SEMESTER – I

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UNIT-I MECHANICS
Circular motion:
A body describing a circular path or rotating about a fixed axis is said to have circular
or rotational motion.
Centripetal force
Centripetal force is a force on an object directed to the centre of a circular path that
keeps the object on the path.

Let m be the mass of the particle taking circular path and V be its velocity and R be
the radius of the circular path. Then the centripetal force F is
𝑚𝑉 2
𝐹=
𝑅
Centrifugal force
By Newton’s third law of motion, the equal and opposite reaction to the centripetal
force is called centrifugal force and it has the tendency to move the body away from the
centre. The magnitude of the centrifugal force is numerically equal to the magnitude of
centripetal force and is
𝑚𝑉 2
𝐹=
𝑅
Kepler’s laws of planetary motion:
First Law
All the planets move in an elliptical path having the sun as one focus. This law also
called “Law of Orbits”.

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a) When the planet is away from sun, it is known as “apogee” (Aphelion)
b) When the planet is very close to the sun, it is known as “perigee” (Perihelion)
Second Law
A line joining any planet to the sun sweeps out equal areas in equal time. It is also
called the “Law of Areas”.

The planet move from the point ‘a to b’ and ‘c to d’. The covered distance A 1 is less
than A2 due to the speed of planet but the covered area are equal in equal time. When the
planet comes around the sun its speed is increased due to the gravitational force.
Third Law
The square of the period of revolution of a planet around the sun is directly
proportional to the cube of the mean distance between the planet and the sun. It is also called
as “Law of Periods”.
𝑇2 ∝ 𝑟3
𝑇2
= 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑟3
The farther a planet is from the focus, the longer the period of revolution.
Ex: Earth is closer to the sun than Jupiter, therefore the Earth has a shorter period of
revolution.
Newton’s Law of Gravitation:
This law states that every particle of matter in this universe attracts every particle and
this force of attraction is directly proportional to the product of their masses and inversely
proportional to square of the distance between them. This force attraction is acting always
along the line joining them.

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Let 𝑚1 and 𝑚2 are the masses of the particles and R be the distance between them.

Then According Newton’s Law of Motion,

𝑚1 𝑚2
𝐹∝
𝑟2
𝐺 𝑚1 𝑚2
𝐹=
𝑟2
𝐹𝑟 2
𝐺=
𝑚1 𝑚2
where G is the constant of proportionality and is called Newton’s Gravitational constant. Its
value in SI system is 6.67 x 10-11 N-m2 / kg2.
Gravity
The force of gravity on a body is called weight. It is the force with which it is pulled
vertically down towards the earth. If M is the mass of the earth and R is its radius, the force
of gravity exerted by the earth on a body of mass m lying on its surface is given by
𝐺 𝑀𝑚
𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
𝑅2
Representing this force of gravity in terms of weight W, we get
𝐺 𝑀𝑚
𝑊=
𝑅2
If the body is free to fall, the vertically downward acceleration of the body i.e. the
acceleration due to gravity
𝑊 = 𝑚𝑔
𝑊 𝐺 𝑀𝑚 𝐺 𝑀
𝑔= = 2 = 2 − − − − − (1)
𝑚 𝑅 𝑚 𝑅
In vacuum all freely falling bodies, whatever the mass, experience the same constant
acceleration called the acceleration due to gravity (g). The standard value of g is taken as
9.80565 m/s2. However the value of g varies from a minimum 9.7804 m/s2 at the equator and
maximum of 9.8322 m/s2 at poles.

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Variation of the acceleration due to gravity (g):

The value of ‘g’ is different at different places on the surface of the earth.
𝐺𝑀
𝑔=
𝑅2
It is clear from the above relation that the value of g varies inversely as the square of
the earth’s radius.

As it is well established now, the earth is not a perfect sphere rather it is flattened at
the poles and bulged out at equator as shown in Fig. This means the value of R is not constant
at all the points on the surface of the earth. It is greatest for a body at the equator and the least
for one at the poles (RE > Rp and gE < gp). The ‘g’ will have intermediate values at points in
between the equator and poles.
Variation of ‘g’ with height (or) altitude:
Let the value of gravitational acceleration be g on the surface of the earth and gh at a
height h from the surface of the earth.

