming the time is correct, we will probably be late.
d) She is the right person for the job, given that she has studied French for many years.
e) We should decrease the price on the grounds that printing costs have gone down.

§4: “Because” and “because of this”

“Because” and “because of this” can be confusing for some students.

“Because” is a premise indicator, as seen in the following examples:

• Because we might get sick on the trip, it would be a good idea to put some medicine
in our suitcases.
• He will be able to buy a car because he is saving money each month.

“Because of this” is a conclusion indicator, as seen in the following examples:

• We might get sick on the trip. Because of this, it would be a good idea to put some
medicine in our suitcases.
• He is saving money each month. Because of this he will be able to buy a car.

“Because of this” as a conclusion indicator specifically points backwards to a premise just

made. If it’s referring to multiple premises, then the grammar would need to change
accordingly.

§4.4: Premise indicators that point backwards

It may be helpful for students to realize that some premise indicators also point
backwards. Consider for example the premise indicator “after all”.

Many students will confuse “after all” for a conclusion indicator. However, they should
understand that “after all” introduces evidence for a conclusion, and more specifically
refers that evidence back to a conclusion that’s been already stated. Consider for example
the following:

• You should take your umbrella today. After all, it will rain later on.

In this case, “after all” introduces the premise “it will rain later on” as support for the
conclusion “you should take your umbrella today”. The “after all” only makes sense as a
premise indicator if the conclusion is there for it to refer to. To see this, consider how
rewriting the sentences so that the premise comes first doesn’t make sense:

• After all, it will rain later on. You should take your umbrella today.

In this case, the “after all” has nothing to refer to because the conclusion has not yet
appeared. By contrast, consider how “after all” can be replaced with a different premise
indicator to make sense again:

• Since it will rain later on, you should take your umbrella today.
• You should take your umbrella today since it will rain later on.

Because the premise indicator “since” points forwards only, it can be used whether the
premise comes before the conclusion or afterwards. This is not the case with “after all”.

Incidentally, “after all” also offers an interesting exception to the rule in §4.3 that you
cannot write a complete sentence that contains only a premise indicator and its clause.
For example, we saw that

• “Because honesty builds trust.”

• “Since trust is important for friendship.”

are not complete sentences. The premise indicator “after all” however is different in that it
can be written with its clause as a complete sentence:

• “After all, honesty builds trust.”

• “After all, trust is important for friendship.”

Chapter 2: Complex Arguments

§3: Teaching tip – audience adaptation and formal and informal writing
Writing more or less formally is another important type of audience adaptation. Different
levels of formality will be appropriate depending on the audience.

Help students to think about the difference between formal and informal writing using the
paragraphs below and having them answer the questions provided. Note that students
should not worry if they find the vocabulary in Paragraph 1 difficult, since the purpose of
the exercise is to recognize formality in tone and structure as well as vocabulary.

Paragraph 1
This research was done at a university in Mexico to determine English language
learners’ preferred learning style. Several classes were surveyed as to their
preference for groupwork over individual work. It was found that they overwhelmingly
 preferred to work individually. We tentatively attributed this to the fact that the
classes consisted of several different levels of language proficiency, and thus the
individual work was necessary for students’ comfort.

Paragraph 2
I did a research project in Mexico to find out how English language learners like to
learn. I asked some classes whether they like group work more than working
individually. Most of the students said that they liked individual work better. I don’t
know why, but it might be because each class had several different language levels,
so students were more comfortable working on their own.

Questions

1. Which paragraph is more formal?

2. Why? What are some differences between the two paragraphs?

3. There are many words and expressions in the two paragraphs that are different but
mean the same thing. Match as many of these words and expressions as you can.

Answer to Question 1

The first paragraph is more formal than the second paragraph, and is written how students
should write an essay for a class or an academic journal or newspaper. The second
paragraph is written in the way they might write a personal journal or reflection for an
instructor.

Answer to Question 2

More formal writing usually has different grammar and vocabulary. The following are some
tips to share with students to help them identify more formal writing.

• Formal writing generally does not use phrasal verbs such as “find out”, “come
across,” “cut out,” and “gave up.”

• Formal writing uses fewer verbs than informal writing. This is why you find “comfort”
in the formal paragraph and “be comfortable” in the informal paragraph. In
particular, “be”-verbs are often avoided in formal English. Changing to a style with
more nouns is known as “nominalization.”

• The informal paragraph contains a contraction: “don’t.” Contractions such as

“won’t,” “didn’t,” and “couldn’t” are often replaced in formal writing with “will not,”
“did not,” and “could not.” However, students should also know that they may
 occasionally encounter contractions in academic writing. It may also be helpful to
point out that nonstandard contractions such as “wanna” and “gonna” are almost
never used in anything but very informal writing.

• Formal writing contains more passive verbs such as “research was done.” One
reason that passive verbs are found more often in formal writing is that they allow
the writer to avoid using the word “I”. Students should be advised however that this
depends on the genre and the field.

• Finally, there are certain words that just sound more or less formal in English. You
could refer students to the premise indicators that they learned in the last chapter,
and point out that of these “for,” “given that,” “on the grounds that,” and “this follows
from” would most likely be found in a formal text.

