Ley Syllabus : Sense organs — Eye : Structure, functions, defects and corrective measures; Ear : Parts and functions of the ear. Scope of Syllabus ® Extemal and Internal structure and functions of the human eye and ear and their various parts. © Abrietidew of stereoscopic vision, adaptation and ‘acoommadation of eye. © Defects of the eye (myopia, hyperopit hypermetropia, presbyopia, astigmatism and cataract) and corrective measures (diagrams included for myopia and hyperopia only). = The course of perception of sound in human ear. ® Role of ear in maintaining balance of the body. The sense organs enable us to be aware of the conditions of our external as well as internal environment, ‘The major sense organs in our body are the eyes, ears, tongue, nose and skin which are sensitive to light, sound, taste, smell and touch respectively. In addition, there are also the senses of balance, body movements, hunger, thirst and pain, etc. The actual sensation is perceived by the sensory cells located in these organs — such cells are categorised as receptors. RECEPTORS ee te teen toa ()-Mechanoreceptors - are receptors for touch, Pressure of skin due to mechanical change, Chemoreceptors - receptors of taste ofthe tong and smell of the nose due to chemical influens Photoreceptors - are rods and cones of the re, of eye due to light. ‘Thermoreceptors — are heat and cold receptor, the skin, due to change in temperature. Phonoreceptors ~ receptors for sound/hearing 11.4 THE EYES ‘ Orbits : The two [Link] located in deep soc or orbits on-the front side-of the head. Each eye ij the form ofa ball [Link] be rotated with the hel six musd “Zyelids : The upper and the lower movabj eyelids protect the outer (front) surface of the ey and can shut out light. Each eyelid carries outward curved eyelashes which prevent falling of larg particles into the eye. Eyebrows : Although virtually not a part of t eye, these are also protective; they prevent the ra drops or the trickling perspiration from getting ing the eyes. ale Tear glands (lacrimal glands) (Fig. 11.1) : Th are located atthe upper sideward portion of the ori Six to twelve ducts of the gland pour the secreti over the front surface. LACRIMAL, GLAND LACRIMAL SAC. NASOLACRIMAL Duct Fig. 11.1 : Lacrimal tear) apparatus of the huran eyets of the eyelids (blinking) Jiquid which mainly serves as a also Keep the front surface of | ‘washing away dust partick [Link] 2” antiseptic property d lysozyme which kills the | These ducts drain off the liqurie at the inner angle of the eye, A weit conducts the secretion into “ANIIFAT of us have sometimes a hat medicines droppedin the eyes Sime int and-even int the throat sis happens through the above-mentioned fation or in certain emotional ‘the tear glands pour out a lot of liquid spd waters the eyes” or overflows as “tears: You may shed tears both in grief and in extreme JOY. INS OF TEARS = * ec Y A Lubricate the surface of the 2 Wash away dust particles 3, Help in killing germs ~ 4 Communicate emotions a Conjunctiva ; It isa thin membrane covering the | entire front part of the ee (Fig 11.2). It is continuous wwith the irinér lining of the eyelids. Over the comea, it is reduced-toma single layer of transparent epithelium. You must have often heard of a very common eye disease “conjunctivitis” in which this outermost layer turns red due to a viral infection. The bony orbit socket, eyebrows, tear glands and conjunctiva serve for eye protection in their own, base STRUCTURE OF THE EVEBALL (Fig. 11.2) f three The wall of the eyeball is composed o concentric layers : (1) outer sclerotic, (3) middle choroid, and (3) inner retina. (The sclerotic layer (or sclera) ism i jjs-white in_colou CILIARY BOD Ky? CORNEA CONJUNCTIVA, Span CILIARY MUSCLES SS CONJUNGTIVA f CORNEA p PUPIL ade of tough “The white SUSPENSORY UGAMENT SCLERA hi RETINA CHOROID ‘YELLOW SPOT (MACULA LUTEA) ‘OPTIC NERVE BLIND SPOT SUSPENSORY LIGAMENT LENS RETINA Aaveous HUMOUR ore CIRCULAR OILIARY \ BLIND SPOT MUSCLES CHOROID = ~~ souERA VITREOUS HUMOUR, Fig; 11,2 Cross sector “3 black of the eye, in colour and white itself visible through the conjunctiva. It bulges out and becomes. transparent in the-front- region where it covers the-coloured-part of the eye; this part is called the cornea. Sometimes, the cornea of some patients turns opaque (white) and non-fungional. In such cases, the defective cornea can beMfeplaced by a healthy cornea from a donated eye.According to a recent report, AIIMS (New Delhi) has developed the technique of slicing the cornea into 23 layers that can be grafted on as many defective eyes. (2). The choroid layer is richly supplied with blood vessels for providing nourishment to