𝐺𝑀
𝑔= − − − −(1)
𝑅2

𝐺𝑀
𝑔ℎ = − − − −(2)
(𝑅 + h)2

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From the eqns. (1) and (2)
𝐺𝑀
𝑔ℎ (𝑅 + h)2
=
𝑔 𝐺𝑀
𝑅2
𝑔ℎ 𝑅2
=
𝑔 (𝑅 + h)2
On simplifying and expanding using Binomial Theorem,
2h
𝑔ℎ = 𝑔 (1 − )
𝑅

Higher powers of (h/R), being negligibly small, are neglected. The value of acceleration due
to gravity decreases with increase in height above the surface of the earth.
Variation of ‘g’ with depth:
If we consider a body inside the earth such at P as shown in the Fig. The force of
gravitational attraction will be only due to the inner portion of the earth shown in Fig. The
force due to the remaining portion of the earth on the body will be zero.

Let ρ is the mean density of the earth, M is its mass and R is its radius.
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑀
𝜌= =
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 4 𝜋𝑅 3
3
4
𝑀 = 𝜌 𝜋𝑅 3 − − − − − (1)
3

Let Mʹ be the mass of the earth’s portion effective in gravitational force at P i.e mass of the
dotted portion.
4
𝑀′ = 𝜌 𝜋(𝑅 − 𝑑)3 − − − −(2)
3
We know that
𝐺𝑀
𝑔= − − − − − − − (3)
𝑅2

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Substitute (1) in (3)
4
𝐺𝜌 3 𝜋𝑅 3 4
𝑔= = 𝐺𝜌 𝜋𝑅 − − − −(4)
𝑅2 3
Let gd be the acceleration due to gravity at point P.
𝐺𝑀′
𝑔𝑑 = − − − − − − − (5)
(𝑅 − 𝑑)2
Substitute (2) in (5)
4
𝐺𝜌 3 𝜋(𝑅 − 𝑑)3 4
𝑔𝑑 = = 𝐺𝜌 𝜋(𝑅 − 𝑑) − − − − − (6)
(𝑅 − 𝑑)2 3

From the equations (4) and (6)

4
𝑔𝑑 𝐺𝜌 3 𝜋(𝑅 − 𝑑) (𝑅 − 𝑑)
= =
𝑔 4 𝑅
𝐺𝜌 3 𝜋𝑅
(𝑅 − 𝑑)
𝑔𝑑 = 𝑔 [ ]
𝑅
𝑑
𝑔𝑑 = (1 − ) − − − −(7)
𝑅
From equation (7), it is clear that acceleration due to gravity goes on decreasing with depth.
At the centre of earth d = R and hence the value of ‘g’ is zero at the centre of the earth.
Escape velocity (Ve) :
When we throw a stone with some velocity, it comes back after reaching a certain
height to the earth. In general, a body projected upwards comes down to the earth due to the
gravitational pull of the earth on it. If we wish to project a body such that it never comes
back, we should project the body with velocity which takes it beyond the gravitational field
of the earth. This velocity is called escape velocity.
The minimum velocity required to project a body in upward direction from the
surface of the earth so that it escapes from the earth’s gravitational pull is called escape
velocity.
Expression for escape velocity (Ve)
Consider a body of mass ‘m’ which is to be projected with escape velocity Ve from
the surface of the earth. If the body is placed on the surface of the earth, then
The weight of the body
W = mg ------ (1)

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Let ‘M’ be the mass of the earth and ‘R’ its radius.
According Newton’s law of gravitation,
The gravitational force
𝐺𝑀𝑚
𝐹= − − − (2)
𝑅2

The gravitational force on a body in the earth’s atmosphere is also equal to the weight of the
body. Equating (1) & (2)
𝐺𝑀𝑚
𝑚𝑔 =
𝑅2
𝐺𝑀
𝑔= 2
𝑅
𝐺𝑀 = 𝑔𝑅 2 ----- (3)
Since Ve is the escape velocity given to the body,
1
𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 = 𝑚𝑉 2 − − − −(4)
2 𝑒
This kinetic energy is converted into work done to escape the body from gravitational pull.
Let the body moves a distance dR in vertical direction against the gravitational force F.

