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CMY2603/1/2020–2022

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CONTENTS

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OVERVIEW v

LEARNING UNIT 1: Introduction and terminology overview 1

1.1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.2 KEY CONCEPTS 2
1.3 THE EUROCENTRIC INFLUENCE ON SOUTH AFRICAN CHILDREN AND YOUTH 2
1.4 SUMMARY 5
1.5 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS 6
1.5.1 Self-assessment paragraph questions 6
1.5.2 Self-assessment multiple-choice questions 6
1.5.3 Feedback on self-assessment for paragraph questions 6
1.5.4 Feedback on self-assessment for multiple-choice questions 6
LEARNING UNIT 2: The nature and extent of child and youth misbehaviour in South Africa 7
2.1 INTRODUCTION 7
2.2 STATUS OFFENCES 8
2.3 CHARACTERISTICS OF CHILD AND YOUTH OFFENCES 9
2.4 SEXUAL OFFENCES 10
2.5 VIOLENT OFFENCES 10
2.6 DRUG USE AMONG YOUTHS 13
2.7 OTHER CATEGORIES OF YOUTH OFFENCES 13
2.8 THE CHRONIC JUVENILE OFFENDER 14
2.9 OFFICIAL AND UNOFFICIAL CRIME INFORMATION SOURCES 14
2.10 SUMMARY 15
2.11 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS 15
2.11.1 Self-assessment for paragraph questions 15
2.11.2 Self-assessment for multiple-choice questions 15
2.11.3 Feedback on self-assessment for paragraph questions 16
2.11.4 Feedback on self-assessment for multiple-choice questions 16
LEARNING UNIT 3: Risk factors pertaining to youth offenders 17
3.1 INTRODUCTION 18
3.2 KEY CONCEPTS 18
3.3 RISK FACTORS ON A SOCIAL LEVEL 19
3.4 FAMILY VARIABLES 20
3.5 RISK FACTORS IN THE SCHOOL 23
3.6 EXTRAFAMILIAL RELATIONSHIP FACTORS 24
3.7 RISK FACTORS ON AN INDIVIDUAL LEVEL 25
3.8 HISTORY OF CONDUCT AMONG YOUNG OFFENDERS 27
3.9 IDENTIFIED COMBINATIONS OF RISK FACTORS 27
3.10 SUMMARY 27
3.11 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS 27
3.11.1 Self-assessment for multiple-choice questions 27
3.11.2 Self-assessment paragraph questions 28
3.11.3 Feedback on multiple-choice questions 28
3.11.4 Feedback on paragraph questions 28

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LEARNING UNIT 4: The prevention and control of youth misbehaviour in South Africa 29
4.1 INTRODUCTION 29
4.2 KEY CONCEPTS 30
4.3 INTERNATIONAL BACKDROP 31
4.4 PRIMARY PREVENTION LEVEL 32
4.5 SECONDARY PREVENTION LEVEL 34
4.6 TERTIARY PREVENTION LEVEL 34
4.7 SUMMARY 38
4.8 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS 38
4.8.1 Self-assessment multiple-choice questions 38
4.8.2 Self-assessment paragraph questions 39
4.8.3 Feedback self-assessment multiple-choice questions 39
4.8.4 Feedback self-assessment paragraph questions 39

REFERENCES 40

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OVERVIEW
Contents

1 Introduction
2 The purpose of the module
3 Learning outcomes
4 Course content
5 The study package
6 Icons used in the study guide
7 Conclusion

1 INTRODUCTION
Welcome to CMY2603 – Child and Youth Misbehaviour. This study guide comprises of
four learning units, which are interrelated and cannot be studied as separate entities.
The learning units talk to each other in highlighting child and youth misbehaviour in
South Africa.

In revising this study guide we have given consideration to module content that has a
bearing on African, especially South African, circumstances. The prescribed book for this
module accommodates the profile of its audience in this regard.

2 THE PURPOSE OF THE MODULE

The purpose of this module is for students to gain sufficient knowledge on matters of
risk, relevant issues, prevention and policy pertaining to youth who are misbehaving
and offending. Students who complete this module will be able to apply this acquired
knowledge to the intervention and control of young offenders.

The purpose of this type of study guide differs from study guides that are the key source of
learning, where the study guide contains all or the bulk of information students require to
attain the module outcomes. The study guide has been developed around the prescribed
book for this module and serves as an aid to studying and understanding the chapters of
the textbook. The study guide and the prescribed book should be used together when
preparing for assignments and examinations. This is because some sections are only
mentioned in the guide but are not discussed at length and students are referred to the
main source –­ the prescribed book.

3 LEARNING OUTCOMES
Specific learning outcomes for CMY2603 are the following:
• Outcome 1: Clarify the key concepts central to the theme of child and youth misbehaviour.

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• Outcome 2: Demonstrate an understanding of the nature and extent of child and
youth offenders.
• Outcome 3: Discuss risk factors associated with youth offending.
• Outcome 4: Elaborate on the preventative and controlling measures aimed at youth
offending.

A list of learning outcomes is included at the beginning of each learning unit. This gives
you an idea of what you should be able to do after you have to study the learning unit.
The learning outcomes have been aligned to the self-evaluation questions appearing at
the end of each learning unit because both provide an important road map (guidelines)
for studying the module contents.

4 COURSE CONTENT
This module consists of four learning units. Note that these learning units are related
and should not be studied as separate entities. The following is a brief overview of the
course contents:

Learning unit 1 introduces the terminology central to the theme of child and youth
misbehaviour in South Africa. Central themes are defined and the Eurocentric influence
on children and youth in South Africa is illustrated.

Learning unit 2 focuses on the nature and extent of youth misbehaviour. Violent crimes
or offences committed by youths, especially of a sexual nature are examined; and the
extent of youth misbehaviour is given attention.

Learning unit 3 addresses the risk factors linked with young people in conflict with the
law; risk or criminogenic factors for youth offenders are discussed as experienced within
the family, the school and in society and through negative peer socialisation.

Learning unit 4 deals with measures to curb youth misbehaviour. The three levels of
prevention (primary, secondary and tertiary) are discussed. Diversion is mentioned and
the Child Justice Act (effective 1 April 2010) is also included in this unit.

The curriculum for the module CMY2603 covers the following themes:
• Introduction and terminology overview (chapter 1 of the prescribed book)
• The nature and extent of child and youth misbehaviour (chapter 3 of the prescribed book)
• Risk factors pertaining to youth offenders (chapter 4 of the prescribed book)
• The prevention and control of youth misbehaviour in South Africa (chapter 10 of the
prescribed book)

5 THE STUDY PACKAGE

The study material for the module CMY2603 consists of the study guide, tutorial letters
and the prescribed book. The tutorial letters focus mainly on administrative matters and
assignments. It is very important to obtain the latest edition of prescribed book since the
study guide is used in conjunction with the latest edition of the book. The prescribed book is:

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Bezuidenhout, C. 2018. Child and youth misbehaviour in South Africa: A holistic approach
(4th ed). Pretoria: Van Schaik.

Note that this module offers e-tutors that can assist you with e-tutoring. This means that
students will be allocated an e-tutor who will be your tutorial facilitator.

6 ICONS USED IN THIS STUDY GUIDE

Icon Description
2

3Learning outcomes. Outcomes of the chapter or module.

Activity. This icon refers to activities you must complete to de-

velop a deeper understanding of the study material.

Feedback. This icon indicates that you will receive feedback on your
answers to the self-assessment activities.

Note. Note (examination questions may be asked)

Interesting reading. Interesting reading (not for examination

8

purposes).
6

Food for thought. Food for thought (not for examination purposes).

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 Icon Description

Self assessment: When you see this icon, you have to test your
knowledge, understanding and application of the material that
you have just studied.
10

7 CONCLUSION
We hope that you will enjoy this module and find it stimulating and thought provoking.
All the best with you studies.

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LEARNING UNIT 1
Introduction and terminology
overview

Compiled and revised by

Dr Lebogang Morodi

Contents

1.1 Introduction
1.2 Key concepts
1.3 The Eurocentric influence on South African children and youth
1.4 Summary
1.5 Self-assessment questions
1.5.1 Self-assessment for paragraph questions
1.5.2 Self-assessment for multiple-choice questions
1.5.3 Feedback on self-assessment for paragraph questions
1.5.4 Feedback on self-assessment for multiple-choice questions

1Learning outcomes

After studying this learning unit, you should be able to do the following:
• Explain the concepts central to the theme of child and youth misbehaviour.
• Identify why concepts central to the theme of children and youth are difficult to define.
• Indicate the impact of the Eurocentric influence on South African children and youth.

1.1 INTRODUCTION
When children are born, there are expectations in every part of society to see these
young people growing as upright and law-abiding citizens. However, when these critical
stages of human development produce individuals who act contrary to the conventional
norms of the society, it is received with shock. The youth in South Africa, like in other
parts of the world, become exposed to risky and life-threatening behaviour. The socio-
economic factors facing the country expose the youth category to conditions leading
to undermining the foundations of the society. The adolescent youth come into conflict
with the law. In South Africa, the youth group is in the majority when compared to their
adult counterpart. Youth misbehaviour is a serious problem in this country.

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1.2 KEY CONCEPTS
Child and youth (consult the prescribed book section 1.3.1)
According to the South African Constitution, a child is considered to be any person under
the age of 18 (Bezuidenhout, 2018:12). Youth refers to the period of life when a person is
considered young. It is the stages of human development between infancy and adulthood.