Answer to Question 3

Paragraph 1 (more formal) Paragraph 2 (less formal) Reason

This research was done I did a research project Avoiding “I”
English language learners’ how English language Nominalization;
preferred learning style learners like to learn “prefer” is more formal
than “like”
several some “some” sounds
informal
were surveyed as to their I asked some classes Avoiding “I”;
preference whether they like nominalization
individual work working individually nominalization
they overwhelmingly Most of the students said “Overwhelming” is
preferred that they liked more precise than
“most”; nominalization
We tentatively attributed but it might be because Avoiding “be”
this
individual work was students were more Nominalization
necessary for students’ comfortable working on
comfort their own

It should be remembered that these are just guidelines and they are flexible. In trying to be
more formal, students should be advised not to replace every verb with a noun, nor omit
every “be”-verb. Indeed, over-nominalization is a common error by students learning
academic English.

A final principle that students might find helpful is that formal writing is usually more
concise. When we speak it is more difficult to be concise because we are thinking and
talking at the same time, which imposes a greater cognitive burden. By contrast, when we
write we have more time to consider how to be more concise in our expression.

Exercise:
Have students practice rewriting paragraphs to make them more or less formal using the
tips discussed above. First, identify whether the paragraph has been written formally or
informally. Then, rewrite the paragraph to have the opposite formality.

a) Sales have gone up in the last three months, and I’m not really sure about the
reason. It could be that the warmer weather is making people use sports equipment
more often. Another reason might be that we introduced a few new popular
products and it is making people buy more sports stuff. I think we need to do more
research with customers in order to find out why people are buying more.

b) At a meeting held on September 7, the status of the project was discussed. The
design phase is expected to be completed within two months and the development
phase to follow immediately after. The necessary budget has already been approved
and some developers have been contacted. Potential delays may occur at this time,
but the team is working to mitigate the risk.
§5: Tracking cohesion in arguments
Cohesion refers to the unity of a text, and how vocabulary and grammatical structures
create connections between ideas to allow the text to be understood as a whole. Being
able to understand and follow cohesive devices is essential to understanding and analyzing
arguments.

Four important devices that it may be helpful for students to practice tracking in arguments
are (i) pronouns, (ii) pro-verbs, (iii) synonyms, and (iv) restatements. The following
paragraph can help them understand and practice each of these.

Managers should avoid trying to be close friends with their employees. When they
do, it becomes difficult to establish the authority they need to lead them effectively.
Indeed, research shows that workers perform better when they feel that an
experienced leader is in charge. Without this, they can be unsure of their roles and
become overly concerned with workplace dynamics. Since friendship usually
requires an equal power balance, managers who seek friendship with employees
risk losing a good working environment.

(i) Pronouns
The paragraph uses “they” or “them” to refer to both managers and employees. Being able
to make sense of when it refers to managers and when to employees is necessary to grasp
the meaning of the paragraph.

In the following excerpts from the paragraph, students should recognize that the bolded
text refers to the managers, and the underlined text to the employees.

• “When they do, it becomes difficult to establish the authority they need to lead
them effectively.”
• “Research shows that workers perform better when they feel that an experienced
leader is in charge.”
• “Without this, they can be unsure of their roles and become overly concerned with
workplace dynamics.”

The paragraph also uses the pronoun “this”:

• “Without this, they can be unsure of their roles and become overly concerned with
workplace dynamics.”

Students should recognize that ‘this’ refers not to the research in the previous sentence,
but to clear leadership.

(ii) Pro-verbs

A pro-verb is a verb or phrase that is used in place of another verb phrase.

In the following excerpt, students should recognize that “do” is a pro-verb that refers to the
previous sentence’s action of managers trying to be friends with their employees.

• “Managers should avoid trying to be close friends with their employees. When they
do, it becomes difficult to establish the authority they need to lead them
effectively.”

(iii) Synonyms

A synonym is a word that has a similar meaning to another word. Students should
recognize in the paragraph that “employees” and “workers” are used synonymously.

• “Managers should avoid trying to be close friends with their employees.”

• “Research shows that workers perform better…”
Students should also recognize however that in other contexts “employees” and “workers”
may not be synonymous. For example, not all workers might be employees, since someone
might be working but not for a company or not for money.

Although not discussed in this book, to change the meaning of a word in an argument, or to
use a synonym inappropriately, is to commit the fallacy of equivocation. An equivocation
happens when a word that can have multiple meanings, or when synonyms which can have
multiple meanings, are used ambiguously or with a different meaning yet are presented as
meaning the same thing.

(iv) Restatements

Restatements are similar to synonyms, except that instead of using a different word an
entire phrase is differently written to express the same idea. In the paragraph, students
should recognize multiple restatements:

• “Managers” is restated as “an experienced leader…in charge”.

• “workplace dynamics” is restated as “a good working environment.

Exercise:

Have students practice identifying pronouns, pro-verbs, and restatements in the following:

Pronouns:

(a) Although most people are busy with jobs and family in their 20s and 30s, they
should also focus on building healthy habits in their lives. That will be very important
as they get older.
(b) We think of nests as being a home for birds, but this is not the case. They only use
nests to protect their eggs and raise their young.
(c) New Orleans has more rain and has weather that is hotter than most places in the
United States. Partly because of this, it has several unique cultural differences.
(d) They should ask her if she knows the group, since they might be able to help them.
(e) Jamal thinks it belongs to Jonah, but he believes it is actually his.

Pro-verbs:

(a) The store has been open every weekend, but with rising costs they can’t do that
anymore.
(b) Fish lay eggs as birds do.
 (c) She asked me to clean the dishes, and I did.
(d) I should apologize, but I haven’t yet.
(e) They wanted us to join them but we couldn’t.

