Ma. Jodel S.
Garcia Fundamentals of Surveying
BSCE 2E
Tools and Equipments used in Surveying
(PAST &PRESENT)
what is surveying?
● Surveying is defined as a method of determining
the relative position of the points on, above or below
the earth’s surface by taking direct or indirect
measurements of distance, direction, and elevation.
● In the 18th and 19th centuries the art of surveying advanced
more rapidly. The need for maps and location of national
boundaries caused England and France to make extensive
surveys requiring accurate triangulation; thus geodetic
surveying began.
The Earliest Surveying Instruments
1. The observation that a heavy object hanging from a string
causes the string to hang perpendicular to the earth is
easily made.
This observation made the plumb bob the earliest
surveying instrument.
These earliest bobs were stone and their shape,
although often egg-like, really didn’t matter.
These simplest of tools remained virtually
unchanged for the next 4400+ years.
● Early standards of length were based on body measurements.
The cubit was the distance from elbow to finger tip, while the
foot, palm and finger units are self-explanatory.
● Among the earliest length measures was the foot, which
understandably varied from district to district, and occurred in
two common sizes. The first is the foot of 246 to 252 mm
based on a man’s unshod foot. The second foot measures 330
to 335 mm and is based on hand measurements.
Early Surveying Units:
● Link – 7.92 inches
● Fathom – 5.5 feet
● Rod/Perch – 3 fathoms or 16.5 feet
● Chain 66 feet
● Furlong or Furrowlong – 660 feet
● Mile – 5280 feet or 1760 yards
● League – 3.125 miles
2. The Magnetic Compass
● The magnetic compass is one of the most important instruments in the history
of surveying.
● Eventually someone noticed that the lodestones were better at pointing out real
directions, leading to the first compasses. They designed the compass on a
square slab which had markings for the cardinal points and the constellations.
The pointing needle was a lodestone spoon-shaped device, with a handle that
would always point south.
3. Colonial Surveying – Compass & Chain:
● The most common surveyor’s chain
was 66 feet long and made up of 100
links. 1 link is equal to 1/100 of a
chain or 7.92 inches.
● The modern steel and fiberglass
measuring tapes used by surveyors
are still referred to as “chains” in
deference to these early methods of
surveying.
● The compass was either mounted on a tripod or a single pole, called a “Jacob
Staff”.
● Eventually the use of the compass gave way to the transit, and the chain to the
steel tape.
● The transit and tape permitted more precise measurements necessary in land
surveying.
4. Theodolite and Electronic Distance Measurement (EDM):
MODERN vs ANTIQUE THEODOLITE
● Generally, a theodolite is a much more precise instrument compared to an
instrument referred to as a “Transit”.
● Some can measure an angle to within 1/10 of one second of arc (one
thousandth of a foot in one mile), but 1-second or 3-second theodolites are
typical.
● Modern surveying total station by TopconBy the
1970’s, relatively small, lightweight and easy-to-use
electronic distance measuring devices, called EDM’s
were in use.
● They were mounted on the theodolite, and operated
on the principle of transmitting a narrow beam of
infrared light to a reflector and measuring the time it
takes to return.
● Before long, the advance of technology and
miniaturization of electronic components enabled the
building of theodolites that measure angles
electronically, measure distances with their own
internal EDM, and display a variety of data on an
LCD screen. These super-theodolites are referred to
as “Electronic Total Stations”.
A. Instruments for Direct Linear Surveying
5. Measuring Tapes
● Centimeters or decimetres are marked on the tape.
● Some of the commonly used tapes in surveying
are:
- Cloth/linen tape - Invar tape
- Metallic tape
- Steel tape
6. Surveying Chains(MODERN)
● A chain is a surveying instrument that is made up of connecting links of
galvanized mild steel. Each connecting link measures 20 cm.
● Some of the commonly used chains in surveying are:
- Metric chain
- Surveyor’s chain
- Engineer’s chain
- Revenue chain
7. Arrow
● Arrows are used for marking and are made
up of hardened, and tempered steel wire of
good quality.
● To mark the chain length on the ground, an
arrow is inserted at the end of the chain.
8. Peg
● Pegs are mostly made of timber.
They are also used to mark out the
locations on the ground at terminal
points or the end of the survey line.
9. Ranging Rods
● Ranging rods are 2-3 meters in length and are
painted with alternate bands of two colors like
white and black, red and white in succession.
Each band is kept at a length of 20 centimeters.
● They are used to range an intermediate point on a survey line.
10. Offset Rods
● It is similar to a ranging rod but is of 3-meter length. They are also wooden
rods, circular in cross–section. Its one end is pointed with an iron shoe and at
the other, a notch or hook is provided.
● It is used to take rough offsets in the nearby regions. Also, the right angles can
be set out with its help as it has two narrow slots at its center.
11. Plumb Bob(MODERN)
● It is used to transfer the points to the
ground on a slope while chaining. It is
also used to make the ranging poles
vertical.
● In theodolites, compass, plane table,
and other surveying instruments, it is
used for centering purposes.
B. Instruments for Setting out Right Angles
12. Cross Staff
● It is the simplest instrument for setting
out right angles on a survey line. It has
a frame containing two pairs of
opposite slits mounted on a pole. The
pole can be used to fix the instrument
on the ground.
● Cross Staff has three types
- Open cross-staff
- French cross-staff
- Adjustable cross-staff
13. Optical Square
● It is more accurate than a cross–staff. Also,
it is convenient to use for setting out right
angles. It has a circular box with three slits.
● The instrument is set on the line whose
perpendicular is to be set out. Two slits
point towards the ranging rod at the end of
the survey line.