Misbehaviour (consult the prescribed book section 1.3.2)

Youth misbehaviour is more commonly known as juvenile delinquency. It does not only
include serious criminal acts, but also a number of non-criminal activities, which are
viewed as inappropriate behaviour that goes against the conventional norm of society
(Shoemaker, 2018:3).

Criminal offences, crime or unlawfulness (consult the prescribed book section [Link])
Siegel (2016:14) explains that a crime is a violation of societal rules of behaviour that is
“interpreted and expressed” by law. In a simple explanation, deviant behaviour violates
established rules or traditional principles encouraging how people ought to behave in
general.

Status offences (consult the prescribed book [Link])

According to Goldson (2012:np) status offences refer to offences that can only be committed
by individuals of a certain status or with certain characteristics. In the justice context, this
refers to offences that can only be committed under a certain age (i.e. offences committed
by youth such as underaged drinking). Status offences are further discussed in learning
unit 2.

The key concepts central to the theme of child and youth misbehaviour are difficult to
define due to its social, political and cultural meanings (Bezuidenhout, 2018:12).

1.3 THE EUROCENTRIC INFLUENCE ON SOUTH AFRICAN

CHILDREN AND YOUTH
Section 1.2 in the prescribed book gives a detailed overview of how Eurocentric influence
plays a significant part in the upbringing of children in South Africa. Here you will read
about a number of factors that influenced and challenged the lives of many children and
youth living in South Africa.

The National Youth Policy (NYP) 2015–2020 has been established to address youth issues
in South Africa. It emphasises on correcting the past injustices of youth population by
tackling the real problems (NYP, 2015–2020: 2).

The exclusion of youths is mainly expressed in youth unemployment statistics.

Unemployment is not just a problem limited to South Africa, but it is a worldwide issue.
In 2013, the International Labour Organisation (IOL) projected that, at an international level,
73.4 million youths who want to work and are energetically searching for employment

2
cannot find any. One out of every two youths (52.9%) is without work or a discouraged
work-seeker, and not registered at a learning establishment (ILO, 2013). The same IOL
report further stated that the world is facing a worsening youth employment dilemma,
where youths are thrice more likely to be unemployed when compared to adult groups
(NYP, 2015–2020: 2).

The National Youth Policy (2015–2020:3) indicates that South Africa is not immune to
this worldwide development. According to the data on youth unemployment in a South
African survey done between June 2014 and 2017, 36.1 percent of youths between 15 and
35 of ages were unemployed.

The socio-economic situations in which youths find themselves make them potential
victims and offenders. Studies by the Institute for Security Studies discovered that the
youths between the ages of 12 to 21 have the highest number of offenders and victims
compared to other age groups in South Africa. Young people’s risky behaviour result in
significant ill health and death statistics; they face the highest HIV/AIDS infection figures
(NYP, 2015–2020:3).

The health and wellbeing of youths have improved especially in the areas of teenage
pregnancy, youth mortality and access to health amenities. Nevertheless, more should
be done to decrease HIV pervasiveness and infection statistics, substance abuse, ferocity
and perilous behaviour, and to improve nutrition and inspire a healthy lifestyle (NYP,
2015–2020:4).

Pelser (2008:2) showed that though it is common knowledge that South Africa has
significant levels of criminality, it is less known that South Africa’s youth, that is, those
between 12 to 22 years, are usually victimised twice as much than adults. They are being
victimised by either their own peers or adults, to do things they are not prepared to do,
such as selling drugs at schools or on the streets. Given the South African demographic
profile, half of its population is under the age of 25 years; hence, the significant rate of
victimisation amongst the youths is not that surprising. As far as victimisation is concerned,
youths are often victimised in places that are considered safe, such as the school and
home. For more information on this or related aspect, visit [Link] and https://
[Link]>uploads/Free%20Downloads/[Link].

Interesting reading

Other challenges facing youth

• The decline in information levels across most age groups is a big challenge.
Within the youth group, 30 percent of males (aged 15–24 years) and
27 percent female of same age category, could identify ways to avoid
transmission of HIV sexually and reject misconceptions or myths around
HIV. The decline gave rise to education and awareness programmes on
the issue, which target the youth.
• High rates of teenage pregnancy between the ages 15 and 19 years (13.7%)
nationwide and nine percent are between 10 and 14 years.

3 CMY2603/1
 • Ten percent of female learners reported being forced to have sex and
reported higher rates of being targets of spousal violence and sexual-
coercive behaviour when compared to males (YRBS, 2008).
• More than 45 000 female learners fell pregnant in 2009, with teenage
pregnancy descriptive of one of the leading sources of premature school
dropouts (after financial causes).
• Youth unemployment is high and 70% of them are unemployed (UNFPA).
The youths spend most of their time idling and doing nothing. They start
meeting with peers around the street corners, socialising with wrong
people who may influence them to sell illegal substances or stealing
from people or stores.

Pelser (2008:1) indicates that South Africa is a country with a high crime figure, which
is committed by half of its people below the age of 25 years. Over the past 30 years
a culture of violence developed. Crime and violence are normalised among a poorly
socialised and socially left-out youth who form a large number of the population. The
Soweto youth revolts and rebellions of 1976 and 1980 dismantled the important agents
of primary socialisation, namely families and schools, who have up to now not recovered
yet (Pelser, 2008:1).

Interesting reading

Youth involvement in violent protests: #FeesMustFall and other Campaigns

In South Africa, when youth expectations are not met, being in communities
or learning environment, to vent their frustration, they resort to violent means.
This is to send a message to those in authority to address. The cost of living
and studying remain major challenges for youth in South Africa, since most
of these youth come from poorest families or underprivilege background.
In recent years (2015 to 2018), institutions of higher learning have been
experiencing student protests marred by violent episodes. The youth, thus,
started uniting under various hashtags, such as #FeesMustFall, against high
enrolment fees. This was when universities increased fees and the majority
of students could not afford it. As a result of being unable to register with
universities, they were then excluded. This action led to the widespread
violent protests by students, whom majority are the youth.
One of the main reasons of youth violence (violence against fellow youths
and by youth) is that student uprisings are not a new phenomenon in post-
apartheid South Africa. Long before the #FeesMustFall movement of 2015
to 2016, traditionally African schools have been characterised by a series
of violent student protests. Another reason for student protests has to do
with the government’s announcement to decrease the number of tertiary
institutions from 36 to 21. One of the main explanations for the merger was
to allow transformation and advance black students’ admission and financial
sustenance (National Commission on Higher Education, 1996). However,

4
 some of these values were not achieved after the merger. The exclusion of
students from studying because of high fees to be paid resulted in campaigns
of #FeesMustFall, where students advocated for free education for poor
and performing ones. Protesting students were cited as saying that there
has not been a true transformation at the institutions of higher learning.
For students, disrupting educational programmes was a strategy to disrupt
external arrangements. The unresolved legacies of colonisation seem to
be part of the violence and disturbances. It was particularly at traditionally
white institutions of higher education where black students demanded to
be treated with human dignity. (Duncan, 2016:3).
The #FeesMustFall drive, through its protests across universities, raised
societal awareness around the lack of funding for higher education. This
awareness would not have happened if protests had not been planned. The
government was pressurised and the then President of South Africa, Jacob
Zuma, responded with a zero percent fee increase for the 2016 academic
year. Ever since the protests, the government has committed itself to putting
additional finance into the National Student Financial Aid Scheme (NSFAS)
to financially support university students. It could be claimed that some of
these changes would not have happened if the students had not organised
protests.

Activity 1.1

Engage with your fellow students on the discussion forum Activity 1.1 on myUnisa about
whether education at tertiary institutions should be free of charge in South Africa.

Feedback
2

After discussing the above activity with your fellow students compare your view with
the opinion expressed in the following article “Let’s be honest about fee-free education”.
The article can be accessed at [Link]
lets-be-honest-about-fee-free-education-20180108

1.4 SUMMARY
This learning unit focused on the introduction of youth misbehaviour and the related
terminology. The Eurocentric influence on South African children and youth was also
discussed. In the next learning unit the nature and extent of child and youth misbehaviour
in South Africa will be highlighted.

5 CMY2603/1
1.5 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS
1.5.1 Self-assessment paragraph questions
1. Explain the concepts central to the theme of child and youth misbehaviour. (10)
2. Discuss the Eurocentric influence on South African children and youth. (15)
3. Indicate why certain concepts that are central to the theme of child and youth misbehav-
iour are difficult to define. (5)

1.5.2 Self-assessment multiple-choice questions

1. Which option is NOT just a problem limited to South Africa, but a worldwide issue for youth?
(1) Unemployment
(2) Drugs
(3) Poverty
(4) Peer pressure
2. Which organisation discovered that the highest number of criminals and victims of youths
are between the ages of 12 to 21 years in South Africa?
(1) National Youth Development Agency
(2) African Youth Charter
(3) World Assembly of Youth
(4) Institute for Security Studies
3. Under which situations are the youths in South Africa likely to become both the offender
and victims of crime.
(1) Political
(2) Religious
(3) Marginalising
(4) Socio-economic
4. In most countries, the youth age group is in the majority. In South Africa, more than half
of the population comprises of youths, who are under which years?
(1) 14
(2) 17
(3) 25
(4) 34

1.5.3 Feedback on self-assessment for paragraph questions

1. Refer to section 1.2 in the prescribed book and consult the prescribed book.
2. Refer to section 1.3 in the study guide and consult the prescribed book.
3. Refer to section 1.2 in the study guide and consult the prescribed book.