Restatements:

(a) Although she grew to be a great person, her education was not exceptional. She worried
about her lack of schooling a great deal.
(b) If you believe in heaven your life might be more pleasant. Expecting an afterlife can
make problems seem less important.
(c) I appreciated his hard work. He was always dedicated and put in lots of effort.
(d) The project was disaster in both its design and schedule for completion. He had to
explain the failure to his boss.
(e) The meal was delicious and satisfying. Please give our compliments on his success to
the chef.
§7: Teaching tip – group activity creating written arguments from formal arguments
To help students understand the structure of complex arguments consider the following
partner activity:

Instructor directions

Put students into groups of 4, and have them partner up. Distribute Team 1 Arguments
(below) to one team of partners, and Team 2 Arguments to the other team. Working
together on a blank sheet of paper, each team of partners writes each formal argument
in good English prose, adding indicators as appropriate to keep the same logical
structure. When each team is finished, the teams exchange papers and reconstruct
the argument’s original formal structure. When finished, they exchange papers again,
and each team checks the other team’s work. If the argument structure provided is
incorrect, then the teams work together to identify the source of the problem – whether
in the first team’s written English, or in the second team’s reconstruction of the
argument.

Student directions

In your team, write the following arguments in full sentences, using indicators as
appropriate to keep the same logical structure.

Example:
Pi: Carrots are orange
Pii: Orange coloured plants contain vitamin C
Ci: Carrots contain vitamin C
 P1 (Ci): Carrots contain vitamin C
P2: Vitamin C is good for you
C: You should eat lots of carrots

Example Text 1:
Carrots are orange, and orange coloured plants contain vitamin C. Therefore,
carrots contain vitamin C. Because of this, and since vitamin C is good for you,
you should eat lots of carrots.

Example Text 2:
You should eat lots of carrots. This is because carrots contain vitamin C, and vitamin C
is good for you. We know carrots contain vitamin C, because carrots are orange, and
orange coloured plants contain vitamin C.

Team 1 Arguments

Question 1

Pi: Jacques is French

Pii: Jacques eats fish on Fridays
Pii: Many Catholics eat fish on Fridays
Piii: Many French people are Catholics
Ci: Jacques is probably Catholic

P1 (Ci): Jacques is probably Catholic

P2: Catholics go to Church on Sundays
C: Jacques will probably go to Church this Sunday

Question 2
Pi: Not many people go to Hawaii in November
Pii: The travel agents want to sell more tickets if they can
Ci: Travel agents sell cheap tickets to Hawaii in November

P1 (Ci): Airlines sell cheap tickets to Hawaii in November

Pi: Not many people go to Hawaii in November

Pii: Hawaii has a beautiful ocean.
Piii: You like the quiet ocean
Cii: You will enjoy Hawaii’s ocean in November

P2 (Cii): You will enjoy Hawaii’s ocean in November

C: You should consider going on holiday to Hawaii in November
Team 2 Arguments

Question 1

P1: The cinema has cheap tickets on Tuesdays

P2: You want to see the new movie

Pi: You recently needed to fix your computer

Pii: The work was very expensive
Ci: You don’t have very much money right now

P3: You don’t have very much money right now

C: You should see the movie on Tuesday.

Question 2

Pi: Australia is in the southern part of the world

Pii: Japan is in the northern part of the world
Piii: Seasons are opposite in the southern and northern parts of the world.
Ci: Australia has summer when Japan has winter

P1: Australia has summer when Japan has winter

Pii: For the last 5 years, Japan’s winters have been very cold
Cii: Next winter, it will probably be very cold as well

P2: Next winter will probably be very cold.

P3: You don’t like cold winters.
C: You should go to Australia in the winter

Chapter 3: Deductive Arguments

§3: Teaching tip – creating valid arguments

To help students understand valid arguments consider the following partner activity:

Instructions

1. Write your own valid arguments forms below. Use a different argument form for
each one.

2. Do not write the conclusion.

 3. Exchange your paper with another student. Provide the conclusion to your partner’s
arguments.

Argument 1 Argument 2

P1: ______________________________ P1: ______________________________

P2: ______________________________ P2: ______________________________
C: ______________________________ C: ______________________________

Argument 3 Argument 4

P1: ______________________________ P1: ______________________________

P2: ______________________________ P2: ______________________________
C: ______________________________ C: ______________________________

Argument 5 Argument 6

P1: ______________________________ P1: ______________________________

P2: ______________________________ P2: ______________________________
C: ______________________________ C: ______________________________
§3.2: Teaching tip – understanding conjunctions
‘And’ statements are conjunctive statements. As seen in §3.3, the following conjunctive
arguments are valid:

i. conjunction introduction ii. conjunction elimination

x x and y
y x
x and y (or y)

The first argument says that two statements can be combined into a single statement by
means of a conjunction. The second argument says that a conjunction of statements can
separated so that the left conjunct and the right conjunct can be written as standalone
statements.

