MODULE 1: Overview and Brief Introduction to Philosophy

This module will serve as an Introduction to Philosophy for students who never had an
encounter with philosophy before, or serves as a re-view of what philosophy is, for those
who have either only a faint memory of it or whose memory is starting to fade.
The aim of this module is to:
(1) define what is philosophy;
(2) describe the nature of philosophy;
(3) determine the different branches of philosophy; and
(4) point out the importance of philosophizing.
Learning Outcomes:
At the end of Module 1, you should be able to:
1. differentiate the main concerns of the different branches of Philosophy;
2. elaborate on the basic themes and perennial questions dealt with in philosophy;
and
3. articulate what it really means to “love wisdom.”

ENGAGE
Several people who either do not have an idea or only have faint idea of what philosophy
is, think that we cannot have a sensible conversation with a philosopher because they
think and speak of things “outside the box.” Being a “pilosopo” in our Filipino context has
earned a pejorative meaning and so such people are not treated seriously in the sense of
simply becoming a laughing stock. Before proceeding to the formal discussion on the basic
themes and branches of philosophy, and who “indeed” is a philosopher, share your initial
impressions regarding what philosophy is and your attitude towards people who are
called, “pilosopo.”

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EXPLORE
1. Understanding Philosophy
Etymologically, the term “Philosophy” is derived from two Greek words; namely,
‘philos’ and ‘sophia which means love and wisdom, respectively. Literally, philosophy
means the “Love of Wisdom,” and so ‘philosophers’ are considered to be” lovers of
wisdom.”
Philosophy, as a course, is quite different from other academic subjects. No brief
definition can express the richness and variety of philosophy. It is unique both in its methods
and in the nature and breadth of its subject matter. Philosophy delves into the questions
concerning every dimension of human affairs. Its techniques can be applied to problems
in any field of study or endeavor. There are various desirable descriptions of Philosophy: a)
Philosophy is a search for meaning or a quest for understanding; b) Philosophy is a
reasoned pursuit of fundamental truths; c) Philosophy is a study of principles of conduct;
d) Philosophy seeks to establish standards of evidence to provide rational methods of
resolving conflicts, and to create techniques for evaluating ideas and arguments; e)
Philosophy develops the capacity to see the world from the perspective of other
individuals and other cultures; f) Philosophy enhances one's ability to perceive the
relationships among the various fields of study; and, g) Philosophy deepens one's sense of
meaning and variety of human experience.
Every aspect of human experience brings out questions to which its techniques and
theories apply, and its methods may be used in the study of any subject or the pursuit of
any vocation. Indeed, Philosophy is in a sense inescapable since life confronts every
thoughtful person with some philosophical questions, and nearly everyone is guided by
philosophical assumptions. To a large extent one can choose how reflective one will be in
clarifying and developing one's philosophical assumptions, and how well prepared one is

for the philosophical questions life presents. Philosophical training enhances our problem-
solving capacities, our abilities to understand and express ideas, and our persuasive

powers. It also develops understanding and enjoyment of things whose absence

impoverishes many lives such things as aesthetic experience, communication with many
different kinds of people, lively discussion of current issues, the discerning observation of
human behavior, and intellectual zest. In these and other ways, the study of philosophy
contributes immeasurably in both academic and other endeavors in life.
Philosophy, as a systematic study of ideas and issues, examines concepts and views
drawn from science, art, religion, politics, or any other endeavor. Philosophical appraisal
of ideas and issues takes many forms, but philosophical studies often focus on the meaning
of an idea and on its basis, coherence, and relations to other ideas. Philosophy, in general,
guarantees wisdom, leadership, and an excellent guide for our genuine existence.
Philosophy will never become obsolete as long as there is life.