1.5.4 Feedback on self-assessment for multiple-choice questions

1. Option 1 – refer to section 1.3 in the study guide.
2. Option 4 – refer to section 1.3 in the study guide.
3. Option 4 – refer to section 1.2 in the study guide.
4. Option 3 – refer to section 1.2 in the study guide.

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LEARNING UNIT 2
The nature and extent of child
and youth misbehaviour in
South Africa

Compiled and revised by

Dr Lebogang Morodi
Contents

2.1 Introduction
2.2 Status offences
2.3 Characteristics of child and youth offences
2.4 Sexual offences
2.5 Violent offences
2.6 Drug use among youths
2.7 Other categories of youth offences
2.8 The Chronic Juvenile offender
2.9 Official and unofficial crime information sources
2.10 Summary
2.11 Self-assessment questions
2.11.1 Self-assessment for paragraph questions
2.11.2 Self-assessment for multiple-choice questions
2.11.3 Feedback on self-assessment for paragraph questions
2.11.4 Feedback on self-assessment for multiple-choice questions

3Learning outcomes

After studying this lesson, you should be able to do the following:

• Elaborate on the concept “status offences”
• Identify and discuss the characteristics of child and youth offences
• Explain the nature of sexual offences, violent offence and drug use among youths
• Indicate other categories of youth offences
• Discuss the chronic juvenile offender
• Distinguish between official and unofficial crime information sources

2.1 INTRODUCTION
Globally, young people form the majority of victims, as well as offenders. Misbehaviour
in children and youth have presented South Africa with serious challenges; therefore, it

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is necessary to understand the nature and extent of this phenomenon. In this learning
unit the characteristics and categories of child and youth offences will be addressed. In
addition, the extent thereof will also form part of the discussion.

2.2 STATUS OFFENCES

(consult the prescribed book section 3.2.1)
Status offences include drinking of alcohol, truancy and escaping/running away from
home. These acts may be prohibited for individuals under a specific age of development,
while considered lawful for others. Acts that prevent certain actions to particular people
based on their gender, race, nationality, creed, and so forth, are considered status offences.
Some acts are seen to be criminal only because of the offender’s age (Schoemaker,
2018:3). There are different types of status offences committed by youths. These acts or
behaviour constituting a status offence varies from one country to the next. The most
common examples are:

• Skipping school classes

• Possession and drinking of alcohol when underage
• Possession and use of tobacco while still being a minor
• Running away from home
• Uncontrollability (outside parental or custodian control)

Government handles issues related to status offences in three ways, that is:

• Protection of families
• Safeguarding communal protection
• Preventing youths from future misbehaviour and crimes

Interesting reading

A minor is considered truant if she or he skips school without a lawful reason

and without the parent or guardian being aware. School in various regions
have different standards (criteria) as to how many absences are needed
before a learner is considered an absconder or a truant.
Schools are usually the first in line to enforce truancy laws and even have the
authority to refer truancy cases to juvenile court when required. Police officers
have the legal power to arrest truants outside of school environments. This
will be when youths are found loitering outside the school premises during
school hours, its only then such a stigma can be attached. Most countries
hold parents responsible for their children’s truancy, fining or sending them
to prison for failing to ensure that their children are in school.

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2.3 CHARACTERISTICS OF CHILD AND YOUTH OFFENCES
(consult the prescribed book section 3.2.2)
According to Morin (2019:1), youths use their conduct to show their emotions and their
thinking. It is another way to communicate something that they are unable to verbalise.
Some of the reasons why youths misbehave are as follows:
• They seek attention
• They imitate others
• They test limits
• Their needs are unmet
• They want power and control

For more reasons why youth misbehave, go to [Link]

surprising-reasons-why-kids-misbehave-1094946?p. Abram (2018) also elaborate on the
causes for young people misbehaving; read more at [Link]
what_causes_children_to_misbehave.

Activity 2.1

Do you know that there are various reasons why young people do not behave according
to the norms and values of the society? Apart from the reasons mentioned above, what
are other motives for youth misbehaviour?

Feedback 2.1
4

The activity is open-ended for students to carry out their own research and providing motivation
for the answers given.
The characteristics or features of young offenders depend on the type of crime being committed.
Study the following characteristics in the prescribed book:
•• Age (consult the prescribed book section [Link])
•• Psychological variables (consult the prescribed book section [Link])
•• School performance (consult the prescribed book section [Link])
•• Family integration (consult the prescribed book section [Link])
•• Drug and alcohol use (consult the prescribed book section [Link])
•• Neighbourhood (consult the prescribed book section [Link])
•• Exposure to violence and victimisation (consult the prescribed book section [Link])
•• Risk taking and peer influence (consult the prescribed book section [Link])

Interesting reading

According to Rataemane (nd:3), alcohol use by the youths has attracted

attention of researchers worldwide and in South Africa. Rataemane outlines
the following trends that were identified regarding underage drinking in
South Africa:

9 CMY2603/1
 • Increase in school drop-out percentage.
• Increase in STDs and HIV/AIDS.
• Escalation in social violence (interpersonal violence ensues amongst
drinking youths, leading to arguments and physical violence).
• Increase in using other substances (Rataemane, nd:4).
Pertaining to the effect of underage drinking; the following aspects were
highlighted:
• More youth deaths
• Probable to grow alcohol addiction in the future (Rataemane, nd:5)
On the discourses and arguments on youth issues, the following were
observed:
• For decades, alcohol has been an integral component of South African
people.
• It is readily obtainable – entrenched in beliefs of festivities of all types.
• The age of legally consuming alcohol is below the age of 18 years in
several countries (as it is the case currently in South Africa).
• Between 21.5 and 62 percent of adolescents use alcohol and university
students’ current use stands at between 22 and 80 percent (Rataemane,
nd:6, 11).

2.4 SEXUAL OFFENCES

(consult the prescribed book section 3.2.3)
Sexual offences, like rape, are often complicated crimes that, most frequently, involve
perpetrators known to the victim. This might be a family member, a friend, a current
or previous partner, a spouse, or an associate. Societal attitudes and perceptions about
these offences are often not on the victim’s side. Ambiguous notions of consent often
place the blame on the victim, or obviate a perpetrator altogether. Victims often feel
ashamed. Many factors discourage reporting these crimes. These include fears about
perceptions and blame, negative associations, and the intimidating process of making
an official report (Louw, 2013). Consult the prescribed book in relation to the child and
youth sex offender (section [Link]).

2.5 VIOLENT OFFENCES

(consult the prescribed book section 3.2.4)
A violent offence is a criminal act in which the offender resorts to the use of violence or
threats of violence on a victim. These acts of crime may or may not be perpetrated by
using a weapon.

Youth violence remains one of the most noticeable forms of violence in South Africa. Both
serious and less serious forms of violence involve youths. This contributes to a worldwide
problem of premature death, harm and incapacity (ill-health) of young people.

10
Violence severely harms not only its direct victims, but also their relatives, friends and
people in general. There is a connection between youth violence and other forms of
violence. Violent youths usually commit a range of misbehaviours by exposing other
social and mental problems.

Violence affects youth and adults in different ways. When youth are exposed to violence,
they are likely to become victims. There is also a risk that they will show violent behaviour
themselves at a later stage in their lives (CJCP: 2017:1). In South Africa, research by the
Centre for Justice and Crime Prevention (CJCP) showed that youthful victims of violence
were six times more likely to perpetuate criminality than those not victimised.

Interesting reading

As far as youth violence is concerned, key risk aspects have been identified
regarding:
• Individual factors
• Family and friends or peers’ influence
• Social, political and cultural factors (For more go to [Link]
violence_injury_prevention (World Health Organisation report).
The World Health Organization’s (WHO) report/statement on violence and
health identified the following three sub-types of violence that express the
victim-offender connection to juveniles:
• Self-directed violence
• Interpersonal violence
• Collective violence (violence committed by larger groups of individuals
and is divided into social, political and economic types)
According to the WHO, violence can characteristically be grouped according
to its nature and manifestations. This categorisation is helpful to understand
the type of violence committed, as well as to develop appropriate responses.
These groupings are, psychological, physical and sexual categories.

• Psychological violence
This type of violence involves acts of harassment intended to degrade the
victim, exert control over him or her, and stand in the way of the victim’s
self-sufficiency.

• Physical violence
This form of violence includes any action that causes physical damage and
(in the worst-case scenario) murder of the victim.

• Sexual violence
The sexual sub-type of violence encompasses subjecting a victim to sexual
activity against their will. For information regarding youths in South Africa

11 CMY2603/1
 and relevant statistics according to this categorisation, visit [Link].
za/pdf/hts/v74n3/[Link]. According to Daily News (2019:1–2), the study by the
University of Cape Town and the CJCP commissioned by the UBS Optimus
Foundation, found that one in three young people have suffered sexual
violence committed by youths.

Consult the prescribed book in relation to the following violent offences:

• Family violence
In South Africa, most youths are exposed to violence in the household setting at an early
age. This includes intimate partner violence between caregivers, between adult family
members and abuse committed against minors. Cases of children being victimised
physically or sexually by adults are common. A study by the CJCP (2017:3) found that 53%
of youths had frequently witnessed family members lose their tempers or engaging in
violent behaviour.

• School violence
In South Africa, youths are exposed to different forms of violence in the school situation
that include sexual violence. According to CJCP (2012) research findings, 22.2 percent of
high school learners experienced some form of violence within the school setting, 6.3
percent become victims of common assault and 4.7 percent victims of sexual attack. It
was also discovered that 61 percent of learners indicated that fellow students sometimes
carried weapons to schools. Some learners are fearful of certain places within their school
settings, such as restrooms. They are also terrified of traveling to and from school, as they
are vulnerable to violence in such places.