Work done = Force x distance

Work done = F x dR
𝐺𝑀𝑚
𝑊= × 𝑑𝑅 − − − − − (5)
𝑅2
In order to escape the body from the gravitational pull, the work done by the body to
move from the distance R (Radius of the earth) to infinity (the boundary of the gravitational
field) is given by

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∞
𝐺𝑀𝑚
𝑤=∫ × 𝑑𝑟
𝑅2
𝑅
∞
𝐺𝑀𝑚
𝑤= ∫ 𝑑𝑟
𝑅2
𝑅
𝐺𝑀𝑚
𝑤= − − − − − −(6)
𝑅
(4) & (6) are equal
1 𝐺𝑀𝑚
𝑚𝑉𝑒2 =
2 𝑅
2𝐺𝑀
𝑉𝑒2 =
𝑅
2𝐺𝑀
𝑉𝑒 = √ ---------- (7)
𝑅

Substitute (3) in (7)

2𝑔𝑅 2
𝑉𝑒 = √
𝑅

𝑉𝑒 = √2𝑔𝑅 -----------(8)

𝑉𝑒 = √2 × 9.8 × 6.4 × 106

𝑉𝑒 = 11.2 𝑘𝑚/𝑠
Hence the escape velocity on the surface of earth i.e the velocity with which a body
should be projected so that it never comes back to the earth, is 11.2 km/s.
Orbital velocity (Vo) :
In order to put a satellite into the orbit around the earth, the satellite must be projected
to the particular height and then it must be turned in a direction perpendicular to the line from
the centre of the earth so that it moves in an orbit around the earth. The horizontal velocity
that has to be given to a satellite at the determined height so that it makes a circular orbit
around the planet is called orbital velocity.
Expression for orbital velocity of a satellite (Vo)
Let ‘m’ and ‘r’ be the mass and radius of the satellite. ‘Vo’ is the required orbital
velocity at the height ‘h’ from the surface of the earth of radius ‘R’.
From the figure r = R + h
The centripetal force required to keep the satellite in circular orbit is

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𝑚𝑉∘2
𝐹=
𝑟

𝑚𝑉∘2
𝐹= − − − − − −(1)
(𝑅 + h)
The gravitational force between satellite and earth is
𝐺𝑀𝑚
𝐹=
𝑟2
𝐺𝑀𝑚
𝐹= − − − − − − − (2)
(𝑅 + h)2
For the stable orbital motion, eqns. (1) & (2) are equal.
𝑚𝑉∘2 𝐺𝑀𝑚
=
(𝑅 + h) (𝑅 + h)2
𝐺𝑀
𝑉∘2 =
(𝑅 + h)

𝐺𝑀
𝑉0 = √ − − − −(3)
(𝑅 + h)

We know that 𝐺𝑀 = 𝑔𝑅 2 − − − − − −(4)

Substitute (4) in (3)

𝑔𝑅 2
𝑉0 = √
(𝑅 + h)

𝑔𝑅 2
𝑉0 = √
(𝑅)

If the satellite is at a height of few hundred kilometre (200 – 300 km) (R+h) could be
replaced by R (because h is negligible)
When 𝑅 >> ℎ
𝑉0 = √𝑔𝑅

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• If the injection velocity is not equal to the calculated value, the orbit of
satellite will not be circular.
• It should be greater than the calculated velocity and but not greater than
escape velocity.
• If the injection velocity greater than the escape velocity, the satellite will not
revolve around the earth and will escape into the space.
• If the injection velocity is less than the calculated value, the satellite will fall
back to the earth.
Satellite
In the solar system, different planets revolve round the sun. The radii of the orbits and
their time periods of revolution are different for different planets. In these cases, the force of
gravitation between the sun and the planet provides the necessary centripetal force. Similarly
the moon provides the necessary centripetal force for the moon to be in its orbit. Hence moon
is the satellite of the earth.
We know that the centripetal force
𝑚𝑣 2
𝐹= − − − − − (1)
𝑟
Gravitational force of attraction
𝐺𝑀𝑚
𝐹= − − − − − (2)
𝑟2