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2. Approaches in Doing Philosophy

Since time immemorial, people need morality that promotes unity, peace, harmony
and solidarity in community. The moral life is and will always be the concern of humanity
and for as long as people have been living together in groups, the moral regulation of
behavior has been necessary to the group's well-being. Although these morals were
formalized and made into arbitrary standards of conduct, they developed, sometimes
irrationally, after religious taboos were violated, or out of chance behavior that became
habit and then custom, or from laws imposed by chiefs to prevent disharmony in their
tribes. Ancient Egyptian and Sumerian civilizations developed no systematized ethics; yet,
maxims and precepts set down by secular leaders mixed with a strict religion that affected
the Egyptian worldview. In ancient China, the maxims of Confucius were accepted as a
moral code. The Greek philosophers, beginning about the 6th century BCE, theorized
intensively about moral behavior, which led to the further development of philosophical
ethics.
From the Ionians to Socratic Greek world, it was always about the amazement and
wonder of how to live in relation to the environment. As such, these thinkers were then
cosmocentric because they were reflecting on the relation of man to nature. Medieval life
was focused on the relation of man to God thus were theocentric because they were
proving God as the beginning and end of man’s life. Modern thinkers were focused on the
use of human reasoning and human abilities thus from then on, the main concern of doing
things was anthropocentric because everything is centered on the human person.
Contemporary life or human endeavor today integrate the moral experience of
cosmocentrism, theocentrism, and anthropocentrism. In short, we cannot deny our human
need for nature, interpretation of human experience in relation to faith towards the
Mystery, the Sacred or the Divine Being; and, the need to bring back the glory of humanity
as the center of all human experiences. Practically, there is no denial of ethical life so that
it is important to consider why are there moral standards and how do they differ from rules
of lives. What are moral dilemmas? Why is freedom crucial in our ability to make moral
decisions? What are the advantages of owning moral standards over merely abiding by
moral standards? Let us now look into the following moral versus non-moral standards,
moral dilemmas, three levels of moral dilemmas and, foundation of morality.
3. Importance of Philosophy in life
Generally, philosophy is important 1) For acquiring persuasive powers: Philosophy
helps develop one’s ability and charisma to be more convincing of himself and of others.
2) For better communication skills: Philosophy helps one to express properly one's views,
enhances one's ability to explain difficult and challenging reading materials, and helps
one to eliminate ambiguities and vagueness from one's writing and speech; 3) For
enhancing better writing skills: Philosophy helps one to use his philosophical reasoning
and imaginations, and express his ideas through writing. Creativity and originality are also
encouraged; 4) For problem solving: Philosophy helps one to distinguish fine differences
between views and to discover common ground between opposing positions.

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Specifically, philosophy is important in educational pursuits. It is very much beneficial
in the pursuit of education: 1) For better understanding of other academic disciplines:
Philosophy is helpful and useful in assessing the various standards of evidence used by
other academic disciplines; 2. For enhancing and developing sound methods of research
and analysis: Philosophy emphasizes clear formulation of ideas and problems, selection of
relevant data, and objective methods for assessing ideas and proposals, 3. For those
undergraduates who wants to pursue post- graduate studies: Philosophy, as a course, is a
good preparation for post-graduate degrees such as Law, Medicine, Master in Business
Administration, Master in Public Administration, Master in Educational Management, and
other master’s program.
Philosophy is also important in non-academic careers: 1) For personal development;
Philosophy helps one to gain better self-knowledge, better foresight, and a better sense of
direction in life; 2) For professional advancement and promotion: People trained in
philosophy are not only prepared to do many kinds of tasks; they can also easily cope with
change, or even move into new careers, more readily than others. A recent long-term
study by the Bell Telephone Company, determined that majors in liberal arts fields, in which
philosophy is a central discipline, "continue to make a strong showing in managerial skills
and have experienced considerable business success" (Career Patterns, by Robert E.
Beck).

EXPLAIN

To give you a brief overview of philosophy’s humble beginning and its development,
explore Hanks 10-minute video here: [Link]

ELABORATE
With the given discussion above and the video you explored, show what you think are
the implication/s of the three main themes in philosophy on what makes a philosopher,
“philosopher,” in short, “what does it mean to love wisdom?”