Interesting reading

The realities about bullying include the following:

• It is unwanted, aggressive behaviour among school-aged children (it
can be between adults too) involving a physical or perceived authority
disproportion. The conduct is repetitive or has the prospective to be
recurrent. The phenomenon includes acts of making threats, spreading
rumours, physical harm, and excluding someone from a group on purpose.
The divisions of bullying are physical, emotional and cyber bullying.
• It has severe and durable effects on the mental health and general welfare
of youth involved both to those who bully others, as well as youth who
are bullied.
• Even youth who have merely witnessed victimisation behaviour report
significantly more feelings of helplessness and less sense of connectedness
and support from responsible adults than youth who have not observed
bullying behaviour.
• Negative outcomes of bullying may include depression, anxiety,
involvement in interpersonal (relational) violence or sexual violence,

12
 substance abuse, poor social functioning, poor school performance,
(including lower averages, and poor attendance).
• Both youths who frequently bully others and as well as youths who are
being bullied regularly are at increased risk for suicide-related behaviour.
Youth who are both the perpetrators and the victims of bullying have
the highest risk for suicide-related behaviour of any groups that report
participation in bullying (National Center for Injury Prevention & Control,
2014: 2).

2.6 DRUG USE AMONG YOUTHS

(consult the prescribed book section 3.2.5)
Drug abuse is on the increase among South African youth. Tobacco and alcohol are the
most commonly used drugs among youth. These drugs are also the most experimented
on by youth. Dagga (marijuana) is the most frequently used prohibited substance among
youth (Peltzer, 2003).

Activity 2.2

Dagga has been legalised in South Africa. What possible effect do you think it will have
on youth?

Feedback 2.2
5

No matter how one uses dagga, the drug can cause immediate and long-term effects, such as
change in perception and chronic coughing. For more information, visit [Link]
com>Dagga-20120721.

2.7 OTHER CATEGORIES OF YOUTH OFFENCES

(consult the prescribed book section 3.2.6)
Consult the prescribed book in relation to the following categories of youth offences:

• Gangsterism (consult the prescribed book section [Link])

• Hate crimes (consult the prescribed book section [Link])
• Youth homicide (consult the prescribed book section [Link])
• Train surfing (consult the prescribed book section [Link])
• Izikhothane (consult the prescribed book section [Link])

13 CMY2603/1
 Interesting reading

Gangsterism is one of the most violent activities in some communities, which

effects the youth (CJCP 2017:4). School-going youths, because of unmet
expectations or needs, resort to joining gangs or forced to become members.

Activity 2.3

There are many reasons for youth to join gangs. Highlight some of the reasons for school-
going youth to join gangs.

Feedback 2.3
6

Consult section [Link] in the prescribed book. For information on the topic visit the following
website [Link]
a-sense-of-identity-26246896 and read the article “joining gangs gives youngsters a sense of
identity”.

2.8 THE CHRONIC JUVENILE OFFENDER

(consult the prescribed book section 3.2.7)

2.9 OFFICIAL AND UNOFFICIAL CRIME INFORMATION

SOURCES
Official crime information sources (consult the prescribed book section 3.3.1)

Crime statistics in South Africa by the SAPS constitutes one of the few entities regarded
as an official source of crime statistics.

Unofficial crime information sources (consult the prescribed book section 3.3.2)

According to Statistics South Africa (2012:61), the most basic difference between the two
types of crime measurement (i.e. victim surveys and police-reported data) is the method
of data collection. Victim surveys collect both household and personal information
about their victimisation experiences, using face-to-face interviews. Victim surveys ask
a sample of the population about their experience and, if well designed, this sample
should be representative of the whole population. Police-reported statistics normally
collate information on all incidents reported to a variety of police stations. Although police
statistics and victim surveys usually cover comparable geographic areas, if appropriately
nationally representative, victim surveys may exclude some categories of victims, such
as very young children or persons residing in institutions such as a prison, hospital, or
care centres (Brodie, 2013).

14
Victimisation surveys are likely to produce higher crime estimates than police-recorded
administrative data. This is because many crimes are unreported to the police. Victim
surveys deal with incidents, which may not necessarily match the legal definition of crime.
Although data from crime victim surveys are likely to elicit better disclosure of criminal
incidents than data from police records, they can also be subject to undercounting, as
some victims may be reluctant to disclose information, particularly for incidents of a
sensitive nature, such as sexual assault. The accuracy of statistics is influenced by the
ability of people to recall past victimisations. The longer the elapsed time period, the less
likely it is that an incident will be recalled precisely. Surveys are also subject to sampling
and non-sampling errors (Statistics South Africa, 2012:61).

2.10 SUMMARY
This learning unit indicated that child and youth misbehaviour in South Africa is a serious
matter. This phenomenon manifests itself in a variety of offences of a sexual and violent
nature. Statistics are not necessarily an accurate reflection of the state of crime in South
Africa.

2.11 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

2.11.1 Self-assessment for paragraph questions
1. List the most common examples of status offences. (5)
2. Discuss the characteristics of child and youth offences. (15)
3. Differentiate between the two categories youth sex offenders. (10)
4. Briefly outline the other five categories of youth offences. (10)

2.11.2 Self-assessment for multiple-choice questions

1. According to Statistics South Africa (2012), the most basic difference between victim surveys
and police-reported data is the …
(1) victims’ experiences.
(2) method of data collection.
(3) representative sample.
(4) crime estimates.
2. What is the most frequently used substance among youth?
(1) Dagga
(2) LSD
(3) Mandrax
(4) Heroin
3. In which period did bullying in schools first started receiving academic attention and
societal interest?
(1) 1960s
(2) 1980s
(3) 1970s
(4) 1990s

15 CMY2603/1
2.11.3 Feedback on self-assessment for paragraph questions
1. Refer to section 2.2 in the study guide.
2. Refer section 2.3 in the study guide and consult the prescribed book.
3. Refer to section 3.2.3 in the prescribed book.
4. Refer to section 2.5 in the study guide and consult the prescribed book.

2.11.4 Feedback on self-assessment for multiple-choice questions

1. Option 2 – refer to 2.8 in the study guide.
2. Option 1 – refer to 2.6 in the study guide.
3. Option 3 – refer to 3.2.4 in the prescribed book.

16
LEARNING UNIT 3
Risk factors pertaining to youth
offenders

Compiled by Ms Caren Malherbe

Revised by Ms Cecili Doorewaard

Contents

3.1 Introduction
3.2 Key concepts
3.3 Risk factors on a social level
3.4 Family variables
3.5 Risk factors in the school
3.6 Extrafamilial relationship factors
3.7 Risk factors on an individual level
3.8 History of conduct among young offenders
3.9 Identified combinations of risk factors
3.10 Summary
3.11 Self-assessment questions
3.11.1 Self-assessment for multiple-choice questions
3.11.2 Self-assessment paragraph questions
3.11.3 Feedback on multiple-choice questions
3.11.4 Feedback on paragraph questions

Learning outcomes
7

When you have completed this learning unit, you should be able to do the following:
• Discuss risk factors on a social level.
• Analyse the risk factors within the family.
• Identify the risk factors within the school system.
• Indicate the significance of extra family risk factors.
• Identify risk factors on an individual level.
• Discuss the combination of risk factors based on South African and international re-
search findings.

17 CMY2603/1
3.1 INTRODUCTION
High-profile cases involving children who commit violent crimes, sparks debate and
concern amongst the public. The Griekwastad murders, where a 17-year-old boy was
found guilty of murdering his parents and younger sister in 2012 is just one example.

The incidence of criminal behaviour among children is seen as representative of serious

social problems in society such as poverty, racial prejudice, unemployment, family conflict
and violence. However, there is no easy explanation or solution for this situation.

The risk factors that contribute to youth misbehaviour and crime are comprehensive and
highly varied. These risk factors are of great interest to many criminologists because the
information sheds light on the reasons for youth misbehaviour and provide guidelines
for its prevention and control.

Although common risk factors associated with youth offending exist, youth offenders
nonetheless experience life differently and are also affected by different aspects of everyday
problems. This creates an array of varied factors, which in turn, creates the possibility for
a number of different combinations of risk factors in youth offending (Hillege, Brand,
Mulder, Vermeiren & Domburgh, 2017).

3.2 KEY CONCEPTS

Before delving deeper into the various/combinations of risk factors, the following concepts
are discussed. See the prescribed book for further detail on each concept.

Risk factor (consult the prescribed book section 4.3.1)

A risk factor refers to a variable that predicts the probability to offend. According to Maree
(2018:82), risk factors are conditions that increases a child or adolescent’s likelihood to
develop behavioural problems later in life. The author further identifies different levels
or categories of risk, which include minimal risk, remote risk, high risk, imminent risk.
and at risk.

Static risk factors (consult the prescribed book section 4.3.2)

Static factors are those factors that cannot change or be altered. Examples include age
of the offender at the time of the offense, a history of conduct disorder, large family size
and ethnicity (Maree, 2018: 83).

FOOD FOR THOUGHT

Opposite to static risk factors are dynamic risk factors. For example, lack of
self-control, aggressive behaviour and antisocial peers. These factors are
changeable because they can be influenced through treatment.
For more interesting reads on static and dynamic risk factors read the
following article: Harder, AT, Knorth, EJ & Kalverboer, ME. 2015. Risky or
Needy? Dynamic Risk Factors and Delinquent Behavior of Adolescents in

18
 Secure Residential Youth Care. International Journal of Offender Therapy and
Comparative Criminology. 59(10): 1047 – 1065.
(Available at [Link]

Protective factors (consult the prescribed book section 4.3.3)

Protective factors explains why some youths, even when exposed to a host of
risk factors, do not engage in antisocial behaviour. Applicable factors include
a supportive relationship with parents and other adults and commitment
to school and friends who engage in conventional behaviour. According to
Maree (2018:83), these factors acts as a type of buffer against the effects of
risk factors.