Students should be encouraged to do conjunction elimination to more clearly understand

how an argument is working and how it can be evaluated. The value of doing this can be
demonstrated by the following example:
 • It is Tuesday and sunny

Imagine this is false. It could be false because of three possibilities:

(i) It is neither Tuesday nor is it sunny

(ii) It is Tuesday but it is not sunny
(iii) It is not Tuesday but it is sunny

Conjunction elimination allows the conjunctive statement to be evaluated in its

constitutive parts. Thus, when rewritten as

• It is Tuesday
• It is sunny

one can see more specifically if the conjunctive statement is false because of (i), (ii), or (iii).
This is helpful not just in knowing which parts of an argument are true or false, but also in
evaluating how these individual statements might function in other parts of an argument.
For example, if an argument said:

P1: It’s Tuesday and it’s sunny

P2: If it’s Tuesday I’m going dancing

one can validly conclude not only that I’m going dancing, but also that this argument could
be sound even if P1 is false but it’s true that it’s Tuesday and I go dancing on Tuesday.

A word of caution is necessary however regarding conditional statements that contain

conjunctions. Consider for example the following statement:

• If it’s Tuesday and sunny, then I’m going dancing

This ‘if’-statement states that I’m going dancing if it’s both Tuesday and sunny. In other
words, it doesn’t say that I’m going dancing if it’s Tuesday, or if it’s sunny. Thus, even though
the statement contains a conjunction in its ‘if’ clause (its antecedent – see Teaching Note
Chapter 3 §4), this conjunction cannot be separated into two separate statements. In other
words, it would be a mistake to think this statement means either or both of the following:

• If it’s Tuesday, then I’m going dancing.

• If it’s sunny, then I’m going dancing.

On the other hand, if an ‘if’-statement has a conjunction in its ‘then’ clause (its
consequent– see Teaching Note Chapter 3 §4), then the ‘if’ statement can be rewritten by
breaking up the conjunction. Consider the following:

• If it’s Tuesday, then I’m going singing and dancing.

This can be rewritten as:

• If it’s Tuesday then I’m going singing, and if it’s Tuesday then I’m going dancing.

In this case, because if Tuesday happens then both singing and dancing will happen, then it
is also the case that these things can be specified as happening on their own. This is known
as another valid form called ‘conjunction distribution’:

conjunction distribution

if x then y and z
(if x then y) and (if x then z)

§3.3: Teaching tip – ‘some’ in everyday conversation

The word “some” logically means “at least one”. This is how the word should be understood
when considering its meaning precisely. It is also how the word is used in careful academic
work and research.

However, it is important to recognize that in conversational English the word “some”

typically means several or a few – in other words, more than one, though usually not a big
number and almost always less than half.

Students should be warned about the different uses of the word “some” and to recognize
that the word should be understood differently depending on the context in which they find
it. In casual or informal contexts they should likely understand it more in its conversational
meaning. In more formal or academic contexts they should likely understand it more
logically precisely.

§4: Clarifying ‘affirming the consequent’ and ‘denying the antecedent’ arguments and
understanding their terminology
The invalid arguments “affirming the consequent” and “denying the antecedent” get their
names from the parts of an ‘if’-statement.
An ‘if’-statement has two clauses: the first clause is the ‘if’ clause and the second clause
is the ‘then’ clause. The idea that the ‘if’ clause specifies is called the ‘antecedent’, and
the idea that the ‘then’ clause specifies is called the ‘consequent’. Thus, in the statement:
“if x, then y”, “x” is the antecedent and “y” is the consequent.

A modus ponens argument (if x, then y; x; therefore y) understands the relationship

between these two clauses properly. A modus tollens argument (if x, then y; not y;
therefore not x) also understands it properly, because if the consequent didn’t happen,
then the antecedent (which would lead to it) couldn’t have happened.

When one ‘affirms the consequent’ however one gets order wrong: instead of thinking that
‘x’ leads to ‘y’, they think that ‘y’ leads to ‘x’. Essentially, the relationship of the antecedent
and consequent is confused or mixed up. The same thing happens with ‘denying the
antecedent’: the proper relationship between the antecedent and consequent is confused,
by thinking that ‘not x’ (not the antecedent) means ‘not y’ (not the consequent), when in
fact ‘not y’ (not the consequent) means ‘not x’ (not the antecedent).
§4: Understanding the scope of ‘and’ and ‘or’ in a statement
A common mistake that some students struggle with is not understanding properly the
scope of conjunctions and disjunctions in a statement. This leads to misunderstanding
others’ statements or arguments, but also mistakes in formulating their own. Consider for
example the following:

• The lunch set comes with a drink and salad or soup

This statement is ambiguous because it’s not clear what the lunch set includes. There are
two ways it could be understood:

(a) The lunch set includes (a drink and salad) or (a drink and soup)
(b) The lunch set includes (a drink and salad) or (soup)

The problem is that it’s not clear which is the main ‘operator’ in the sentence. The main
operator in a sentence is the word – in this case ‘and’ or ‘or’ – that has the widest scope of
reference. The meaning of the scope of an operator can be seen below. In (a), the ‘and’ is
the main operator, meaning it has widest scope in the sentence. The ‘or’ is a minor operator
because its scope is smaller. In (b), the ‘or’ is the main operator because it has the widest
scope, and the ‘and’ is a minor operator:

(a) The lunch set comes with a [drink] AND [salad or soup]

(b) The lunch set comes with a [drink and salad] OR [soup]

Ambiguities about the main operator in a sentence must be clarified if the sentence is to be
a statement and make sense. Scope can be clarified in several ways. Consider for example:

(i) Using ‘either’

• The lunch set comes with a drink and either salad or soup

This restatement makes it clear that the ‘and’ is the main operator, so that the statement
should be understood as meaning (a) above.