“lover of
wisdom”

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EVALUATE
*** The graded assignments for Modules 1, 2, 3, and 4 are all integrated into the following
summative assessments:
(1) Midterm Integrated Quiz
(2) Midterm Integrated Assignment
Please refer to the assignment guide to see the guidelines for each requirement.

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MODULE 2: Basic and Key Concepts in Ethics

Module 2 will introduce you to the basic terms used in Ethics and to the main components
to be considered when dealing with ethical issues and when making moral decisions. In
this module we will:
(1) examine the subject matter of Ethics;
(2) determine what ethics is, and what ethics is not;
(3) distinguish actions, on whether they are “human acts” or “acts of man”
(4) show examples of moral dilemmas; and
(5) analyze the different determinants of morality.
Learning Outcomes:
At the end of Module 2, you should be able to:
1. explain the similarities and differences of “ethics/ethical” and “morality/morals;”
2. articulate the importance of Ethics to one’s life;
3. judge whether the dilemma faced by people in given situations are moral dilemmas
or not;
4. point out which among the determinants of morality is/are involved in a certain
dilemma; and
5. demonstrate understanding of the fundamental concepts in ethics and morality
such as “knowledge,” “voluntariness,” and “impartiality” by applying them in solving
certain moral dilemmas.

ENGAGE
Many people easily make a judgment of others based on what they see about the
other at their “face value.” For instance, when we see a person giving a penny to a
beggar, he may right away be considered as a “moral person,” a “good” person who is
doing what is “right.” Or when we see someone being caught be a police officer for
stealing, he is right away judged as an “immoral person,” a “bad” person who did
something wrong.
Do you think it is OK to make a judgment about the morality or immorality of the
person by simply basing on what the other have shown us, or from what we have heard
about them? Would the circumstances of people matter when making moral judgments?
Write your answers in the box provided.

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EXPLORE
2. Basic and Key Concepts in Ethics
2.1. What is Ethics
Ethics is derived from the Greek word “ethos,” which means a characteristic way of
acting which also refers to the principles or standards of human conduct. Ethics is also
called moral philosophy that involves systematizing, defending, and recommending
concepts of right and wrong behavior; thus, ethics is sometimes referred to as the study of
morality. It is said to be a science insofar as it is a body of systematized knowledge
arranged with its accompanying explanation. In terms of content, it is not to be classified
as a course in science. Ethics as a practical science means that it consists of principles and
laws that are applied in daily living. In this sense, ethics is not a course taken for the sake
of contemplation; rather, it is a study taken for application in a person’s everyday course
of action. Ethics then is an applied knowledge.
As a philosophical science, ethics is not a technical course or a laboratory study.
Devoid of human experience, it presents and deliberates its subject matter “in the light of
its deepest principles by means of human reason alone.” There are various ways of defining
and discussing Ethics: 1) Ethics is a subject matter with content. It is a discipline with a body
of knowledge; 2) Ethics is a process of decision-making because it is a thinking skill leading
to actions that we perform coupled with accountability; 3) Ethics refers to well based
standards of right and wrong that prescribe what humans ought to do in terms of rights,
obligations, benefits to society, fairness, or specific virtues. It refers to standards that impose
the reasonable obligations to refrain from rape, stealing, murder, assault, slander, and
fraud. Ethical standards also include those that enjoin virtues of honesty, compassion, and
loyalty. Ethical standards include values relating to rights, such as the right to life, the right
to freedom from injury, and the right to privacy. Such standards are adequate standards
of ethics because they are supported by consistent and well-founded reasons; 4) Ethics
refers to the study and development of one's ethical standards. Since feelings, laws, and
social norms can deviate from what is ethical, it is necessary to constantly examine one's
standards to ensure that they are reasonable and well-founded. It is a continuous effort of
studying our own moral beliefs and our moral conduct and striving to ensure that we live
up to standards that are reasonable and solidly-based; and, 5) Ethics involves the study
and application of “right” conduct. When people ask themselves, “What ought I to do?”
they are concerned of their actions that might be wrong or are having difficulty working
through the moral or values dimensions and from these, they are asking an ethical question.
What Ethics is Not
Before we understand the moral from the non-moral standards, it is important to
look into some misinterpretations and misconceptions of what Ethics is all about. Such
misinterpretations and misconceptions can obliterate the real essence of Ethics as an