3.3 RISK FACTORS ON A SOCIAL LEVEL

Risk factors on a social level include community and neighbourhood variables, family
variables, school variables and extra-familial relationship variables.

Risk factors in the community or neighbourhood (consult the prescribed book section
4.4.1.)
This includes risk factors on a macro level; for example, economic inequality and relative
deprivation, unemployment, community disorganisation, the availability of substances
and a climate of violence.

Economic inequality and relative deprivation (consult the prescribed book section [Link])
Economic strain and relative deprivation are universally accepted as factors that contribute
to crime. It is also known that the majority of poor people do not engage in crime. It is
most likely those who feel deprived that will resort to crime (Maree 2018:94).

Unemployment (consult the prescribed book section [Link])

Rapid urbanisation and economic recessions have resulted in lack of employment
opportunities, causing many South African’s to fall into poverty. Not only are adults
affected by unemployment, but also indirectly the youth, some of whom have never
been employed before (Maree, 2018:85). Also see what Maree (2018:84) has to say about
the youth unemployment rate in South Africa.

Community disorganisation (consult the prescribed book section [Link])

Urbanisation has escalated tremendously because of the abolition of influx control. This
situation leads to a loss of social control and the conditions are ideal for crime (Maree,
2018:85).

Availability of alcohol and drugs (consult the prescribed book section [Link])
Profitable criminal activity is the illegal drug trade, especially where the raw materials for
making one’s own alcohol are easily obtained. In various studies the link between crime
and drug use is evident. Young people in need of money can easily become involved in

19 CMY2603/1
drug dealing. The use of drugs also leads to violence and committing of property crimes,
which are widely associated with the addiction of illegal substances (Maree, 2018:86).

Reuters (2017:1) reports that in South Africa youth either drift into, or are introduced by
their peers to drugs and alcohol, especially those living in low-income and high-crime
areas. According to the Central Drug Authority, approximately 15 percent of South Africans
have a drug problem.

Another trend that has hit South Africa is the use of the drug Nyaope (a mixture of either
heroin or dagga), specifically the ‘bluetooth’ trend. Shortly described, this entails drug
addicts injecting themselves with the drug and then drawing their own blood with a
syringe and then injecting into a friend (Sara, 2017:1).

Read the full article at [Link]

growing-in-south-africa/8823256.

Climate of violence (consult the prescribed book section [Link])

Since the surge in crime 1990, violent crime remains high. For South African children
growing up in such a violent environment, variables such as vandalism and stealing have
become part of daily life – an accepted norm (Maree, 2018:87).

Activity 3.1

Do you think the climate of violence (i.e. the daily living with violence and crime) is a
valid reason to attribute to youth misbehaviour?

Feedback 3.1
8

Even though violence and crime is a part of everyday life, especially for youths living in areas
where this is the norm, every person nonetheless has the responsibility and potential to break
this cycle. This often starts at home. See the next section on family variables and how it can
influence youth misbehaviour for the better or for the worse.

3.4 FAMILY VARIABLES

Family variables that expose young people to misbehaviour include socio-economic status
of the family, family structure, lack of parental supervision, inter-generational continuity
in offending, family violence and abuse and homelessness.

Socio-economic status of the family (consult the prescribed book section [Link])
According to Maree (2018:88), it is more likely that a youth will become involved in crime,
if he/she comes from a neighbourhood where crime prevails or from a poverty-stricken
family where the parents are unable to provide for them.

20
Low socio-economic status can have a negative effect on a child’s self-concept and can
cause feelings of inferiority, shame and guilt. Overcrowding in households can impede
on a child’s privacy, forcing him/her to explore new exciting environments. Unfortunately,
this wandering lust can lead them to befriend criminal elements (Maree, 2018:88).

High economic status is no guarantee to alleviate the risk factor for children. Materialism
is a big concern amongst young people and they see it as the model for success.

Family structure (consult the prescribed book section [Link] )

According to Siegel and Welsh (2014:186), children who come from broken homes are
more likely to show behaviour problems in contrast with children emanating from intact
families. This is because such type of family structure is often associated with conflict,
hostility and aggression. Similarly, children coming from blended families are less stable
than families where two biological parents are present.

Simmons, Steinberg, Frick and Cauffman (2018:9) also contend that a higher quality of
parent-child relationships, particularly father-child relationships, are linked to lower rates
in adolescent offending behaviour.

Many South African youths grow up with an incomplete family (an absent father or mother).
For instance, fathers may leave the home in search for work. Such job opportunities may
be far from where they reside and thus they are forced to leave home for extended periods
of time to fulfil work obligations. Other factors that contribute to incomplete families to
consider are the incarceration of fathers (or mothers) and more importantly, the fact that
many South African children are forced to assume the role of the parent and take care of
their younger siblings (known as child-headed households).

What do you think are the implications for the youth coming from such households?
Identify the impact that this has on youth misbehaviour. (See the prescribed book for
more details.)

Lack of parental supervision (consult the prescribed book section [Link])

A lack of parental supervision correlates with criminal activity and misbehaviour. Poor
parental supervision and family support will affect adolescent behaviour as youth choose
to associate with peers who may display diverse problematic behaviour (Maree, 2018:90).

According to Siegel and Welsh (2014:186), family breakup, family conflict, family
ineffectiveness and family deviance can be linked to antisocial and deviant behaviour.
The interaction between these factors may escalate delinquent activity. These situations
frequently lead to lack of parental supervision.

Inter-generational continuity in offending (consult the prescribed book section [Link])

Numerous research has shown a strong impact of parental deviance on youth offending.
For example, sons of fathers with a criminal history are more likely to engage in criminality
than those whose fathers do not have criminal records (Siegel & Welsh 2014:191). Maree
(2018:90) also cautions that siblings are likely to encourage or discourage deviancy due
to their interaction with one another.

21 CMY2603/1
Family violence and abuse (consult the prescribed book section [Link])
Families may experience intergenerational transmission of violence. This occurs when
parents think the only way to solve child-rearing problems is by using violence to express
anger, react to stress, or deal with marital problems (Maree 2018:91).

Family violence occurs amongst lower and higher income people, the incidence is higher
amongst the lower income people. Sexual abuse, however, shows no significant difference
related to social class as well as racial or ethnic groups (Maree 2018:91).

Child abuse and neglect are not modern phenomena. Child abuse is an overt form of
aggression against the child, which often requires medical attention. Neglect refers to
deprivation that a child suffers at the hand of its parents. The distinction between these
two terms is often unclear because, in many cases abuse and neglect occur simultaneously
(Siegel & Welsh, 2014:193).

Homelessness (consult the prescribed book section [Link])

Homelessness is linked to crime and criminality in many ways. Homeless people, especially
children, are vulnerable to victimisation and are at risk to commit criminal offences to
support themselves. Street children are one of the fastest growing problems in Africa.
These children often commit criminal offences to support themselves through stealing,
prostitution as well as drug and alcohol trade (Maree 2018:92). These children are often
living on the streets as a result of the unbearable circumstances they were living in at
their homes.

Activity 3.2

Discuss the various risk factors in the family that could play a role in youth misbehaviour.

Feedback 3.2
9

There are six family variables (risk factors):

•• Socio-economic status of the family
•• Family structure
•• Lack of parental supervision
•• Inter-generational continuity in offending
•• Family violence and abuse
•• Homelessness

Logon to myUnisa and start/participate in a discussion group with fellow students on these
factors. Give your opinion on how these factors influence youth misbehaviour.

22
3.5 RISK FACTORS IN THE SCHOOL
Maree (2018:92) identifies the following main causes related to crime in South African
schools.

The involvement in gang activities, lack of transformation in schools, negative perceptions

among black, coloured and white learners, the presence of gangs and weapons at school,
the use of dagga and other substances, lack of counselling services, intolerance towards
learners of other races, religion and gender, parental apathy, and hero worship of criminals
and gang leaders.

In this section, the following school variables associated with youth misbehaviour will
be highlighted: disorganised conditions in and around the school, the learner and the
educator or teacher.

Disorganised conditions in and around the school (consult the prescribed book section
[Link])
The conditions in schools mainly refer to the physical environment and the emotional
safety of learners and teachers. The size of the school and classes can play a significant
role in risk factors as smaller classes and schools are more manageable. Overcrowding
of schools can lead to vandalism, and damaged property can influence the learning
environment. It is important to upgrade facilities, minimise vandalism and keep track of
learner population demands (Maree, 2018:93).

Moreover, the school environment is not a place free from violence. America, for instance
has seen a spate of school shootings, the most notorious being the Columbine School
shooting that took place in 1999. Twelve students and one teacher were killed before
the two attackers (both high school students) took their own lives (CNN Library, 2018:1).
Although not yet seen on such a scale, Geldenhuys (2016:12) warns that South Africa is
not immune to these types of incidents, citing a 2008 case where a teenage boy killed a
fellow learner with a sword at the Nic Diederichs Technical High School in Krugersdorp
(Geldenhuys, 2016:12).

Interesting reading

What are your thoughts on school shootings? Do you think South African
schools are safe?
Start a discussion on myUnisa and find out what your fellow students have
to say. Visit [Link]
for an article that unpacks the question could a school shooting happen in SA?