the eye. It contains a dark black pigment (melanin) which prevents light rays from reflecting and scattering inside the eye, In the front of the eye, the choroid expands to form the ciliary body (containing circular muscles). The smooth muscles in the ciliary body alter the shape of the lens. ‘The iris (Latin iris; rainbow) is also an extension of the choroid, partially covering the lens and leaving a circular opening in the centre, the pupil. The blue, brown or black colour of the eye refers to the colour of the iris. [“PUPIL” name has been derived from the Latin word “pupa” meaning “doll”, which in this context refers to the tiny image of oneself seen reflected in another’s eye]. The iris contains radial muscles to widen and circular muscles to constrict the pupil. This adjustment of the size of the pupil _ regulates the amount of light entering the eye. You can easily observe this by throwing a torch light into the eyes while looking in a mirror. In dim or dark light, the pupil is dilated, while in bright light, it is constricted (Fig. 11.5). The pattern and arrangement of the iris muscles is unique for every individual and therefore these are also a source of an individual's identification. (3) The retina or the innermost layer is sensitive to light. It contains two types of sense cells called rods and cones, = The rod cells (inner ends rod-like) are to dim light but do not respond to cj, contain the pigment rhodopsin or visu) "hs The rod cells are distributed almost ¢,,,""e the retina. Bho = The cones (inner ends conical) are , to bright light and are responsible ;.° vision. They contain the pigment jo, visual violet. The cone cells are most to the yellow spot. YELLOW SPOT ~ The area of best vig, lon The distribution of rods and cones is not A particular spot called the macula lutea (ma; spot; luteum : yellow) or simply yellow spot 1." the back of the eye almost at the centre o," Korizontal Serco all. This spot contai,, maximum number of sensory cells and par... the cones. Asa result, this is the region of by, vision and also of the colour vision. The res retina has fewer cones and more rods. Yellow spot is the place of best vision of the normal | or ul VOUT. 298 from word to word as you read a line through « prin ee BLIND SPOT - The area of no vision Lateral to the yellow spot on the nasal side the blind spot. There are no sensory cells her and, therefore, this is the point of no vision. Thi is the point at which the nerve fibres from al the sensory cells of the retina converge and bundle together to leave the eyeball in the form of the opti nerve. Coley opsin Infor, ath ighteg ‘Table 11.1 : Comparison of rods and cones 1, Less numerous. , 2. Mostly located in the centre of retina.- EXPE RIENCE YOUR OWN BLIND spo seokat te drawing below (Fig 9.12). Close your right eto the page at an arms length and look at the eo yur lft E- You can see both the circle and a from this distance. Now bring the page slowly fhe 0 sof with the left eye still fixed om the circle so roving about 15cm away from the eye, the wher tht 4 et this experiment with the left eye closed and Repo ised on the square. As you bring the seri rs time, the circle will disappear. ig. 14.9: A chat for experiencing the blind spot LENS ‘The lens is a transparent, flexible, biconvex crystalline body located just behind the pupil. It contains transparent lens fibres (long thin cells which have lost their nuclei). The lens is collectively held in position by fibres called the suspensory ligament, ‘which attaches it to the ciliary body. The ciliary body lies atthe junction of the choroid and the iris, and is itself a part of the choroid. The ciliary body contains muscles which on contraction and relaxation, change the shape of the lens (being somewhat elastic) for viewing objects at different distances. TWO CHAMBERS OF THE EYE — AQUEOUS AND VITREOUS CHAMBERS ‘The lens, together with its suspending structures, divides the inner cavity of the eyeball into two chambers: aqueous chamber in front of the lens : chamber behind the lens (Fig. 11.2). chamber is the front chamber between (2) Vitreous chamber is the larger cavity of the eyeball behind the lens. It is filled with a transparent jelly-like thicker fluid called vitreous humour (vitreous : glassy; humour: fluid). The vitreous humour serves two functions : (i) It helps in keeping the shape of the eyeball, (ii) It protects the retina and its nerve endings. HOW DO WE SEE? The four major steps in seeing an object are as follows: (1) Entry of light rays : Light rays from the object enter the eyes through the transparent structures (conjunctiva, cornea, aqueous humour, lens, vitreous humour). (2) Focusing of image : First, the curvature of the cornea converges the light rays to some extent and the lens converges them further to form an image on the retina. The image on the retina is inverted and real. (3) Transmission of nerve impulses from retina to brain : The light energy of the image produces chemical changes in the sensitive cells (rods and cones). These changes generate nerve impulses which travel through the optic nerve and reach the visual area of the cerebrum, where they give the sensation of sight. Interpretation by the brain : Our brain interprets the image in many ways, eg. it “sees” the objects upright even if the image cornea. It is filled with a d called aqueous humourCILIARY MUSCLES RELAXED SUSPENSORY LIGAMENT TIGHT FOR NEAR | LENS MADE omuect | THICKER FOR DISTANT | LENS MADE ‘ ‘opvect | THINNER CHANGING SHAPE OF THE LENS. changes in the shape of the lens is brought about by the ciliary muscles In the normal condition (ciliary muscles relaxed), the lens remains stretched by the suspensory ligaments and it is less convex, suited for viewing distant objects (Fig. 11.44). When we look at nearby objects, the ciliary muscles (which are circular) contract and tend to pull the ciliary body slightly forward. This releases the tension on the suspensory ligament ‘making it loose and the lens, on account of its elasticity, becomes thicker and more rounded or convex (Fig. 11.4.B). When you pass from a brightly lighted area to a dark room (such as a cinema hall), you experience difficulty in seeing objects for a short while, Slowly, your vision is improved, This improvement is called dark adaptation, ‘This is due to regeneration of the visual purple or thodopsin, the pigment of the rods, which was earlier broken down due to bright and 9 dn hea ering light to enter the eyestFig. 11.5). When a person with dark adapted eyes moves to a brightly lighted area, as in coming out of a cinema hall after the noon show, he experiences a dazzling effect for a short period. After a few igi FROM DISTANT OBJECT LENS PULLED THIN. y CILIARY MUSCLES CONTRAcy °Y Men LENS GETS THICKER LigiT FROM NEARBY OBJECT TENSION IN SUSPENSORY UGAMENT RELAXED Fig. 11.4: Accommodation of the eye: A = for dista B — for near object ins, IRCULAR (Gilated) ‘THE PUPIL IN DIM LIGHT A DUATED ‘Bis Fig. 1, he comes back to normal view g thre . lefect can be corrected eon jon, The adaptation is due to rever : ey 5 tation. © je us changes, ie aperpe = ye previous chang wal purple of the rods is bleact f the ’ ssmate ig, specti i) the is Maucing their sensitivity, and i rom myopia (power of gh pil constricts (gets narrower), to a he eye the Fhe amount of light entering she portal closure ofthe eyelids in dazzling light oo serves the same purpose —_ colour Vision ad Golour vision is possible only through cones of HYPEROPIA a she retina which are stimulated only in bright light Youeannot make out the red, violet or purple flower na gardep-on.a. moonlit-night, because then on! the rods function and not the canes, 412 COMMON DEFECTS OF THE EYE |, Near or short-sightedness (Myopia) is } condition in which the near objects c | dearly while the distant objects appear blurred Init, the image of distant objects is formed in front of the retina (Fig. 11.6). Reasons for myopia : The two possible reasons are (i) the e } eye ball is lengthened from front to back OR x (Gi) the lens is too curved (even both reasons 2. may occur together) 1 nage is fred behind the retina, | convex lens converges the light rays. AS a result, the image is now formed on the retina Far or long:sightedness (Hyperopia, old term- Hypermetropia) is a condition in which there is a difficulty in seeing near objects. In it, the image of near object falls behind the retina. Reasons for hyeropia : This defect results on account of cither shortening of the eyeball from front to back or the lens is too flat. Correction of hyeropia : A convex (; lens is required to correct it (Fig. 11.7) (power of the glasses used is taentioned in plus “+”), MYOPIA (hort-sightedness) “The image is formed intron ofthe retina. CONCAVE LENS, ‘Aconcave lens diverges the ight ays. AS 2 re he mage snow fomed ene ret + Short sightedness (Myopia) and its correction by 8 CONCAVE LENSFig. 