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important branch of Philosophy. Raymond Baumhart, a sociologist, asked some people,
"What does ethics mean to you?" Among their replies were the following: "Ethics has to do
with what my feelings tell me is right or wrong;" "Ethics has to do with my religious beliefs."
"Being ethical is doing what the law requires;" "Ethics consists of the standards of behavior
our society accepts;" and, "I don't know what the word means." These replies might be
typical of our own. The meaning of ethics is hard to pin down, and the views that some
people have about ethics are shaky and dangerous.
Ethics and Feelings
Like Baumhart's first respondent, many
people tend to equate ethics with their
feelings. But being ethical is clearly not a
matter of following one's feelings. A person
following his or her feelings may recoil from
doing what is right. In fact, feelings
frequently deviate from what is ethical.
Several students fall into the trap of
engaging in pre-marital sex because they
allow their feelings or emotions to
dominate their rationality.
Ethics and Religion

Most religions, of course, advocate high

ethical standards. Yet if ethics were confined
to religion, then ethics would apply only to
religious people. But ethics applies as much to
the behavior of the atheist as to that of the
saint. Religion can set high ethical standards
and can provide intense motivations for
ethical behavior. Ethics, however, cannot be
confined to religion nor is it the same as
religion.

Ethics is not the same with religion but

speaks about it. While religion seeks the
meaning of human existence through spiritual
nourishment with Creed, Code and
Ceremonies, ethics dwell on the reason or
existence of religion. This explains why we
have philosophy of religion. However, since
religion uses reason to explain faith like
theology, then we do philosophize which we
call moral philosophy. In fact, ethics is also
known as the study of morality.

Ethics is not the same with psychology but is

a companion to it. Ethics is not merely
attributed to observations and scientific
interpretations of behaviors like what
psychology does. The ethicists dig deeper on
the reason why an action is such without
necessarily quantifying and measuring human
behaviors. However, psychology admits that it
developed and progressed in the course of time
due to the contribution of philosophy, a
companion to its scientific investigations of
human behaviors.

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Ethics and Law
Being ethical is also not the same as following
the law. The law often incorporates ethical
standards to which most citizens subscribe. But
laws, like feelings, can deviate from what is
ethical. What is legal is not necessarily ethical;
but what is ethical is necessarily worth
legalizing. For instance; gambling, divorce,
abortion, and the like can be legalized in some
nations, but they do not necessarily mean that
they are ethical.

Ethics and what Society accepts:

Being ethical is not the same as doing "whatever
society accepts." In any society, most people
accept standards that are, in fact, ethical. But
standards of behavior in society can deviate
from what is ethical. An entire society can
become ethically corrupt. Nazi Germany
before, particularly during the time of the
holocaust, is a good example of this. If being
ethical were doing "whatever society accepts,"
then to find out what is ethical, one would have
to find out what society accepts. To decide
what I should think about abortion, for example,
I would have to take a survey of American
society and then conform my beliefs to
whatever society accepts. But no one ever tries
to decide an ethical issue by doing a survey.
Finally, the lack of social consensus on many issues makes it impossible to equate
ethics with whatever society accepts. Some people accept abortion but many others do
not. If being ethical were doing whatever society accepts, one would have to find an
agreement on issues which does not, in fact, exist.
Ethics is not the same with morality but is closely linked to it. While moral standard or
norm of action is fixed and already set, ethics dwells on the use of reason. It is because we
cannot limit philosophy from mere norms of conduct. However, ethics is identical to moral
science or moral philosophy based from the Latin term mos (nominative) or moris (genitive)
which also means custom, or “traditional line of conduct.” It is from this root word that the
word moral or morality is derived. The term morality is synonymous with the word ethics in
Ethics is not the same with studying
law but is closely related to it. While
law is concerned about the effects of
action through punishment and
reward, ethics dwell on a deeper
meaning of action by finding the main
reason of the act. This explains the old
adage, “not all legal is ethical.”
However, if ethics reflect laws founded
on reason as their bases, then we do
philosophizing like legal ethics.