The learner (consult the prescribed book section [Link])

Failure at school is caused by poor academic performance, poor attendance
and expulsion or dropping out of school. When learners are expelled or
drop out of school, they are released in the community without supervision,

23 CMY2603/1
 because most parents are working. Without structured activities and care
they are more likely to commit illegal acts (Maree, 2018:94)
Early school leavers have no opportunity to develop their social skills as
school is a very important socialising agent. Low education levels are also
associated with high levels of crime; low educational levels result in low
income and unemployment (Maree, 2018:94).

The educator or teacher (consult the prescribed book section [Link])

Teachers in a disorderly system are often discouraged to make an effort to
educate. In a disorderly system teachers are often absent, which can have a
negative effect on the learners. Teachers have to teach big classes, there is
no discipline and they do not have sufficient training to deal with learners
(Maree 2018:95).
Parents are less involved in the school system and teachers cannot rely on
the support of the parents. Not all the teachers are experienced in how to
deal with children. Sometimes they fear for their own safety and are reluctant
to reprimand learners. Some teachers or school staff may label children and
without trying to understand the child or have compassion with a situation
(Maree, 2018:95).

3.6 EXTRAFAMILIAL RELATIONSHIP FACTORS

During the adolescence years, involvement in extrafamilial relationships are very important
to them. These relationships can either contribute to their self-worth or can result in
misbehaviour and delinquency.

This section discusses extrafamilial relationship factors or variables. Consult section 4.4.4
of the prescribed book.

Anti-social peer associations (consult the prescribed book section [Link])

It is important for teenagers and adolescents to be part of a group. They need to associate
with their friends and spend less time with their family. Youth misbehaviour can occur
frequently in group context. Most misbehaviour, especially more violent misbehaviour,
is committed in groups (Maree, 2018:96).

Gang membership (consult the prescribed book section [Link])

A gang is a group of young people who forms an allegiance for a common purpose
and engage in unlawful or criminal behaviour (Maree, 2018:97). The gang culture is so
embedded in certain communities that it will be difficult to change. It is an integral part
of the lifestyle in these communities. Gang members are often products of a weak family
structure and these children find a sense of belonging and protection.

24
3.7 RISK FACTORS ON AN INDIVIDUAL LEVEL
Risk factors on an individual level include biographical variables (such as age and gender),
biosocial factors (that includes biochemical factors, neurophysiological factors and genetic
factors) and psychosocial factors (intelligence and personality traits).

Biographical variables
Age (consult the prescribed book section [Link])
Maree (2018:99) argues that age on its own cannot be regarded as a criminogenic risk
factor. Age is not a personal characteristic, but an index of the likely stage that someone
has reached in a partly predictable sequence of development, as is an indicator of social
standing.

Gender (consult the prescribed book section [Link])

When one considers gender as a risk factor, one should focus on characteristics associated
with the young, such as impulsiveness, rebelliousness and deceitfulness. Girls do not
necessarily experience these to a lesser extent, but boys are more exposed to criminogenic
factors than girls (Maree, 2018:99).

Biosocial factors
Biosocial factors include both environmental and biological risk factors.

Biochemical factors (consult the prescribed book section [Link])

Various studies have been conducted to establish the role of food diet in the functioning
and behaviour of children. Diet can have an effect on behaviour that may be linked to
crime. It is not only diet that can be connected to crime; hormones can also play a role
in crime (Maree, 2018:100).

Neurophysiological factors (consult the prescribed book section [Link])

Neurophysiology focuses on the study of brain activity. Neurological functions can be
associated with behavioural disorders that can result in deviant behaviour. This can
include trauma to the brain or neurological disorders such as minimal brain dysfunction
(MBD) (Maree 2018:101).

Genetic factors (consult the prescribed book section [Link])

Genetic factors refer to the inherited aggressive predisposition and inherited conditions
associated with crime, for example impulsive personality. Biosocial theorists believe that
antisocial behaviour is passed down from one generation to the next, in other words that
criminality runs in the family (Maree, 2018:101; Siegel & Welsh, 2014:78).

Psychosocial factors
Intelligence as factor (consult the prescribed book section [Link])

25 CMY2603/1
Studies suggested that a low intelligence quotient (IQ) affects many areas of life, which
also increases the probability of misbehaviour. Cultural intelligence, which is another form
of intelligence, has the capability to function effectively in a variety of cultural settings
(Maree, 2018:102–103). According to Maree (2018:103), this can be used to better enable
youth to relate to peer groups, fellow learners and neighbours who come from other
parts of the world.

Personality traits (consult the prescribed book section [Link])

A person’s personality traits will influence his/her behaviour in a particular way in a
particular situation (Maree, 2018:103). The inability of a person to control his/her behaviour
can be linked to the presence of the following personality traits:

• Impulsiveness
• Hyperactivity
• Restlessness
• Clumsiness
• Not considering consequences before taking action or think of the long-term effect
• Cannot plan ahead
• Low self-control
• Sensation seeking
• Risk taking
• Instant gratification

Activity 3.3

Discuss the influence of psychosocial factors on youth misbehaviour.

10 Feedback 5.3

Your answer should include intelligence as a factor and personality traits.

Intelligence refers to a person’s mental, motivational and behavioural capabilities to understand

and adapt to different situations and environments. Studies are on the opposite side regarding
whether there is a link to the IQ and misbehaviour. It was found that there is a stronger link
between a learner’s average school marks and antisocial behaviour than IQ. Yet, a low IQ can
affect various areas of a person’s life and therefore the probability of misbehaviour is higher
(Maree, 2018:102).

Personality traits reflect a person’s behaviour, how they choose to approach situations and
experiences. Thus, a person’s personality traits will influence his/her behaviour. Traits such as
impulsiveness, hyperactivity, restlessness and low self-control have all been linked to criminal
characteristics (Maree, 2018:103).

26
3.8 HISTORY OF CONDUCT AMONG YOUNG OFFENDERS
(consult the prescribed book section 4.6)
Maree (2018:103) sets out a number of research findings on youth offending. For example,
it is revealed that the type of crime that a youth commits as a first offender is a significant
factor since the crime is indicative of a certain lifestyle, which further involves the risk of
future offending (career offending).

3.9 IDENTIFIED COMBINATIONS OF RISK FACTORS

(consult the prescribed book section 4.7)
A combination of risk factors increases the probability of antisocial behaviour. One factor
alone cannot predict that a young person will commit a crime but if a number of risk
factors are present, the likelihood is increased (Maree, 2018:104).

Study the rest of this section in the prescribed book as questions may be asked for exam
purposes (also study table 4.1 in the prescribed book).

3.10 SUMMARY
It is important to know that no single cause or risk factor can lead to a life of crime. The
identified risk factors in South Africa correspond with that of other countries around
the word, but the emphasis is different. Some suggest that risk factors emanate firstly
from the home or family and lastly the environment. In South Africa, researchers have
categorised risk factors originating firstly from family and home life, followed by factors
in the community and then individual factors. Risk factors cannot be seen as an excuse
to engage in crime, but rather as a wakeup call to address the problems in society.

3.11 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

3.11.1 Self-assessment for multiple-choice questions
1. Most researchers identify factors present in the … as the main risk factors.
(1) individual
(2) family
(3) environment
(4) community

2. Some of the abnormal thinking patterns such as fearfulness and super-optimism seem
contradictory. However, this is a sign of the fleeting quality of the criminal’s…
(1) emotions.
(2) behaviour.
(3) thinking.
(4) intelligence.

27 CMY2603/1
 3. Identify the correct statement regarding gang members.
(1) Gang membership and not gang-related crime are primarily a youth problem.
(2) Gang membership and gang-related crime are primarily a community problem.
(3) Gang membership and gang-related crime are primarily an environmental problem.
(4) Gang membership and gang-related crime are primarily a youth problem.
4. Identify the incorrect statement regarding the socio-economic status of the family.
(1) It has been said that there is no guarantee that a higher socio-economic status will
lessen the risk of children becoming involved in crimes.
(2) It has been found that socio-economic risk factors such as low social class predicted
misbehaviour more strongly for girls than for boys.
(3) It has been found that a higher socio-economic status will lessen the risk of children
becoming involved in crimes.
(4) It has been found that as a result of a family’s low economic status children may
develop a negative self-concept and feelings of shame and guilt.

3.11.2 Self-assessment paragraph questions

1. Identify and debate seven main risk factors mostly supporting gang membership. (10)
2. Discuss the incidence of crime and violence in schools. (15)

3.11.3 Feedback on multiple-choice questions

1. Option 2–refer to the prescribed book page 104
2. Option 1–refer to the prescribed book page 102
3. Option 4–refer to the prescribed book page 97
4. Option 3–refer to the prescribed book page 88

3.11.4 Feedback on paragraph questions

1. Refer to section 4.4.2 of the prescribed book – the risk factors that mostly supported gang
members are:
yy Lack of parental supervision
yy Negative life events
yy Early problem behaviours
yy Antisocial beliefs
yy Delinquent peers
yy Commitment to deviant peers
yy Prior gang membership of a family member
2. Refer to section 4.4.3 of the prescribed book. In your answer, you had to discuss the dis-
organised conditions in and around the school, the learner and the educator or teacher.