(ii) Using commas

• The lunch set comes with a drink, and soup or salad

The comma in this restatement shows that the ‘and’ is the main operator, so that the
statement should be understood as meaning (a).

By contrast, the comma can be placed differently as below to make ‘or’ the main operator.
The following should thus be understood as meaning (b) above:

• The lunch set comes with a drink and salad, or soup

(iii) Adding extra language

• The lunch set comes with a drink and your choice of salad or soup.

This restatement clarifies that the ‘and’ is the main operator and thus that (a) is the proper
meaning.

• The lunch set comes with a drink and salad, or it comes with soup.
This restatement clarifies that the ‘or’ is the main operator and thus that (b) is the proper
meaning.

Have students practice these different formulations by (i) writing out both possible
meanings of each statement below, and then (ii) rewriting the statements using the
techniques above to clarify one meaning or the other.

• To pass the course you must attend all classes and complete the project or pass the
final exam.
• To get the job you need certification or a degree and experience
• To attend the event you must provide your ID and your entrance ticket or
membership number.
• To get the bank loan you need to have an interview or submit your documents and
pay the processing fee.

§5: Teaching tip – clarifying invalid forms that use exclusive ‘or’ statements
Once students are familiar with the idea of exclusive versus inclusive ‘or’ statements,
remind them of the invalid form ‘affirming a disjunct’ see in Chapter 3 §4:

iii. ‘affirming a disjunct’

x or y
x
not y

Students should now better be able to see why this argument form is invalid. The reason is
that in the first premise the ‘or’ statement (‘x or y’) is inclusive, meaning both ‘x and y’ could
be possible, whereas the conclusion presumes the ‘or’ is exclusive, meaning only one of x
or y is possible.

Understanding this, students should also then see that if the ‘or’ statement in the premise
is intended as an exclusive ‘or’ then the argument would not be invalid but valid.
§7.1 Teaching tip – practicing logical equivalence
Provide students with a paragraph of text that is difficult to read. Then, provide a separate
list of logically equivalent statements. Have the students rewrite the text using the logical
equivalent statements to make the paragraph easier to read.

§7.3 Double negation and slang

In a case of double negation the two negatives cancel each other out to make a positive.
Sometimes people use double negations on purpose to avoid being overly direct, though
they may also use them for the purposes of humour. In these cases, double negation is
used for the purpose of a positive assertion.

In some cases of slang, however, double negation is purposefully used though not to
express a positive assertion. Rather it’s used to still say something negative. Consider for
example the following:

• “I’m not going nowhere.”

• “I don’t have nothing.”
• “She doesn’t know no one.”
• “We don’t have no time.”

In each of these cases the logical meaning would be positive (“I am going somewhere,” “I
have something,” “she knows someone,” “we do have time”) but the intended meaning is
negative. Cases like this need careful attention to context and how either the speaker or the
group intends or understands the phraseology.

§7.4: Teaching Tip: double negatives and double negation

Have students practice identifying whether a double negative is a double negation by
considering the statements below. First, have students underline the negatives in each
sentence, and then second consider whether the two negatives mean the same as a
positive. If they do, have students rewrite the statement as a positive statement. If they
don’t, have students explain why double negation for that sentence would be wrong. (Note
that it is possible students could disagree about when double negation is appropriate or
not.)

Example:

Double negative sentence:

• I don’t feel unprepared for the meeting.

 Rewritten as a positive sentence:

• I feel prepared for the meeting

a) It can’t be said that the city has no good restaurants.

b) No one in the group is unable to do the work.

c) The new chairs are expensive, but not uncomfortable.

d) It’s false that the package wasn’t delivered yesterday.

e) I think there is nowhere on earth that doesn’t have fast food these days.

f) You can’t say nothing ever happens around here.

g) It’s not that she’s never seen this type of machine before.

h) It’s unbelievable that she won’t come today.

i) They aren’t unaware of the problem, but they don’t want to change anything.

j) Because it’s not impossible, I am not unwilling to say 'yes'.

k) He is not unkind, and so it is unlikely he will disapprove your request.

l) Although university life is not never fun, it is also not endless fun.

§10.1: Teaching tip: turning ‘if’ clauses into ‘if’ statements

To help student understand the importance of ‘consequent’ clauses in ‘if’ statements, have
them complete the following statements by providing an appropriate clause. Students
should recognize that without completion of these sentences they have no meaning and
cannot be statements.

(a) If you pay a small amount now…

(b) Assuming the paper is not delivered tomorrow…
(c) Unless you learn to manage your fear….
(d) Provided that the roads are developed…
(e) If you turn left…
(f) Assuming that marketing is going well…
(g) On the condition the lights are repaired…
(h) If the waves aren’t high tomorrow….
(i) Unless you pause during your presentation…
(j) Assuming you are aware of the new information…
§10.4: Teaching tip: familiar occurrences of necessary and sufficient conditions
Have students review their graduation requirements or the requirements to enter their
programme of study. Have them try to rewrite those requirements as necessary and
sufficient conditions. (Other options perhaps relevant to students, depending on their
interests, may include qualifying for overseas exchange programs, admission into a
graduate or professional program, getting a visa to go on holiday, etc.)

§10.4: Writing necessary conditions as sufficient conditions (and vice versa)

Some students may recognize that necessary conditions and sufficient conditions can be
written in terms of each other. That is, they may recognize that if ‘x’ is necessary for ‘y’, then
‘y’ can be seen as sufficient for ‘x’ and vice versa. To see this consider the following:

• It is necessary to have oxygen to have fire.