Ethics is not the same with culture

but is closely connected to it. Ethics is
not only about etiquette or manners like
the GMRC (Good Manners and Right
Conduct) we used to learn. Learning
variety of cultural norms is not a
guarantee of ethical evaluation. This
explains why ethics is not only
researches in cultural anthropology or
sociology that studies behaviors of a
social group, an organization or a
community. However, in studying
society and culture, we have social
philosophy to explain the reasons of
organizations to exist. We can say then
that culture and society are associated
with ethics as a branch of philosophy.

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etymological meaning; however, ethics deals more on the principles and laws on the
morality of human acts by providing the person knowledge that s/he may know, what to
do and how to do it. In other words, ethics provides the guides to the performance of an
act.
2.2. Importance of ethics
For some people, the importance of ethics only comes as a result of
encountering unethical conduct. But if Ethics is inculcated into one’s system, it is
being carried into one’s bloodstream and to the day-to-day activity of the
individual. Ethics is an important requirement for human existence. It is our means
of deciding a proper course of action. Without it, our actions would be aimless and
not properly rooted. When a rational ethical standard is taken, we are able to
correctly organize our goals and actions to accomplish our most important values.
Any blunder in our ethical values will reduce our ability to be successful in our
endeavors.
Ethics is important because of the following reasons: 1) It serves as a guide towards
our goals, rather than just allowing our lives to be controlled by self-serving motives,
accidental occurrences, customs, feelings, or our impulses; 2) It helps us deepen our
reflection on the ultimate questions of life and help us think better about the concerns of
morality; 3) It offers us a wider perspective on how to live our life to the fullest, taking into
consideration that we do not have the luxury of eternal time in this world; 4) It reminds us
of our duties, responsibilities, and accountabilities to ourselves, to our fellowmen, to our
society, to our nation, and to the world in general; 5) It encourages us to examine our life
and honestly evaluate how we are responding to the challenges and demands of this
contemporary time; 6) It increases our capacity to perceive and be sensitive to relevant
moral issues that deserve consideration in making our choices that will have significant
impact on ourselves and on others; 7) It polishes, strengthens and brings out to the fore our
value priorities in life which will make us better and happy individuals; and, 8) It helps us
realize and become what we ought to be in this challenging, yet beautiful, world.
2.3. Recognizing Terms in Ethics
There are ethical terms to be distinguished in relation to human acts: It is important
to consider Moral, Amoral, and Immoral actions.
Moral actions or events are those which require the goodness of the object chosen,
the intention or the end in view, and of the circumstances together. Moral actions
are deemed to be good as one performs the moral rules or codes of the society.
Immoral actions or events are those actions or areas of interest where moral
categories do apply and are considered to be evil, sinful, or wrong according to
the code of ethics. For examples: consciously telling a lie; graft and corruption;