11.8 : Do you suler trom astigmatisn? Shut one eye and Jook at this picture, Ht all the lines appear equally dark, you «do not. But if some sets of ines appear dark and those at right angles to them appear lighter then you do, Try the same with ihe other eve NIV an 5. Cataract is a condition in which the lens turns opaque and the vision is cut down even to total blindness, It can be corrected by surgically removing the lens, and by using spectacles with highly convex lenses, compensating for the missing lens, or in a newer technique, a small plastic lens is implanted behind or in front of the iris. Night-blindness is a condition in which a person feels difficulty in seeing in dim light as during the night. This is due to non-formation of the pigment visual purple of the rods. Only rods function in dim light and in the absence of the pigment, they cannot function, This is usually due to the deficiency of vitamin A which is required for the synthesis of the pigment. Colour blindness is a condition in which some people by birth cannot discriminate between certain colours such as red and green. ‘This is due to a genetic defect. Mostly males suffer from this defect, whereas it rarely occurs in females. 8. Corneal opacities : The cornea of some patients ' gets scarred and turns opaque (white) and non- 0 functional. Such defects can cause anything from minor irritation to vision problems and even yarns 2 _ ases, the defective core blindness: In such replaced by « healthy comes from a donates 9, Squint : In this defect, the two eye converge leading to what is called * An opposite condition appears when they « and is called the may cause double vision or diplopia. Surge, suitable exercise can correct these defect t Stereoscopic (binocular) vision. All monkeys/apes and particularly humay, perceive depth or the relative distance ofthe obj is due to simultaneous focusing of an object in box and their images by a kind of “overlapping” in the \, gives the three dimensional effect. ry one activ), Hold a pencil horizontally with its point f at about arms length. Close one eye and try to 1 point of the pencil with the point of another pencil in ‘other hand, starting from a position with the ary side of your body. You cannot do it speedily the eyes open, you can do so more easily and quick used to line up the pencil and that is the one you use more, Gyles ME Tid helt our eyes does na change in our life time as we grow. Find out which eye is used more. Hold a pencil at armis length with its point in line with some distant object with both eyes open. First, close one eye and open it and then close the other and open it. With ‘one, the pencil will seem to jump sideways and not with the other. ‘This shows that the other eye was ARE YOU COLOUR BLIND ? ‘Try to read the numbers printed alongside, in the three coloured circles. If i and 8, you are normal, otherwise colour bind, as for example hn le 4. nse mS 12 ‘wide eye.” Both condi, | |— the basis of motion images at jctures: ‘one Jooks at @ the eyes, the sensation of light persists je oe riod. In the same way, if one looks at a seasmeaoared object and then looks ata dark itty Fy mage of the object in the same colour tT persist ‘This is known as persistence image or ie after-image. It lasts for about one-tenth of a oop. This is the principle on which the technique Dright object for a moment and c semotion pictures is based jna movie, pictures are projected on a screen at she rate of about 24 pictures per second, but we “jana see the individual frames on account of the The life-like continuous rrimages in our eVes, tnovement on the screen is an illusion. Televisior foo is similar, where the scanning beam of a ‘eture frame of the TV camera moves so ra hs fa the viewing screen of the TV set that our eyes cannot keep pace with it. Out of numerous other cptical illusions, two are shown at the end ofthis chapter. Can you now answer ? | You saw a dream — Did the eyes see it # Is it the eyes that see or the brain through the 7 ad FTER-IMAGE a) Progress Check sam ( 1. State the functions of the following: i) Eyelids (ii) Eyelashes (ii) Tears (iv) Iris (v) Ciliary muscles 2. Write in proper sequence the names of all the parts of the human eye through which the light rays coming from an object pass before they form an image on the retina 3. Name the following (i) Place of best vision in the retina of the eye (ii) Place of no vision in the retina of the Kind of retinal cells sensitive to dim light The circular opening enclosed by iris (v) The fibres which collectively hold the lens in posit Capacity of the eye to focus at different distances The kind of lens required to correct near sightedness The layer of the wall of the eye-ball that corresponds to the black lining of the box of a camera 4. Give the reason for the following (i) Medicines dropped in the eye flow down into the nose (i) A person from bright sunlight outside enters a poorly lit room and feels blinded for a short while. (wi) 41.3 THE EAR — ORGAN FOR HEARING AND BALANCE ‘The human ear (Fig. 11.9) is concerned with two functions, hearing and body balance. It has three i) outer ear, (ii) middle ear and (iii)