28
LEARNING UNIT 4
The prevention and control of
youth misbehaviour in South
Africa

Compiled by Dr Lebogang Morodi

Revised by Ms Bianca Gahler

Contents

4.1 Introduction
4.2 Key concepts
4.3 International backdrop
4.4 Primary prevention level
4.5 Secondary prevention level
4.6 Tertiary prevention level
4.7 Summary
4.8 Self-assessment questions
4.8.1 Self-assessment multiple-choice questions
4.8.2 Self-assessment paragraph-type questions
4.8.3 Feedback self-assessment multiple-choice questions
4.8.4 Feedback self-assessment paragraph-type questions

11Learning outcomes

After completing this lesson, you should be able to do the following:

• Differentiate between primary, secondary and tertiary prevention.
• Understand the various factors that could prevent youth misbehaviour.
• Discuss the different programmes that address and prevent misconduct.
• Provide an overview to prevent youths from reoffending.

4.1 INTRODUCTION
The youth of today is considered the population grouping with the greatest investment
for the future. It is therefore important that crime prevention be implemented as early as
possible to alleviate the likelihood that these youths become adult perpetrators. However,
youth misbehaviour is a complex phenomenon that cannot be located at a single source,
but arises from numerous diverse contexts (Maree, 2013:69). In addition, South African
youth have grown up in a setting of violence. Therefore, youth misbehaviour is increasing

29 CMY2603/1
at a disturbing rate. At times, these children’s development is also hindered by various risk
factors that frequently increase, strengthen and interrelate with each other to produce
misbehaviour, expressly in the absence of protective factors (Coetzee, 2018:199).

4.2 KEY CONCEPTS

Primary prevention (consult the prescribed book section 10.4.1)
The key objective of primary prevention is to take proactive steps to modify or eliminate
the criminogenic aspects in individuals and the environment by curbing the potential
risk factors that engender youth misbehaviour (Coetzee, 2018:201).

Secondary prevention (consult the prescribed book section 10.4.2)

The principle aim of secondary prevention is the early identification of youths or groups
who are at risk of offending and implementing interventions in the lives of these potential
offenders before the initial occurrence of criminal misconduct (Lab, 2018:29).

Tertiary prevention (consult the prescribed book section 10.4.3)

The orientation of tertiary prevention focuses on youths or groups who already have a
criminal record and on providing treatment and/or punishment to these offenders to
prevent them from re-offending (Lab, 2010:271).

Diversion (consult the prescribed book section [Link])

The central focus of diversion is to divert youths in conflict with the law away from the
traditional court procedures and provide them with alternative sentences in which the court
cases are withdrawn on condition that the children complete the diversion programmes
effectively (Seroczynski, Evans, Jobst, Harvath & Carozza, 2016:663).

Recidivism (consult the prescribed book section [Link])

Recidivism refers to the act of relapsing into criminal misconduct after the offender was
released from custody for a prior conviction (Quan-Baffour & Zawada, 2012:73).

Risk factors (consult the prescribed book section 10.2)

Some risk factors associated with youth misbehaviour in South Africa is provided below.
For a more inclusive discussion. See lesson 5 of the study guide.

The risk factors as outlined in the prescribed book are as follows:

• Emotional poverty
• Incomplete families
• Weak support systems
• Socioeconomic factors
• Marginalisation
• Deviant peers and role models
• Individual characteristics
• School experiences

30
 Activity 4.I

Collect at least one newspaper article about youth misbehaviour in South Africa. Identify
and discuss all the risk factors that could have possibly caused the child’s misconduct.

12Feedback 4.1

Feedback will differ for each student. Refer to section 9.2of the prescribed book to evaluate
your answer. Risk factors can include the following:

•• Emotional poverty
•• Incomplete families
•• Weak support systems
•• Socioeconomic factors
•• Marginalisation
•• Deviant peers and role models
•• Individual characteristics
•• School experiences

4.3 INTERNATIONAL BACKDROP

(consult the prescribed book section 10.3)
South Africa’s approval of international declarations and conventions places accountability
on the government to fulfil the responsibilities placed on it by those instruments (Coetzee,
2018:201). Although not all these instruments are discussed in detail, the most imperative
principles are:

• The United Nations Guidelines for the Prevention of Juvenile Delinquency (also
known as the Riyadh Guidelines), which is available at: [Link]
files/17454_4acdd8512.pdf .
• The United Nations Standard Minimum Rules for the Administration of Juvenile Justice
(also known as the Beijing Rules), which is available at: [Link]
Digitization/[Link].

Activity 4.2

Familiarise yourself with the following international instrument documents:

• The United Nations Guidelines for the Prevention of Juvenile Delinquency (also
known as the Riyadh Guidelines)
• The United Nations Standard Minimum Rules for the Administration of Juvenile
Justice (also known as the Beijing Rules).

31 CMY2603/1
 13Feedback 4.2

Students are required to obtain a copy of the following documents and acquaint themselves
with the contents relevant to the sections being studied. Discuss your observations or findings
with fellow students and the lecturer on myUnisa.

4.4 PRIMARY PREVENTION LEVEL

(consult the prescribed book section 10.4.)
Primary prevention relates to the proactive steps that are taken to alter the individual
and the environment to reduce and prevent the initial risk of misbehaviour before they
occur. It is therefore important that the resourcefulness of the youth be encouraged by
offering them the opportunity to develop and improve their support structures for them
to abide by the standards of society (Coetzee, 2018:201).

Some of the most significant mechanisms for primary prevention is to ensure that the
youth is provided with opportunities to meet their basic needs as stated in the Constitution
of South Africa of 1996 as captivated in Chapter 2, Section 28 of the Bill of Rights.

To obtain a full copy of the Bill of Rights, Chapter 2, Section 28, go to [Link]
za/documents/constitution/chapter-2-bill-rights#28.

Below is a summary of additional rights that relates to the prevention of youth misbehaviour.
For a more comprehensive discussion consult, consult the prescribed book.

The role of the family (consult the prescribed book section [Link])
Parents are considered the most significant socialising agents in any child’s life; thus,
primary prevention is the core responsibility of any caregiver. Everything that happens
within the family unit influences the socialisation process and future of the children
(Maree, 2013:75). An ideal family consists of a father who is the head of the household, a
mother who is the caregiver and the children. However, family structures within western
cultures seem to change rapidly resulting in, among others, single-parent households
and child-headed households. Children that are raised in dysfunctional and discordant
families tend to spend their time away from home in the streets, which with time result
in criminal associations.

The role of mentors (consult the prescribed book section [Link])

The influx in the number of women entering the corporate world and the increased
demands of parents’ careers resulted in a lack of positive role models in the lives of the
youth. Consequently, these children are less likely to form positive relationships with their
caregivers, which further hinders the process of preventing children to engage in illegal
behaviour (Bartol & Bartol, 2017:189).

For a good example of the role of mentors, visit [Link]

[Link]?article_4.html~content.

32
The role of the school (consult the prescribed book section [Link])
School teachers have contact and interaction with the school children on almost a daily
basis. Therefore, the structural factors of the school and the professionalism of the school
personnel play a significant role in the socialisation of young children. School teachers are
in a position to determine and predict whether a child is at risk of developing problem
behaviour in future (Lab, 2010:250).

The role of the media in education (consult the prescribed book section [Link])
The mass media has the potential to educate the community and the youth about crime-
related issues and assist with the prevention thereof (Jewkes, 2015:6). Examples of such
media campaigns are the SHOUT Trust and the programme Soul City.

To listen to some of the songs that were composed by SHOUT Trust consult [Link]
[Link]/[Link].

To watch all the series of the prominent programme Soul City, go to [Link]
[Link]/projects.

The role of the police (consult the prescribed book section [Link])
It is of integral importance that the police have a good relationship with the community
members and especially the youth. The police should strive to form a partnership with the
children for the youth to trust them (Wisler & Onwudiwe, 2009:38). One such programme
in South Africa is the Adopt-A-Cop programme.

For more information regarding the Adopt-A-Cop programme visit [Link]

[Link]/.

The role of the government and society (consult the prescribed book section [Link])
Deviant youth cultures are often underpinned by structural problems that is evident in all
communities. Some of the most protruding structural problems include a lack of adequate
housing, education and employment opportunities (Coetzee, 2018:205).

For additional information regarding the role of the government and society in the social
upliftment of the youth, read more about the following three programmes:

• National Crime Prevention Strategy (NCPS)

• Growth, Employment and Redistribution Strategy (GEAR)
• The National Youth Development Agency (NYDA)

Activity 4.3

The National Crime Prevention Strategy is the South African government’s plan to com-
bat crime at various levels. Since its adoption in 1996, do you think the plan is yielding
desired results in South Africa?

33 CMY2603/1
 14 Feedback 4.3

Use internet sources to read more on the NCPS and review the criticisms levelled against the
adopted strategy (sections 6.3.6 in the study guide and [Link] in the prescribed book).

4.5 SECONDARY PREVENTION LEVEL

(consult the prescribed book section 10.4.2)
Secondary prevention is primarily concerned with the early identification and prevention of
potential juvenile offenders even before they resort to crime. Children who are predisposed
to risky behaviour and are perceived to be high-risk groups are usually targeted. Some
of the most evident risks identified among young individuals are abandonment, truancy,
disobedience, dishonest and rebelliousness to name a few (Lab, 2010:29).