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cheating during examinations, gluttony, taking a sip of water fully aware that there
is hemlock in it (suicide), and many more.
Amoral actions or events are those actions or areas of interest exhibiting
indifference. At times, these are manifested in the absence of knowledge, freedom
and voluntariness on the part of the acting agent. For examples: a young child who
speaks bad words, an Aeta who just came from the mountain obstructs a city traffic,
a person innocently taking a sip of water but the water contains a hemlock, or a
man accidentally entering the ladies comfort room.
2.4. Moral versus Non-Moral Dilemmas
A moral dilemma is a situation in ethics where the human person is to choose
between two possible alternatives and the options become limited. In decision-making,
even when you do not want to choose to act in a situation, that is still considered a choice.
It is impossible then that there is no possible option. Thus, whatever is the decision a person
makes, it is expected for that person to stand and be responsible with the decision s/he
takes whatever the consequences could be. To decide is to be responsible.
Moral dilemma happens when we cannot make a distinction between what is a
good act from an evil act. When we encounter question of ethics like, is it moral to attend
my class even if I am sick? Is it necessary to avoid killing someone when my life is in danger?
Is waking up early necessary when am always late in going to school? Is it important to
maintain my diet even if my doctor advised me not to? To avoid moral dilemma, it is
important to distinguish the good act from a bad act.
A morally good act requires the goodness of the object chosen, of the intention,
and of the circumstances together. An evil end corrupts the action, even if the object is
good in itself like for instance in the case of praying and fasting in order to be seen by men.
The chosen object can by itself vitiate or destroy an act in its entirety. There are some
concrete acts, such as bribery, robbery, fornication, and the like, which are always wrong
to choose, because choosing them entails an evil act.
It is therefore an error to judge the morality of human acts by considering only the
intention that inspires them or the circumstances which supply their context. There are acts
which, in and of themselves, independently of circumstances and intentions, are always
gravely illicit by reason of their object; such as blasphemy, murder, adultery, and the like.
One may not do evil so that good may result from it. According to St. Thomas Aquinas, an
evil action cannot be justified by reference to a good intention. A good intention does not
make the action or behavior that is intrinsically disordered, good or just. The end does not
justify the means. Thus, the condemnation of an innocent person cannot be justified as a
legitimate means of saving the country.

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2.5. Distinction of Action:

Human acts are the fundamental foundation of morality. These acts which are
under the control of the will and therefore done knowingly and willingly; not acts which
happen by accident, as falling, or by nature, as growing, but acts performed by choice,
that is, after deliberation and decision. They are imputable to their human author to the
extent that he has knowledge of his own activity and its import, and to the extent that he
has freedom of election. The moral or ethical character of the human act lies in this, that
it is freely placed with knowledge of its objective conformity or nonconformity with the law
of rational nature.
As elaborated by ethicists, human acts are characterized by the following: 1) Acts
which are free and voluntary; 2) Acts done with knowledge and consent; 3) Acts which
are proper to man as man; because of all animals, he alone has knowledge and freedom
of the will; 4) Acts which are under man’s control, and for which he is responsible for its
consequences; and, 5) Acts which man is the master and has the power of doing or not
doing as he pleases. On the other hand, human acts should be differentiated from ordinary
‘acts of man’. Acts of man are bodily actions performed without deliberation and in the
absence of the will. For instances, the blinking of our eyelids, our breathing patterns,
sneezing, and the like are considered as acts of man. In many ways, we are accountable
to our actions but somehow our responsibility is lessened unlike human acts that absolutely
require moral obligation and responsibility.
Human Act requires moral responsibility that is derived from a person. If responsibility
is a coined term of “response” and “ability” then the ability to response is important in ethics
because “no one can give what s/he does not have.” It is expected for young people
studying ethics to respond to the problems of society today based on their capacities. As
such, we can apply the old saying, “if there’s a will, there’s a way.” For example, the right
to vote in local and national election, participate in any assembly, joining school
organizations, becoming choir members of the Church, joining professional associations,
and other organizing activities, are simple ways that young people can do to become
responsible individuals. If a person achieves an ethical attitude, it presupposes that s/he
takes moral responsibility to society. A personal conviction of what is “right and wrong”
becomes a social duty and such duty must be put into action. This makes ethics an
axiology, or what philosophy calls praxis, the emphasis on the practical application of
ethical ideas.
There are two significant considerations of ethics; the Ethics of Being and the Ethics of
Doing. In the Ethics of Being, the emphasis is on the “character development” which
involves the integrations of virtues, values and personhood; it is looking into the foundation
of actions who is the “good person” while the Ethics of Doing focuses not only the goodness
of the person but on the ability of the person to put into action his/her ethical conviction
(Fr. Ramon Coronel & Fr. Paul Van Parijs, CICM, Bioethics, 1996). It is not enough simply to
be contented in believing to be a good person while forgetting to do good actions; on
the other hand, it also not good just to think that you are doing good while you forget that