This means that you cannot have fire without oxygen. However, it also means that if there’s
a fire in front of you, then you know that there must be oxygen present. Thus, fire is
necessary for oxygen, and oxygen is sufficient for fire. We can thus rewrite the necessary
condition above as follows:

• Fire is sufficient to have oxygen.

Other examples provide further demonstration:

• It is necessary to be a citizen to vote.

This then means that if someone is voting you know they must be a citizen. This means
though that being able to vote is a sufficient condition of being a citizen:

• Voting is sufficient to be a citizen.

Notice of course that voting isn’t the only way someone could be a citizen, just like having a
fire isn’t the only way for there to be oxygen. These are both sufficient conditions, but since
there are other ways there could be either oxygen present or to be a citizen, they cannot be
necessary conditions.

Remembering that sufficient conditions are expressed by ‘if’ statements, and necessary
conditions are expressed by ‘only if’ statements, this also means we can rewrite ‘if’
statements and ‘only if’ statements in terms of each other. Thus:

• If x, then y (“If there’s fire, then there’s oxygen”)

Can be rewritten as:

(i) x, only if y (“There’s fire, only if there’s oxygen”)

§10.5: Teaching tip: the conditions of happiness
Ask students what they think are the conditions of being happy or of living a good life. Have
students individually brainstorm their ideas, then discuss in groups whether these
conditions should best be seen as necessary conditions or as sufficient conditions. What
do students think would be both necessary and sufficient to be happy?

Chapter 4: Inductive Arguments

§2.1: Negative expressions of probability

Negative expressions of probability can sometimes be difficult to understand. Consider for
example “least likely” and “least probable”, as well as “least unlikely” and “least
improbably”. To help students understand these expressions, remind them of the
concepts of logical equivalence and double negation discussed in Chapter 3, and for more
advanced students add these negative expressions of probability to ‘Exercise 4:
Understanding more probable and less probable terms’.

§2.1: Teaching tip – understanding probability through context

It may be difficult for students to put some words in order of probability because it is not
always clear if they suggest more or less probability. Have students group together words
or phrases that seem to suggest equal probability or improbability. Then, discuss with
students the importance of context to understanding probability, and provide situations
where further context helps to better understand whether something is more or less
probable. On the basis of these examples, have students develop their own situations.

§2.2: Teaching tip – understanding validity and invalidity, and strength and weakness
To help students understand the distinction between valid and invalid arguments and
strong and weak arguments, use a deck of playing cards. Have one student draw a card
from the deck and show it to the class. Then, return the card to the deck and shuffle it.
Have a second student draw a card from the deck and leave it face down. Ask the class to
discuss the probability that the second student drew the first student’s card, or whether
the first card is still in the main deck. Change the probabilities by asking whether the value
of the second card face down is the same as the first card drawn (e.g., King, 10, 7 etc.), or
whether the suit or the colour is the same. To make this easier for students to understand,
it may be helpful to reduce the cards in the deck, for example to only contain face cards of
all 4 suits or perhaps of only 2 suits.
§Exercise 5.1: Teaching tip – understanding deductive and inductive arguments
Place students in groups and have them list points distinguishing the two types of
argument. Then, have the class discuss each group’s answers to improve them.

§Exercise 6.3: Teaching tip – evaluating additional premises

For each argument, write the argument and each additional premise on a different sheet of
paper. Then, place each argument and each additional premise on a large table with the
additional premises randomly scattered. Place students into 3 groups (for each of the 3
arguments a-c), and have each group categorize the additional premises for each argument
by whether they strengthen, weaken, or have no effect on the argument. Once finished,
have each group circulate to the other tables to critique and evaluate the other groups’
categorizations. If they disagree with a categorization, the group should make notes of their
disagreement and reasons why. Once all groups have considered all arguments, as a class
discuss the categorizations and any disagreements.

§3: Enthymemes or ‘hidden’ premises

It may be helpful to point out to students that sometimes writers rely upon premises to
reach their conclusions without specifically mentioning them. Sometimes not including
these premises is a mistake or oversight. Other times it may be intentional.

The technical term for a ‘hidden’ or unstated premise is an ‘enthymeme’. To understand

how enthymemes work, consider the following examples:

(i) If it’s snowing we should dress warmly. It’s wintertime when we’re going, so we’ll
need warm clothes.
(ii) Over the past 150 years the climate has significantly warmed. Urgent action is thus
required to reduce the greenhouse gases released into the atmosphere.
(iii) Either you’ll help me with this or you don’t really love me.

In each of these cases the argument may be convincing, but it relies upon an idea not
included in the argument. The enthymemes in each of these arguments is as follows:

(i) It tends to snow in wintertime where we’re going.

(ii) The reason for the climate having significantly warmed is the release of greenhouse
gases.
(iii) It’s not possible to not help the person yet still love them.

Often, enthymemes are excluded due to carelessness. However, there are occasions when
enthymemes can be appropriate:
 • When the idea is sufficiently obvious, so that everyone accepts it or knows that it’s
true, and including it would be cumbersome or awkward.

Example: The car’s engine is making a clunking noise, so I need to take it to

the mechanic.

Since everyone knows that cars don’t making clunking noises, it would be
clear that the sound would mean something is wrong with it.

• When the audience is expected to have special background knowledge.

Example: The newly discovered species has 3 body parts and 6 legs. It’s thus
been classified as a new type of insect.