● Then another ranging rod is to be set at such a point that the two images
coincide with each other. This point is on the perpendicular of the initial line.
14. Prism Square
● The principle of prism square is similar to that of
the optical square. However, it is more precise as
compared to the optical square.
● It can be used in a similar manner as an optical
square. Unlike the optical square, adjustment is not
required, as the angle between the reflecting
surfaces does not vary.
15. Site Square
● It has a cylindrical metal case and two telescopes fixed at 90°. It is used to set
out offset lines at right angles.
C. Instruments for Setting out Directions:
Note: When the direction is established with respect to each other, it is called
an angle. If the direction is established with respect to a meridian, it is called bearing.
16. Prismatic Compass
● It comprises a magnetic needle attached to
a graduated circular ring made up of
aluminum. The needle orients itself to the
magnetic meridian if it is on the pivot.
Object vane and eye slit are attached to the
compass box and help in locating the line
of sight.
● It is a magnetic compass that measures the
magnetic meridian. It can be either used in
the palm or fixed on a tripod.
17. Surveyor’s Compass
● The graduated ring is directly
attached to the box instead of
the needle in the surveyor’s
compass. The needle is
allowed to float freely over the
pivot, but it does not orient
itself to the magnetic meridian
as in the case of a prismatic
compass.
● Object vane and eye vane are
similar to that of the prismatic
compass, however, no prism is provided. The instrument is to be fixed on a
tripod.
D. Instruments for Setting out Angles
18. Theodolite
● It is the most precise instrument for the measurement of horizontal and vertical
angles.
● There are two types of theodolite– transit, and non-transit. non-transit
theodolites have become obsolete these days.
● Parts of transit theodolite include
-Telescope -Upper/Vernier
Plate
-Vertical circle -Plate
levels
-Index/Vernier frame -Tripod
-Standards/A frame -Plumb bob
-Leveling head -Compass
-Two Spindles -Striding level
-Lower/Scale Plate
● A theodolite can be used to,
-Measure the magnetic bearing of a line
-Measure direct angles
-Measure deflection angles
-Extend a straight line
-Establish a straight line between two points
-Locating point of intersection between two straight lines
-Setting out a horizontal angle
-Setting out an angle by repetition
-Establish grade
-Measure the difference in elevation
-Setting out curves
19. Total Station
● It is an electronic transit
theodolite with an
electronic distance meter
(EDM).
● It is used to take the
measurement of-
- Horizontal angles
- Vertical angle
- Slope distance
● TS can store data too as some have inbuilt internal electronic data storage,
which can be uploaded to the computer, and the data analysis can be done with
the help of various applications.
E. Instruments for Plane Table Surveying
20. Tripod
● A tripod with a device for leveling and controlling its orientation is used in the
plane table surveying.
21. Plane Table
● Three types of plane tables are
commonly used,
- Traverse table
- Johnson table
- Coast Survey table
22. Alidade
● It is a straight edge with some sort of sighting device.
1. Plain alidade:
- It is made up of metal or timber rule having vanes at each end,
which are folded down on the rule when the alidade is not in
use. The vanes are to be kept perpendicular to the paper
surface. A narrow slit is provided at one vane while the other
vane has a hair or thin wire.
2. Telescopic alidade:
- It is employed to take inclined sights. It is more accurate and
provides a larger range as compared to plain alidade. It has a
small telescope with a level tube and a graduated arc fixed on
the horizontal axis. The horizontal axis is along the A–frame
comprising of verniers as in transit.
23. Plumbing Fork
● It is used for centering in large–scale works at the station point. It is composed
of a hair pin–shaped light metal frame with arms of equal length. A plumb bob
is suspended from the lower arm.
24. Spirit Level
● It is used to ensure that the table is leveled properly. The spirit level is placed
at two perpendicular positions to ascertain that it is leveled.
25. Trough Compass
● In-plane table surveying, a trough compass is used in which longer sides of the
compass are flat and parallel. The sides can be used as rulers or can be used to
coincide with a line already drawn on the paper.
26. Drawing Paper
● A superior quality drawing paper is used that has a minimum effect on the
humidity of the atmosphere. Otherwise, the scale is disturbed.
● Fiberglass sheets or paper with a backing of aluminum are used for high-
precision works.
F. Instruments for Direct Levelling
Barometric leveling, trigonometric leveling, and spirit leveling are the three principal
methods employed for leveling.
Instruments used in spirit leveling are discussed below:
Level
● It is used to provide a horizontal line of sight. A horizontal line can be
established with the help of a level. It is the line perpendicular to the plumb
line.
● There are four types of levels:
1. Dumpy level
- At this level, a telescope is firmly attached to two collars,
which can be fixed by adjusting screws carried by a vertical
spindle.
2. Wye/Y Level
- At this machine level, the telescope is carried on two vertical
wye supports. Wye supports are in the form of curved clips.
3. Reversible Level
- It is a combination of dumpy level and Y level. The telescope is
fixed into two rigid sockets connected to the spindle with the
help of a stage.
4. Tilting level
- In the tilting level, the line of sight can be tilted slightly without
tilting the vertical axis. Hence, this level facilitates quick
leveling.
Leveling Staff
● It is a straight rod with graduation marks with zero from the bottom. It helps in
determining how much above or below the station from the line of sight.
● There are two types of leveling staff
1. Self-reading staff: It can be read directly by the instrument man. The
readings are always taken from the telescope and hence appear
inverted. Therefore, readings are taken from downwards.
2. Target staff: It has a moving target against which readings are taken
by the staff man. The sliding target comes along with the vernier.
Surveying holds importance in various civil engineering works. Establishing border
lines, control points, hydrographical mapping, etc. are some of the broad fields of
application of surveying.