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you are first and foremost a good person. There is the need to harmonize the two
considerations of ethics; hence, you do a good act because you believe and think that
you are a good person capable of doing good. Both considerations are inseparably
related to be better person – intellectually mature, psychologically stable, socially
involved, spiritually nourished and economically well-off; and, to do good acts.
Our ethical responsibility is reflected in the following scheme:

The fundamental bases of morality start with the use of reason, exercise of human
freedom, willful, voluntariness, and deliberate act. Ethical principles and theories are
guidelines for human actions for which we can only talk about moral responsibility. It is
because we cannot be totally responsible to our actions that we are not aware of. We
can only be responsible to our actions that we are aware of, freely acting on them, and
voluntarily responding to the circumstance we are engaged in. With our moral conviction
arises our moral responsibility.
2.6. Three-fold Elements of Human Acts
There are three essential elements to consider any action to be a human act.
Without one of these elements, the action cannot be considered as a human act. These
are knowledge, freedom of the will, and voluntariness.
Knowledge is awareness or being conscious of one’s actions including its possible
consequences. The act of knowing is always consciousness of something which is
inevitably linked to the subject, who is the knower. For example, an insane person and a
three-year old child are not liable for their actions since they are not capable of acting
with proper knowledge. Their actions can never be considered as immoral. College
students and professionals are expected to be possessors of knowledge; thus, they cannot
claim excuses for their immoral actions. They are liable for the consequences of their
actions. According to Aristotle, knowledge is the first element of ethical practice. This
knowledge provides a framework for deliberating about the most appropriate technique(s)
by which the good can be attained. But, it should be noted that; although, knowledge is
a requirement for considering an act to be a human act, being knowledgeable or being
Ethics Ethics:
Theory and
Principles as
guidelines of
human actions

Moral
Responsibility

Human acts: Bases of

human responsibility: Free,
voluntary, and deliberate

Foundation of Morality

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aware of what is ethical or moral is not a guarantee that the person is already considered
as an ethical or moral person. It is not enough for an individual to know what is good. What
really count are his good acts.
Freedom of the Will. According to St. Thomas Aquinas, this is the power which human
beings have in determining their actions according to the judgment of their reasons. This
always involves a choice or an option of whether to do or not to do a certain action.
Without this freedom of choice, then responsibility and/or liability on the part of the
individual would be meaningless. Insane people who have no control of their minds and
children who have no idea of what they are doing or are not free to do or not to do, are
not responsible for their actions. Matured people, college students and professionals are
expected to be free from doing or not doing; thus, they are responsible or liable for their
actions.
Voluntariness. This is an act of consenting or accepting a certain action whether it
is done whole-heartedly, half-heartedly, or non-heartedly. According to Aristotle, the moral
evaluation of an action presupposes the attribution of responsibility to a human agent;
thus, responsible action must be undertaken voluntarily (Nicomachean Ethics III). Agapay
presented four modes of voluntariness. These are perfect, imperfect, conditional, and
simple voluntariness.
Perfect Voluntariness is actualized by a person who is fully aware and who fully
intends an act. The person, under perfect voluntariness, is fully convinced of his action
including its consequences. A politician who, in his right mind, engages in graft and
corruption is considered to be acting with perfect voluntariness. Imperfect Voluntariness is
seen in a person who acts without the full awareness of his action or without fully intending
the act. A drunken person who, acting irrationally, jumps from a ten-storey building is said
to be exhibiting an imperfect voluntariness. Conditional Voluntariness is manifested by a
person who is forced by his circumstances beyond his control to perform an action which
he would not do under normal condition. A freshman college student who is forced by his
parents to enroll in a course which is against his will is showing a conditional voluntariness.
Simple Voluntariness is exhibited by a person doing an act willfully regardless of whether
he likes to do it or not. It can either be positive or negative. It is a positive simple
voluntariness when the act requires the performance of an act. For examples: Studying
one’s lesson; participating in class discussions; engaging in sports, and so on. It is a negative
simple voluntariness when the act does not require the performance of an act. For
examples: Remaining silent or choosing to be alone; deciding not to go to a drinking spree;
avoiding to take illegal drugs; and so on.
2.7. Determinants of Morality
Freedom makes man a moral subject. When he acts deliberately, man is, so to
speak, the master of his acts. Human acts, that is, acts that are freely chosen in
consequence of a judgment of conscience, can be morally evaluated. They are either
good or evil. The morality of human acts depends on the object chosen; the end in view