Some programmes that focus on secondary prevention for young individuals, are the
following:
• Ons Plek shelter for female street children ([Link]
• Streetwise: A Programme for Educating Young People ([Link]
[Link]/416000/[Link])
• The Homestead Project for Street ([Link] )
• The Launch Pad shelter for drug-free youths ([Link]

The role of the school in secondary prevention (consult the prescribed book section
[Link])

As mentioned earlier, the school fulfils an imperative role in the socialisation of young
children and consequently the development of the children. Prevention of school violence
is therefore of paramount importance. However, to attain safety within schools is a
multifaceted phenomenon, which includes numerous initiatives and measures that should
be in place (Coetzee, 2018:207). It is important that the schools has implemented all the
necessary policies and procedures to address any problem that arises at school. Learners
should be informed of the school rules and clearly comprehend the consequences if the
rules are not followed. The school principals should be enforced equally and reliably, and
due acknowledgement should be given for the adherence to them. Additionally, school
teachers should confront and address any possible indicators of risky behaviour, which
may give rise to misbehaviour (Mabasa, 2013:113).

Consult the Safe Schools Project website at [Link]

4.6 TERTIARY PREVENTION LEVEL

(consult the prescribed book section 9.4.3)
Tertiary prevention relates to the reactive steps that are taken to address the misbehaviour
of juveniles who have already resorted to crime. The aim is to prevent young offenders from

34
re-offending and at the same time reduce the recidivism rate. Punishment and treatment
fall within the realm of tertiary prevention (Lab, 2010:271). Youth in conflict with the law
is often dealt with in two ways, namely diversion from the formal court proceedings or
the matter is reverted to the Child Justice Court (Gallinetti, 2009:13).

For many decades, the criminal justice system acknowledged that juvenile perpetrators
should be afforded special treatment and that the sentencing options for youth offenders
should be more lenient compared to those for adults. In 1996, the Constitution of the
Republic of South Africa (section 28) presented a set of rights that are intended to protect
all children including those in conflict with the law. Two important rights include that
it is paramount that the best interests of child offenders be taken into consideration
and that the incarceration of youth perpetrators are avoided and utilised as a last resort
(Terblanche, 2012:436).

Despite the rights identified in section 28 of the Constitution being conversant with
international agreements, South Africa did not comply with the requirements of the
United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child. The South African Law Commission
investigated the matter and less than a decade later the Child Justice Act 75 of 2008
culminated from the investigation. The primary aim of the Act is to prevent children from
being detained and to prevent them from experiencing the formal court procedures,
mainly through diversion. The Act further provide guidelines for youth perpetrators to be
tried and sentenced in cases during which diversion is not feasible (Terblanche, 2012:436).

Activity 4.4

Explain how the school as a secondary socialisation agent can have an impact on youth
misbehaviour and crime.

15 Feedback 4.4

See sections “the role of the school in secondary prevention” in the study guide and [Link]
of the prescribed book.

Diversion (consult the prescribed book section [Link])

To obtain a more insightful understanding of diversion, it is important that students
familiarise themselves with the Child Justice Act 75 of 2008. The introductory text of the
Act is as follows:

ACT

To establish a criminal justice system for children, who are in conflict with the law and
are accused of committing offences, in accordance with the values underpinning the
Constitution and the international obligations of the Republic; to provide for the minimum
age of criminal capacity of children; to provide a mechanism for dealing with children who
lack criminal capacity outside the criminal justice system; to make special provision for

35 CMY2603/1
securing attendance at court and the release or detention and placement of children; to
make provision for the assessment of children; to provide for the holding of a preliminary
inquiry and to incorporate, as a central feature, the possibility of diverting matters away
from the formal criminal justice system, in appropriate circumstances; to make provision
for child justice courts to hear all trials of children whose matters are not diverted; to
extend the sentencing options available in respect of children who have been convicted;
to entrench the notion of restorative justice in the criminal justice system in respect of
children who are in conflict with the law; and to provide for matters incidental thereto.

PREAMBLE

RECOGNISING
• that before 1994, South Africa, as a country, had not given many of its children,
particularly black children, the opportunity to live and act like children, and also that
some children, as a result of circumstances in which they find themselves, have come
into conflict with the law;

AND MINDFUL THAT

• the Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, 1996, as the supreme law of the
Republic, was adopted to establish a society based on democratic values, social and
economic justice, equality and fundamental human rights and to improve the quality
of life of all its people and to free the potential of every person by all means possible;
• the Constitution, while envisaging the limitation of fundamental rights in certain
circumstances, emphasizes the best interests of children, and singles them out for
special protection, affording children in conflict with the law specific safeguards,
among others, the right
–– not to be detained, except as a measure of last resort, and if detained, only for the
shortest appropriate period of time;
–– to be treated in a manner and kept in conditions that take account of the child’s age;
–– to be kept separately from adults, and to separate boys from girls, while in detention;
–– to family, parental or appropriate alternative care;
–– to be protected from maltreatment, neglect, abuse or degradation; and
–– not to be subjected to practices that could endanger the child’s well-being, educa-
tion, physical or mental health or spiritual, moral or social development; and
• the current statutory law does not effectively approach the plight of children in conflict
with the law in a comprehensive and integrated manner that takes into account their
vulnerability and special needs;

AND ACKNOWLEDGING THAT

• there are capacity, resource and other constraints on the State which may require a
pragmatic and incremental strategy to implement the new criminal justice system
for children;

36
THIS ACT THEREFORE AIMS TO
• establish a criminal justice system for children, who are in conflict with the law, in
accordance with the values underpinning our Constitution and our international
obligations, by, among others, creating, as a central feature of this new criminal
justice system for children, the possibility of diverting matters involving children
who have committed offences away from the criminal justice system, in appropriate
circumstances, while children whose matters are not diverted, are to be dealt with in
the criminal justice system in child justice courts;
• expand and entrench the principles of restorative justice in the criminal justice system
for children who are in conflict with the law, while ensuring their responsibility and
accountability for crimes committed;
• recognise the present realities of crime in the country and the need to be proactive
in crime prevention by placing increased emphasis on the effective rehabilitation and
reintegration of children in order to minimise the potential for re-offending;
• balance the interests of children and those of society, with due regard to the rights
of victims;
• create incrementally, where appropriate, special mechanisms, processes or procedures
for children in conflict with the law
–– that in broad terms take into account
◊ the past and sometimes unduly harsh measures taken against some of these
children;
◊ the long-term benefits of a less rigid criminal justice process that suits the needs
of children in conflict with the law in appropriate cases; and
◊ South Africa’s obligations as party to international and regional instruments
relating to children, with particular reference to the United Nations Convention
on the Rights of the Child and the African Charter on the Rights and Welfare
of the Child;
–– in specific terms, by
◊ raising the minimum age of criminal capacity for children;
◊ ensuring that the individual needs and circumstances of children in conflict
with the law are assessed;
◊ providing for special processes or procedures for securing attendance at court
of, the release or detention and placement of, children;
◊ creating an informal, inquisitorial, pre-trial procedure, designed to facilitate
the disposal of cases in the best interests of children by allowing for the diver-
sion of matters involving children away from formal criminal proceedings in
appropriate cases;
◊ providing for the adjudication of matters involving children which are not di-
verted in child justice courts; and
◊ providing for a wide range of appropriate sentencing options specifically suited
to the needs of children

Court procedures and imprisonment (consult the prescribed book section [Link])

Preventing recidivism (consult the prescribed book section [Link])

37 CMY2603/1
4.7 SUMMARY
As indicated, child and youth misbehaviour is a significant area of study previously
overlooked by various organs of the state. More focus has only been afforded to this
phenomenon in recent decades. Children are at risk of being in conflict with the law, and
their treatment left much to be desired. It was until leaders like Nelson Mandela highlighted
the plight of such children and youth and called for them to be treated differently by the
criminal justice system. Three different levels of prevention for youth misbehaviour are
important in the reduction of the phenomenon. The family, the school, the police and
the government play an important role in this regard.

The Child Justice Act (CJA) 75 of 2008 remains important in addressing the plight of
children and youths in conflict with the law when, they commit an offence. The Act makes
provision for involving them in diversion programmes and services, with the purpose of
diverting them from the formal court proceedings.

4.8 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

4.8.1 Self-assessment multiple-choice questions
1. Which act remains important in addressing the plight of children and youths in conflict
with the law, when they commit an offence?
(1) Child Care Act
(2) Child Protection Act
(3) Child Justice Act
(4) Child Care Amendment Act

2. Which type of prevention relates to the reactive steps that are taken to tackle the misbe-
haviour of juveniles who have already resorted to crime?
(1) Primary
(2) Secondary
(3) Tertiary
(4) Institutional

3. Which option refers to the act of relapsing into criminal misconduct after the offender
was released from custody for a prior conviction?
(1) Tolerance
(2) Recidivism
(3) Diversion
(4) Probation

4. Which crime prevention level has its aim in early identification of youth groups at risk of
offending?
(1) Primary
(2) Secondary
(3) Tertiary
(4) Institutional

38
4.8.2 Self-assessment paragraph questions
1. Differentiate between the three levels of prevention and provide a relevant example for
each. [10]
2. Discuss the role of the family with regard to primary prevention of youth misbehaviour.
3. Discuss diversion as a tertiary measure, with regard to: [15]
yy purposes
yy categories of diversion programmes [15]

4.8.3 Feedback self-assessment multiple-choice questions

1. Option 3–refer to section 4.6 of the study guide
2. Option 3–refer to section 4.6 of the study guide
3. Option 2–refer to section [Link] of the prescribed book
4. Option 2–refer to section 10.4.2 of the prescribed book

4.8.4 Feedback self-assessment paragraph questions

1. Consult the prescribed book, sections 9.4.1 to 9.4.3, when differentiating between primary,
secondary and tertiary prevention levels.
2. Consult section [Link] of the prescribed book in explaining the family role within the
primary prevention context.
3. Consult the prescribed book, section [Link], when discussing the purposes and categories
of diversion programmes.

39 CMY2603/1
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