When speaking to a group of biologists, it would be unnecessary to state that

the newly discovered species is an insect because everyone could be
expected to know that the definition of an insect.

• When not including the idea may stimulate the audience to make them more
engaged.

Example: “Mark'd ye his words? He would not take the crown. Therefore 'tis
certain he was not ambitious.” (Shakespeare, Julius Caesar, Act 3, Scene 2,
as in Sister Miriam Joseph, Shakespeare's Use of the Arts of Language, 1947
(p. 178). Reprinted by Paul Dry Books, 2005.)

In this case the enthymeme is that an ambitious person would take the
crown. By not stating this idea directly however the audience is more
stimulated to question what ambition involves.

On other occasions still an enthymeme may be used to manipulate or deceive an

audience. Consider the following:

Example: Murderers deserve the death penalty – after all, since they took
someone else’s life, they should lose their own life.

In this case, the enthymeme is that justice requires same punishments for
same crimes. However, this may look unconvincing in the case of crimes like
 kidnapping or battery. Should kidnappers have their own children kidnapped,
and should someone who assaults another person themselves be assaulted
as punishment?

When evaluating arguments careful scrutiny of all premises supporting the conclusion,
both stated as well as hidden, is important. This is especially the case when enthymemes
are not widely accepted or their clear statement might lead them to be doubted.

§Exercise 7.2: Teaching tip – creating cogent and uncogent arguments

Have students complete the chart individually, then exchange with another student to
confirm answers. Alternatively, have students create their own arguments, but have a
partner categorize them.

§Exercise 9: Teaching tip - making predictions, generalizations, and analogies

Have students form groups of 3. Each student takes one topic (a, b, or c), and develops a
prediction, generalization, and analogy for that topic. Students then work within their group
to confirm their answers. If the arguments all work as the type intended, then all group
members write down their answers for each topic. Then, have each group of 3 exchange
their answers with another group of 3 to check whether the other group’s answers are
correct. If they are, then each student completes the second argument for each type within
each topic using the other group’s arguments.

§Exercise 16.3: Teaching tip – create your own arguments

Have students complete the chart individually, then exchange answers with a partner to
check them. Alternatively, put students in pairs to create arguments for a-f (but without
identifying which argument is which), then exchange their answers with another group to
categorize them. Beginner students especially may want to refer back to the grammar
section at the start of this chapter to review different ways of expressing probability.
Another possible variation is to provide a theme to give students direction.

Chapter 5: Fallacies

§2: Fallacies and intentions behind arguments

It is important to notice that whether an argument commits a fallacy or not may depend on
the type of argument it is. Moreover, since what type of argument someone is making may
depend upon their intention, whether an argument is fallacious or not may also depend
upon intention.
We can see this easily enough with the example above of ‘affirming the consequent’. To see
this, consider the following:

Argument Deductive argument: Inductive argument:

form invalid ?

If x, then y If it’s raining, then it’s wet outside If it’s raining, then it’s wet outside
y_ It’s wet outside It’s wet outside
x It’s raining It’s raining

The argument form is invalid, and thus fallacious if the intention behind the argument is
that the conclusion necessarily follows (i.e., that it is a valid argument). However, if the
conclusion is intended probabilistically – i.e., not as necessarily true but as likely true –
then it could well be a strong argument and not fallacious after all.

To see this, consider someone making the argument in a place where there wouldn’t be
other likely reasons for it being wet outside – for example, there are no water pipes that
might burst, there’s no possibility of someone washing their car, etc. In this inductive case
there is no fallacy being committed. This shows that how one understands and evaluates
an argument very much depends upon how the argument is being made and what it’s
intended to demonstrate.

§3.3.1: Teaching tip – appeals to false authority

To help students think about good appeals to authority and bad appeals to authority, put
them in small groups and provide them with a series of scenarios: buying a new computer,
speaking to a real estate agent, planning a wedding with a wedding planner, etc. Have each
group of students construct arguments that involve both legitimate and fallacious appeals
to those authorities. Then, have groups exchange arguments and try to identify which of the
other group’s appeals to authority are legitimate or fallacious.

§4.2.1: Teaching tip – appeals to tradition

Have students brainstorm different traditions from their families or cultures. Which of
these traditions are beneficial or good, and which might be harmful or problematic? Then,
have students discuss how appeals to beneficial traditions need not commit a fallacy given
possible justifiable reasons for their continuation. On the other hand, have them consider
how appeals to harmful traditions do commit a fallacy if they lack any other good reason to
continue them. (Be sure to point out however that even if a tradition could be beneficial in
various ways, arguing that it should continue simply because it’s a tradition, and not
because of the benefit it offers, is still to commit a fallacy.)
§4.3.1: Teaching tip – appeals to emotion
Emotional appeals are often used in advertising and marketing. Have students brainstorm
different types of emotions, then search on the internet for different types of appeals to
emotions. Have the students identify the emotion in each appeal, and then evaluate
whether the appeal to emotion is legitimate or fallacious. If fallacious, have them consider
the general rules provided to make the fallacy into a legitimate appeal to emotion.

§5.2: Circularity and ‘begging the question’

Circularity arguments are also sometimes called ‘begging the question’. It is important
however that students realize that the phrase ‘begging the question’ is meant differently in
different contexts. In popular speech, if something is said to ‘beg the question’ it means
that a particular question ought to be asked, or that a question is raised. For example, if a
movie has an exciting but unresolved ending, one might say that the ending begs the
question (i.e., raises the question) of whether a sequel will be made.