𝑚𝑣 2 𝐺𝑀𝑚
= 2
𝑟 𝑟

𝐺𝑀
𝑣=√ − − − − − (3)
𝑟

If g is the acceleration due to gravity at the position of the satellite

𝐺𝑀𝑚
𝑚𝑔 =
𝑟2
𝐺𝑀
𝑔𝑟 = − − − −(4)
𝑟

Substitute (4) in (3)

𝑣 = √𝑔𝑟 − − − −(5)

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For a satellite, revolving very near the earth’s surface r ≈ R, the equation (5) can be written as
𝑣 = √𝑔𝑅 − − − −(6)

𝑣 = √9.8 × 6.46 =7.920 km/s

Stationary satellite
Consider a satellite in a circular orbit round the earth. It is coplanar with the equator
of the earth. Its period of rotation is the same as that of the earth. This satellite appears to be
stationary to the observer on the earth. Such satellites are used widely for television and radio
broadcasting.
The angular velocity of this satellite is given by
2𝜋
𝜔=
𝑇
Here T = 24 hours = 86400 s.
2𝜋 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠
𝜔= = 7.3 × 10−5
86400 𝑠
We know that

𝐺𝑀
𝑣=√ − − − − − (1)
𝑟

r is the distance between the satellite and the centre of the earth.
The relation between linear and angular velocities is
𝑣 = 𝑟𝜔 − − − − − (2)
Substitute (2) in (1)

𝐺𝑀
𝑟𝜔 = √
𝑟

Squaring on both sides

𝐺𝑀
𝑟 2 𝜔2 =
𝑟
𝐺𝑀
∴ 𝑟3 =
𝜔2
𝐺𝑀 1⁄3
∴ 𝑟 = ( 2)
𝜔
1⁄3
6.67 × 10−11 × 5.98 × 1024
𝑟=( )
(7.3 × 10−5 )2

𝑟 = 4.2 × 107 𝑚

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The distance of such satellite from the surface of the earth
ℎ =𝑟−𝑅
ℎ = 4.2 × 107 − 6.4 × 106
ℎ = 3.56 × 107 𝑚
Stationary satellite (or) geostationary satellite:
A geostationary satellite is an earth-orbiting satellite, placed at an altitude of
approximately 35,800 kilometres (22,300 miles) directly over the equator that revolves in the
same direction the earth rotates (west to east). At this altitude, one orbit takes 24 hours, the
same length of time as the earth requires rotating once on its axis. The term geostationary
comes from the fact that such a satellite appears nearly stationary in the sky as seen by a
ground-based observer.

i) Low Earth Orbits (LEO)

A low earth orbit is normally at an altitude in the range of 500 – 1500 km above the
earth. At this altitude, a satellite takes approximately 10 – 40 minutes to make an orbit around
the earth.
ii) Medium Earth Orbits (MEO)
A medium earth orbit is normally at an altitude in the range of 5000 – 12000 km
above the earth. At this altitude, a satellite takes approximately 2 – 8 hours to make an orbit
around the earth.
iii) Geostationary Earth Orbits (GEO)
A geostationary earth orbit is normally at an altitude of 35, 800 km above the earth.
At this altitude, a satellite takes approximately 24 hours to make an orbit around the earth.

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Geostationary satellites are used in global communications, television broadcasting, and
weather forecasting and have a number of important defence and intelligence applications.
Launching of a satellite:

The launching of artificial satellites is done with the help of multistage rockets. In the
beginning a sufficiently high velocity is needed for it to reach a sufficient height. After the
desired height is reached, the first stage of the rocket detaches itself. At different stages
rockets are fired to change the direction and at the last stage the satellite only is fired with a
desired velocity in the horizontal direction. All the calculations regarding height, orbital
velocity and location of different stages are made before launching. The direction of the orbit
with respect to earth is suitably chosen so as to cover a particular orbit around the earth and
also to scan maximum area of the earth’s surface. If the velocity of the satellite at the time it
is put into orbit is lower than the orbital velocity, it will spiral back to earth. If the velocity is
higher than the orbital velocity, it will be lost into space.
The process of placing the satellite in a proper orbit is known as launching process.
During this process, from earth stations we can control the operation of satellite. Mainly,
there are four stages in launching a satellite.
• First Stage − the first stage of launch vehicle contains rockets and fuel for lifting the
satellite along with launch vehicle from ground.
• Second Stage − the second stage of launch vehicle contains smaller rockets. These
are ignited after completion of first stage. They have their own fuel tanks in order to
send the satellite into space.
• Third Stage − the third (upper) stage of the launch vehicle is connected to the
satellite fairing. This fairing is a metal shield, which contains the satellite and it
protects the satellite.