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or the intention; and the circumstances of the action. These are the factors to consider in
making ethical judgement in determining the morality of human acts.
Object Chosen: This is a good toward which the will deliberately directs itself. The
chosen object resides out the acting subject. The object chosen morally specifies the act
of the will, insofar as reason recognizes and judges it to be or not to be in conformity with
the true good. Examples of Good Chosen Objects: nutritious foods; hard-earned money or
wealth; educational books and films; and the like. Examples of Bad Chosen Objects:
Forbidden drugs; Pornographic materials; Leakages for examinations; and others.
The Intention: This is a movement of the will toward the end. It is concerned with the
goal of the activity. The end is the first goal of the intention and indicates the purpose
pursued in the action. It aims at the good anticipated from the action undertaken.
Intention is not limited to directing individual actions but can guide several actions toward
one and the same purpose; it can orient one's whole life toward its ultimate end. For
example, a service done with the end of helping one's neighbor can at the same time be
inspired by the love of the Divine Being as the ultimate end of all our actions. One and the
same action can also be inspired by several intentions, such as performing a service in
order to obtain a favor or to boast about it. The intention resides in the acting subject as
contrast to the object chosen. Because it lies at the voluntary source of an action and
determines it by its end, intention is an element essential to the moral evaluation of an
action.
The Circumstances: These, including the consequences, are secondary elements of
a moral act. They contribute to increasing or diminishing the moral goodness or evil of
human acts. For instances: the number of people killed; the amount of money being stolen;
the number of trees cut by loggers; the regularity of the graft and corruption done by
politicians; the number of times a lie is spoken; or, the number of times a student cheated.
They can also diminish or increase the agent's responsibility. For examples: acting out of
ignorance or fear of death; acts done because of habit; choosing between two or more
evils in a certain situation; being forced to do something against one’s will; and so on. It
should be noted that circumstances of themselves cannot change the moral quality of
acts themselves; they can make neither good nor right an action that is in itself evil.
In Summary: A morally good act requires the goodness of the object, of the end,
and of the circumstances together. An evil end corrupts the action, even if the object is
good in itself (such as praying and fasting "in order to be seen by men"). The object of the
choice can by itself vitiate an act in its entirety. There are some concrete acts - such as
fornication - that it is always wrong to choose, because choosing them entails a disorder
of the will, that is, a moral evil. It is therefore an error to judge the morality of human acts
by considering only the intention that inspires them or the circumstances (environment,
social pressure, duress or emergency, etc.) which supply their context. There are acts
which, in and of themselves, independently of circumstances and intentions, are always
gravely illicit by reason of their object; such as blasphemy and perjury, murder and
adultery. One may not do evil so that good may result from it.

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The object, the intention, and the circumstances make up the three "sources" of the
morality of human acts. The object chosen morally specifies the act of willing accordingly
as reason recognizes and judges it good or evil. "An evil action cannot be justified by
reference to a good intention" (cf. St. Thomas Aquinas, Dec. praec. 6). A morally good act
therefore requires the goodness of its object, of its end, and of its circumstances together.
There are concrete acts which are always wrong to choose, because their choice entails
a disorder of the will, i.e., a moral evil. One may not do evil so that good may result from it.