In academic usage however ‘begging the question’ more specifically refers to when an
argument’s premises presume the conclusion. A simpler way of explaining begging the
question is when someone’s argument relies upon a premise that’s in need of justification
but which isn’t provided.

§5.3: Teaching tip – slippery slope arguments

Have students create their own slippery slope arguments, or look up different slippery
slope arguments online. Then, after sharing their slippery slope arguments have them
debate whether they are legitimate or fallacious. A good source for slippery slope
arguments can be found in political debates.

§6.2: Appeals to ignorance: law and science

The example of presuming people innocent before guilty may confuse some students as
committing an appeal to ignorance. However, it should be pointed out that this
presumption of innocence is based upon concerns about fairness, rather than concerns
about truth. Indeed, although criminal judgements are based upon a standard of proving
someone “guilty beyond all reasonable doubt”, they could equally be based upon a
standard proving someone “innocent beyond all reasonable doubt.” The main question at
stake here then is not how to avoid an appeal to ignorance, but how best to proceed on the
basis of uncertainty given the relative harms of (i) imprisoning an innocent person and (ii)
not imprisoning a guilty person.

Similarly, students may notice that scientists sometimes accept scientific theories on the
basis of the rule about appeals to ignorance. More specifically, they might notice that
scientific theories are never proven to be true, but are accepted only tentatively as
alternative theories are shown to be false. As this is the case, when a scientist accepts a
theory because other possible options don’t have good evidence supporting them, they are
using an appealing to ignorance. However, this appeal to ignorance is acceptable so long
as the scientist remembers that if new evidence is discovered this gives them reason to
reject the theory.

§6.3: Teaching tip – false causes

Have students research false cause fallacies in history. Examples might include causes of
the black death in medieval Europe, the spread of malaria by ‘bad air’, ideas regarding
sorcery and witchcraft, etc.

§6.3.1: False causes: correlation and causation

The false cause fallacy provides an opportunity to discuss the difference between
correlation and causation. A correlation describes a statistical relationship between two
things: when one thing happens, something else is commonly observed to happen.
However, these patterns can be observed without any causal relationship between them. A
simple example would be a child’s increasing shoe size and their ability to read. These are
correlated phenomena, but neither causes the other. Rather, the cause of both phenomena
is the child’s physical and mental development.

As an exercise to understand how the difference between correlation and causation can
demonstrate the false cause fallacy, have students think of or research correlations for
which there is no reason to think there should be any causality between the phenomena.

§9: Teaching tip – reviewing all fallacies

As a final review of the fallacies of this chapter, have students in groups create their own
fallacies based on any of the scenarios presented at the end of each fallacy discussion.
Give students 15 minutes in groups to create as many different fallacies as possible. Then,
under different fallacy headings written on whiteboards around the lecture room, have
students categorize the fallacies they created. After all groups have posted their fallacies,
have everyone check all fallacies for correctness. For each correct fallacy, the group
responsible gets 1 point. For each incorrect fallacy, they lose 1 point. Groups also get
points for the total number of fallacy types created. Tally each group’s final score to
determine the class winner.
Chapter 6: Counter-arguments

§3.2: Steelmanning arguments

As a contrast to a ‘strawman’ argument, it may be helpful to explain to students the idea of
‘steelmanning’ an argument. A steelman is the opposite of a strawman in that instead of
purposefully weakening someone’s argument to make it easier to defeat, one purposefully
strengthens it to make it more difficult to defeat. The effect of steelmanning an opponent’s
position is that if one can offer an effective counter-argument against it then one can be
even more certain about one’s own position, at least with regard to that opponent.

Arguments can be steelmanned in a number of different ways. Sometimes they might

simply be interpreted as generously as possible: if an argument could be understood in a
weaker or stronger way, a steelman response would understand it in its stronger version. In
other cases, one might imagine how the opponent might have made a better argument for
their conclusion. In that case, steelmanning their argument would be to build on what they
actually presented or amend it, so as to evaluate the best possible case that could be
made on behalf of the opponent.

In general, if you understand your concern as to evaluate whether or not a conclusion is

true, then either (i) interpreting the argument in the strongest way possible or (ii)
considering better arguments for the same conclusion, and then trying to argue against the
conclusion, is a more rigorous way to test the conclusion.

To help students understand the idea and value of steelmanning arguments, provide them
with different arguments and ask them to ‘steelman’ them, and then have them develop
counter-arguments to both the original argument and the steelmanned version.

§5.1: Anticipating objections to clarify positions

Although the primary purpose of anticipating objections is to strengthen your argument, it
can also be a good rhetorical strategy to present a complex idea more simply and clearly.

To explain, imagine that you’re trying to express a complex idea. If expressing the full idea
would likely be too confusing and would lose the audience, it may be better to express the
idea first in a simplified way to ensure initial understanding. Then, once that initial
understanding is in place, one may anticipate an objection based on the unstated
complexity, and in one’s response to that objection introduce the greater complexity that
properly defines one’s full actual position.

§5.3: Teaching tip – anticipating objections

To explain different strategies for when and where to anticipate objections, provide
students with examples from published essays and articles. Point out how deeper and
more structural problems tend to be anticipated and responded to at the end of essays,
whereas more minor problems or problems that might confuse a reader as they read
through the essay are anticipated and responded in the course of the argument’s
development.