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• Fourth Stage − Satellite gets separated from the upper stage of launch vehicle, when
it has been reached to out of Earth's atmosphere. Then, the satellite will go to a
“transfer orbit”. This orbit sends the satellite higher into space.
When the satellite reached to the desired height of the orbit, its subsystems like solar
panels and communication antennas gets unfurled. Then the satellite takes its position in the
orbit with other satellites. Now, the satellite is ready to provide services to the public.
Satellite launch vehicles launch the satellites into a particular orbit based on the
requirement. Satellite launch vehicles are nothing but multi stage rockets. Following are
the two types of satellite launch vehicles. i) Expendable Launch Vehicles (ELV) and ii)
Reusable Launch Vehicles (RLV)
The expendable type of vehicles gets destroyed in space after placing the satellite in
orbit. Ariane and Delta are expendable type of launch vehicles.
The re-usable type returns to the earth after leaving it at certain altitude above the
earth. The examples of reusable type are GSLV and PSLV.

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Conditions of equilibrium of a floating body
A body floating freely in a liquid is in equilibrium under the action of the following
two forces. i) the weight of the body acting vertically downwards through the centre of
gravity and ii) the resultant upthrust on the body due to the liquid acting vertically upwards
through the centre of buoyancy.
For equilibrium, these two forces should be equal and opposite and their lines of
action should be on the same straight line. The laws of floatation are stated as follows:
1) The weight of the liquid displaced will be equal to the weight of the floating body.
2) The centre of gravity of the floating body and that of the displaced liquid will be
in the same vertical line.
Archimede’s Principle
If a body is wholly or partially immersed in a liquid, the resultant upthrust on the
body is equal to the weight of the liquid displaced by it. This is known as Archimede’s
principle.

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Stability of Floating Body

a) Stable Equilibrium : If the point M is above G
b) Unstable Equilibrium : If the point M is below G
c) Neutral Equilibrium: If the point M is at the G

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Metacentre:

Metacentre height:

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Plimsoll line (or) International Load line:

The Plimsoll line, now used on shipping worldwide, indicates the draft of a ship and
legal limit to which a ship may be loaded for specific water types and temperatures. There are
different load levels for salt or fresh water, for example, because salt water has greater
salinity and thus greater buoyancy. Warm water provides less buoyancy than cold water.
Ships may not be loaded above these limits. The Plimsoll line says, “This ship can handle this
much of a load under these conditions and no more”

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The Plimsoll lines or international load lines refer to those lines which are drawn on
both sides of a ship and denote the maximum level to which a ship can be submerged in water
when loaded with cargo. The legal limit of loading a ship is the Plimsoll lines. If the ship is
loaded beyond this it is illegal. This is primarily because if a ship is loaded beyond this point
then the ship may get unbalanced. Loading the ship till the Plimsoll lines ensures that the ship
has enough buoyancy especially when it gets into a bad weather.
The summer load line is the primary load line and it is from this mark that all other
marks are derived. The position of the summer load line is calculated from the load line rules
and depends on many factors such as length of ship, type of ship, bow height and so on. The
horizontal line through the circle of the Plimsoll mark is that the same level as the summer
load line.
Marine hydrometer:
A hydrometer is an instrument whose function is based on Archimedes principle.
Hydrometer, device for measuring some characteristics of a liquid, such as its density (weight
per unit volume) or specific gravity (weight per unit volume compared with water). The
device consists essentially of a weighted, sealed, long-necked glass bulb that is immersed in
the liquid being measured; the depth of flotation gives an indication of liquid density, and the
neck can be calibrated to read density, specific gravity, or some other related characteristic.
Hydrometers are usually made of glass and consist of a cylindrical stem and a bulb
weighted with a heavy material (mercury) to make it float upright.
i) In a liquid of lesser density the hydrometer is more submerged.
ii) In a liquid of higher density the hydrometer is less submerged.

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The following formula we can use to find the density of unknown liquid (d1) by using
the known density of liquid (d1)

**********

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