HIGHWAY AND RAILROAD ENGINEERING

PBSCE 009

MODULE 01

Highway alignment:

The alignment is the route of the road, defined as the center line layout or position on the ground surface
contains a series of horizontal tangents and curves. The profile is the vertical aspect of the road, including
crest and sag curves, and the straight grade lines connecting them. There are two types of alignments, which
are Horizontal Alignment and Vertical Alignment.

Horizontal Curve

Vertical Curve

The horizontal alignment along the route of the road, defined as the horizontal profile which is the horizontal
aspect of the road, including transition and horizontal curves. Horizontal Alignment contains the straight path,
curves or deviation in horizontal direction.

The vertical alignment along the route of the road, defined as the vertical profile which is the vertical aspect of
the road, including crest and sag curves, and the straight grade lines connecting them. Vertical Alignment
contains the vertical curves and gradient on the ground.
Basic requirements of an Ideal Alignment:

1. It should have a shortest path.

2. The alignment must be easy to construct and maintain and also it should be easy for vehicle operation.

3. It should be safe in case of designing the horizontal and vertical curves.

4. The alignment should be selected in such a way that it is economical during construction.

Factors Controlling Alignment:

1. Obligatory Points These are control points governing the alignment of Highways.

a. Points through which the Alignment has to pass:

∙ Hill Pass

Hair Pin Bend

∙ Location of Bridge
∙ Connecting Intermediate Town

∙ Avoiding an Intermediate Area

b. Points through which the Alignment should not pass:

∙ If it is a case of religious place like temple, mosque, church ,grave etc. The Alignment should not pass as per
law.

2. Traffic

∙ Alignment should be selected based on traffic surveys. Origin and Destination study should be carried out in
that area and also we have to consider the future development in that road network.

3. Geometric Design

∙ Alignment is decided based on the design of horizontal and vertical curves, sight distance and gradient of that
section. It is also decided based on the Design Speed of that Highway.

4. Economy

∙ It is based on the initial cost of construction and maintenance cost of the road, if it a shortest path the cost of
construction will be reduced. (Decision is based on Quantity of Cutting and Filling of Earth.)

5. Special considerations or care for Hill Roads

∙ Common problems in hill roads are land sliding, stability of road, providing adequate drainage facility,
reducing hairpin bends, needless raise and fall.

Horizontal and Vertical alignment:

There are two types of alignments about which an highway engineer required to know about are:

∙ Horizontal Alignment

∙ Vertical Alignment

A horizontal curve in a roadway refers to the alignment, or how “straight” the roadway section is. A vertical
curve refers to a roadway's change in elevation, or the “flatness” of the roadway.

Horizontal Alignment:

Horizontal alignment is a broad term that encompasses several aspects of transportation engineering. In this
discussion, we will focus on the design of horizontal curves.

The key steps in the design of horizontal curves are listed below. This will serve as a guide, as you explore the
remaining topics within the horizontal alignment section of geometric design.

1. Determine a reasonable maximum superelevation rate.

2. Decide upon a maximum side-friction factor.

4. Iterate and test several different radii until you are satisfied with your design.

5. Make sure that the stopping sight distance is provided throughout the length of your curve. Adjust your
design if necessary.

6. Design the transition segments.

Vertical Alignment:

The two basic elements of vertical alignment are Grades and Vertical Curves.

∙ Grade

∙ Vertical Curves

The design of the curve is dependent on the following factors:

1. Intended design speed for the roadway.

2. Drainage.

3. Slope.

4. Acceptable rate of change.

5. Friction.

Engineering Surveys conducted for highway alignment and locations:

Before a highway alignment is finalized in highway project, engineering surveys are required to be carried out.
The surveys may be completed in Four Stages. The first three stages consider all possible alternate
alignments keeping in view the various requirements of highway alignment. The fourth stage is meant for the
detailed survey of the selected alignment.

The stages of the Engineering Surveys are:

a. Map Study

b. Reconnaissance

c. Preliminary Surveys

d. Final Location and Detailed Surveys

a. Map Study:

If the topographic map of the area is available, it is possible to suggest the likely routes of the road. The main
features like rivers, hills, valleys etc. are also shown on these maps. Requirements of Map Study are as
follows:

∙ Alignment avoiding valleys, ponds or lakes.

∙ When the road has to cross a row of hills, possibility of crossing through a mountain pass.

∙ Approximate location of bridge site for crossing rivers, avoiding bend of the river, if any.
∙ When a road is to be connected between two stations, on at the top of the hill and other on the foot, then
alternate routes can be suggested keeping in view the permissible gradient; say the ruling gradient.

b. Reconnaissance

The second stage of surveys for highway location is the reconnaissance to examine the general character of
the area for deciding the most feasible routes for detailed studies. A field survey party may inspect a fairly
broad stretch of land along the proposed alternative routes of the map in the field using simple instruments like
abney level, tangent clinometers, barometer etc. Some of the details to be collected during reconnaissance are
given below:

i. Valleys, ponds, lakes, marshy land, ridge, hills, permanent structures and other obstructions along the route
which are not available in the map.

ii. Approximate values of gradient, length of gradients and radius of curves of alternate alignments.

iii. Soil type along the routes from field identification tests and observation of geological features.

iv. Sources of construction materials, water and location of stone quarries.

c. Preliminary Survey

The main objectives of the preliminary survey are:

i. To survey the various alternate alignments proposed after the reconnaissance and to collect all the
necessary physical information and details topography, drainage and soil.

ii. To compare the different proposals in view of the requirements of a good alignment.

iii. To estimate the quantity of earth work materials and other construction aspects and to workout the cost of
alternate proposals.

iv. To finalize the best alignment from all considerations.

The preliminary survey may be carried out by any one of the following methods:

1. Conventional approach, in which a survey party carries out surveys using the required field equipment,
taking measurements, collecting topographical and other data and carrying out soil survey.

2. Modern rapid approach, by serial survey taking the required aerial photographs and by photogrammetric
methods and photo-interpretation techniques for obtaining the necessary topographic and other maps including
details of soil and geology. This method is suitable when the distance and area to be covered are vast.

d. Final Location and Detailed Survey

The alignment finalized at the design office after the preliminary survey is to be first located on the field by
locating and establishing the center line. Next detailed survey should be carried out for collecting the
information necessary for the preparation of plans and construction details for the highway project.

Location

The center line of the road finalized in the drawings is to be translated on the ground during the location survey.
This is done using a transit theodolite and staking of the center line. The center line stakes are driven at
suitable intervals; say at 50-meter intervals in plain and rolling terrains and 20 meter in hilly terrain.
Detailed Survey

Temporary bench marks are fixed at intervals of about 250 meter and at all drainage and under pass
structures. Levels along the final center line should be taken at all staked points. All topographical details are
noted down and also plotted using conventional signs. Adequate hydrological details are also collected and
recorded. A detailed soil survey is carried out to enable drawing of the soil profile. The depth up to which soil
sampling is to be done may be 1.5 to 3.0 meter below the ground line or finished grade line of the road
whichever is lower. CBR values of soils along the alignment may be determined for designing the pavement.